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Ch-1 Ratio and Proportion, Indices and Logarithms (By R.K. Sir)

RATIO AND PROPORTION

a
1. a : b = b where a is called antecedent and b is called consequent.

2. The ratio a : b is said to be of greater inequality if a > b

3. The ratio a : b is said to be of lesser inequality if a < b
4. The inverse ratio of a : b is b : a
5. The compounded ratio of a : b and c : d is a c : b d
6. The duplicate ratio of a : b is a 2 : b2
7. The sub-duplicate ratio of a : b is √a : √b
8. The triplicate ratio of a : b is a 3 : b3
3 3
9. The sub-triplicate ratio of a : b is √a : √b
10. If a, b, c are in continued proportion, then b = √ac where b is called the mean.
11. If a, b, c, d are in proportion then :
a d = b c or Product of Extremes = Product of Means
12. If a : b : : c : d, then
(i) By Invertendo b : a = d : c
(ii) By Alternendo a : c = b : d
(iii) By Componendo a + b : b = c + d : d
(iv) By Dividendo a – b : b = c – d : d
(v) By Componendo and Dividendo a + b : a – b = c + d : c – d
(vi) By Addendo equal to a + c : b + d
LAWS OF INDICES
1. a m × a n = a m +n
am
2. an
= a m- n

3. (am )𝑛 = a m n
4. a0 = 1
1
5. a - m = am

6. If a m = a n, then m = n
7. If a m = b m, then a = b
1
m
8. √a = a 𝑚
1
9. If a 𝑚 = b, then a = b m
LOG PROPERTIES
1. log (m × n) = log m + log n
m
2. log ( ) = log m – log n
n

3. log m n = n log m
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4. log a a = 1
5. log 1 = 0 and log 10 = 1
log 𝑏
6. log a b =
log 𝑎
1
7. log a b = log
ba

8. If log a b = x , then b = a x
1
9. If log ab c = b log a c

10. log a x < log a y = x < y; where a > 1

= x > y; where 0 < a < 1
General Identities:
11. (a – b)2 = a2 – 2 a b + b2
12. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2 a b + b2
13. a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)
14. (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3 a b ( a – b)
15. (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3 a b ( a + b)
16. a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + a b + b 2)
17. a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 - a b + b 2)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Ch-2 Equations

1. An equation of the form a x2 + b x + c = 0, where a, b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0 is called quadratic equation.

2. Roots of Quadratic equation:

−b±√b2 −4ac
The roots are given by Shri Dharacharya formula x = 2a

Here D = b 2 – 4 ac is called discriminant of the equation.

3. Nature of Roots:

a x2 + b x + c = 0 ……………..(1)

(i) If D > 0, Roots are real and unequal.

a) If D > 0 and it is a perfect square number, then roots are rational.

b) If D > 0 and it is not a perfect square number, then roots are irrational.

(ii) If D = 0, Roots are real and equal.

(iii) If D < 0, Roots are non real complex roots (i.e. imaginary roots)

(iv) If p + i q is one root of the eqn, then other root must be p – i q and vice-versa.( i = √− 1 )

(v) If p + √𝑞 is one root of the eqn, then other root must be p – √q and vice-versa.
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(vi) If eqn (1) has more than two roots, then it becomes an identity. i.e. a = b = c

4. Relation between roots and coefficients:

If α, β are the roots of the quadratic equation, then

b coefficient of x2
(i) Sum of roots = α + β = - a = - coefficient of x

c constant term
(ii) Product of roots = α β = a = coefficient of x

5. Sign of Roots:

(i) If both roots are positive, then a and c have the same sign and opposite to that of b.

(ii) If both roots are negative, then a, b and c have the same sign.

(iii) If both roots are of opposite sign, then a and c have the opposite signs.

(iv) If roots are reciprocal to each other, then a = c

(v) If roots are of equal magnitude but of opposite sign, then b = 0

6. Formation of Quadratic Equations with given roots:

Let α, β be the given roots, then quadratic equation will be x2 – (α + β) x + α β = 0

i.e. x2 – (sum of roots) x + product of roots = 0 i.e. x 2 – S x + P = 0

Generally it will be of form k(x – α) (x – β) = 0, where k is constant

7. Nature of Quadratic Expression:

(i) If a > 0 and b2 – 4 a c > 0, then a x2 + b x + c has only positive value.

(ii)If a < 0 and b2 – 4 a c > 0, then a x2 + b x + c has only negative value.

8. Cubic Equations:

Let α, β and γ be the roots of the cubic equation a x3 + b x2 + c x + d = 0, then

b coefficient of x2
(i) α + β + γ = - = -
a coefficient of x3

c coefficient of x
(ii) α β + β γ + γ α = =
a coefficient of x3

d constant term
(iii) α β γ = - a = - coefficient of x3
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Ch-3 Linear Inequalities

1. A statement involving a sign ‘<’ (less than) or ‘>’ (greater than) or ‘≤’ (less than equal to)
Or ‘≥’ (greater than equal to) is called an inequality or an inequation.
2. Examples of some different types of inequalities :
(i) 2 < 3 and 5 > 4 ………… Numerical inequalities.
(ii) x < 2 and y > 5 ………… Literal inequalities.
(iii) 2 < 3 < 4, 2 < x < 5, 1 ≤ y < 3 …… Double inequalities .
(iv) a x + b < 0 ; c x + d > 0 …. Strict inequalities.
(v) a x + b ≤ 0 ; c x + