Chemicals of life and human nutrition

Link to syllabus scheme: 1.Chemicals of life and human nutrition_Student scheme - Google
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List the chemical elements which make up carbohydrates, fats and proteins

- Carbohydrates: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

- Fats: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
- Proteins: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulphur
- CHO, CHO, CHONS
- DNA: contain phosphorus due to the phosphate group, sugar, nitrogen

Describe the synthesis of large molecules from smaller basic units, i.e.
glucose to starch, glycogen and cellulose; amino acids to proteins; fatty
acids and glycerol to fats and oils.

- Carbohydrates: monosaccharides (e.g glucose, fructose) → disaccharides

(e.g maltose, sucrose) and polysaccharides (e.g starch in plant cells, cellulose
in plant walls and glycogen in animal cells)
- Proteins: amino acids (e.g serine, lysine) → form polypeptide chains with
peptide bonds → proteins
- Fats: glycerol and fatty acids → lipids

Describe and explain the structure of proteins is due to the sequence of

amino acids giving them their structure

- Primary structure: sequence of amino acids held together by peptide bonds

- Secondary structure: polypeptide chain folds into alpha helix or beta pleated
sheet, hydrogen bonds hold it together
- Tertiary structure: three dimensional, specific shape, hydrogen bonds hold it
together, functional
- Quaternary structure: more than two tertiary structures, functional

Describe tests for starch (iodine solution), reducing sugars (Benedict's

solution), protein (biuret test) and fats (ethanol), DCPIP for Vitamin C.

- Test for starch: iodine solution → positive = blue black, negative = brown
- Test for reducing sugars → Benedict’s test + heat → positive = red orange,
negative = blue green (rainbow)
- Test for protein: biuret test = copper sulphate and sodium hydroxide →
positive = purple, lower amount = blue (more purple = more protein)
- Test for fats: ethanol, pour some into water→ positive = milky
- Test for vitamin C: DCPIP test → positive = lose blue colour and turn
colourless, less added = more vitamin C
Describe the role of water as a solvent in organisms.

- Solvent for metabolic reactions that occur in cells

- Dissolves substances like glucose to be transported
- Dissolves enzymes and nutrients for digestion
- Get rid of waste products from kidneys

State what is meant by the term balanced diet and describe how factors
affect dietary and energy needs of individuals.

- A diet that consists of each of the 7 types of nutrients (carbs, proteins,

fats, vitamins, minerals, fibre, water) in correct amounts and proportions
- Age, gender, activity level, health status, lifestyle, cultural, economic

List the principal sources of, and describe the importance of

carbohydrates, fats, proteins, mineral salts, fibre and water

- Carbohydrates: bread, potato, noodles → energy, nutrition

- Fats: butter, oil, eggs → energy, nutrition, insulation, membrane, hormone
- Proteins: nuts, fruit, fish → nutrition, growth, repair, hormones
- Minerals: milk, red meat, dark green veggies → bones, teeth, blood
clotting, haemoglobin
- Fibre: veggies, kiwifruit, pears → alimentary canal working
- Water → alimentary canal working

Describe the effects of malnutrition in relation to starvation, coronary heart

disease, constipation, obesity and scurvy.

- Starvation: severe weight loss

- CHD: high blood pressure, cholesterol, increase risk of heart attack
- Constipation: hard, painful stools
- Obesity: increase risk of type 2 diabetes, heart disease
- Scurvy: fatigue, swollen gums, joint pain, anaemia

Explain the causes and effects of vitamin D and iron deficiencies.

- Vitamin D: lack of sunlight, lack of vit D foods → weak bones, curved bones,
rickets
- Iron deficiency: lack of red meats, beans, cereals → anaemia, tired, smaller
red blood cells

Explain the cause and effect of protein malnutrition as in kwashiorkor and

marasmus.

- Kwashiorkor results from deficiency of protein (typically high in

carbohydrates) → swollen abdomen
 - Marasmus results from deficiency of all nutrients → look emaciated

Review the names and functions of the main regions of the alimentary canal
and associated organs.

Mouth and salivary glands Mouth: mechanical breakdown of food

Salivary glands: chemical breakdown,
amylase breakdown starch, saliva to
make liquid

Oesophagus Transports the bolus to the stomach,

peristalsis (muscle contractions) push it
down

Stomach Churns (mechanical breakdown) and

secretes gastric juices: pepsin →
breaks down protein and HCl to kill
bacteria and provide acidic environment

Liver, gallbladder and pancreas Pancreas: makes most of the digestive

enzymes (pancreatic juice)
Liver: makes bile → stored in
gallbladder
Gallbladder: bile → neutralises acid,
emulsifying fats

Small intestine Digestion and absorption → villi and

microvilli

DJ Ivan - Duodenum, jejunum and ileum

Large intestine Absorbs excess water

Rectum Stores faeces

Define mechanical and chemical digestion as the breakdown of large,

insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules.

- Mechanical digestion - teeth, stomach muscles

- Chemical digestion - enzymes

State the significance of chemical digestion in the alimentary canal in

producing small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed.

- Breakdown into small soluble molecules that can be absorbed

Define absorption as the movement of small food molecules and ions
through the wall of the intestine into the blood.

- Movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the
intestine into the blood

Identify the small intestine as the region of absorption of digested food.

- Duodenum → digests the chyme

- Jejunum and ileum → absorption

State that water is largely absorbed in the small intestine but also in the
large intestine.

- Water is largely absorbed in the small intestine but also in the large
intestine

Outline the role of bile in neutralising the acidic gastric juice and food
entering the duodenum, to provide a suitable pH.

- Bile neutralises the acidic gastric juice and food entering the duodenum to
provide a suitable pH

Outline the role of bile in the emulsification of fats to increase the surface
area for chemical digestion into fatty acid and glycerol.

- Bile also emulsifies fats to increase SA for chemical digestion into fatty acid
and glycerol

Define assimilation as the movement of digested food molecules into the

cells of the body where they are used, becoming part of the cells.

- Movement of the digested food molecules into the cells of the body, where
they are used, becoming part of the cells.

Describe the structure of the villus.

- Lined with microvilli that increase surface area

- Epithelial cells are one layer thick
 - Contain capillary network and lacteals

Explain the significance of the villi and microvilli in the increasing of the
surface area of the small intestine.

- Increase surface area to increase rate of absorption

Describe the roles of the capillaries and the lacteals in villi.

- Ensure the dissolved nutrients can be easily transported via the hepatic
(liver) portal vein to the liver (where is it processed) and then to the rest of
the body
- Capillaries: monosaccharides, amino acids, water, minerals and vitamins
- Lacteals: fats

Define egestion as passing out of food that has not been digested, as
faeces, through the anus.

- Passing of food that has not been digested as faeces through the anus

Define the term catalyst as a substance that increases the rate of a chemical
reaction and is not changed by the reaction.

- A substance that increases rate of reaction by lowering activation energy

and is not used up by the reaction

Describe enzymes as proteins which function as biological catalysts.

- Enzymes are proteins which function as biological catalysts

- Life processes would not occur or occur too slowly to sustain life if no
enzymes

Describe and explain enzyme action with reference to the active site, enzyme-
substrate complex, substrate and product.

- Have a specific shape coming from the sequence of amino acids

- Work by allowing the substrate to bind to the specific complementary active
site – lock and key mechanism
 - Not used up so can catalyse more reactions
- Enzyme and substrate → active site → form enzyme substrate complex →
reaction → form enzyme products complex → products leave active site

Describe and explain enzyme specificity in terms of complementary shape

and fit of the enzyme active site and substrate.

- All enzymes have a specific active site so can only catalyse reactions with
specific complementary substrates
- E.g trypsin cannot break down maltose as trypsin only breaks down proteins
into amino acids and maltose is a carbohydrate

State where amylase, protease and lipase are secreted in the alimentary
canal.

- Amylase → breakdown carbohydrates/sugars, secreted in the mouth

(saliva), the duodenum (pancreatic juice from pancreas) and small intestine
(brush enzymes present in the epithelial cells)
- Protease → breakdown proteins, secreted in the stomach (pepsin from
gastric juice), the duodenum (trypsin from pancreatic juice) and small
intestine (brush enzymes present in the epithelial cells)
- Lipase → breakdown fats, secreted in the duodenum (pancreatic juice from
pancreas) and small intestine (brush enzymes present in the epithelial cells)

Describe the digestion of starch by amylase to maltose.

- Salivary amylase starts to breakdown starch to maltose

- Stomach is too acidic for amylase to keep digesting
- Pancreas secretes pancreatic amylase breaks down remaining starch to
maltose

Describe the breakdown of maltose to glucose by maltase on the

membranes of the epithelium lining the small intestine

- Maltose is glucose + glucose

 - The enzyme maltase on the epithelial cells of the small intestine breakdown
maltose to glucose molecules

Describe the action of the proteases (pepsin in the stomach and trypsin in
the small intestine) in converting protein to amino acids.

- Pepsin is secreted by the stomach lining as pepsinogen which is then

converted to pepsin by the acidic environment
- Breaks down proteins into smaller peptides
- Trypsin is secreted by the pancreas as trypsinogen, converted to trypsin in
the small intestine
- Breaks down peptides into small peptides and eventually amino acids

Explain the function and effects of HCl in gastric juice in lowering the pH

- HCl lowers pH to provide acidic environment for pepsin to activate and

digest

Investigate and explain the effects of temperature and pH on enzyme activity

in terms of kinetic energy, shape and fit, frequency of collisions and
denaturation.

- Temp: rate of enzyme activity typically increase as temperature increases

(more kinetic energy means more collisions)
- Protein becomes denatured at high temperatures (lock and key no longer
fits)
- pH: enzymes are fold into a specific shape held together by electrostatic
forces, affected by the pH
- pH can cause changes in the charges causing the amino acid to coil/uncoil –
becoming denatured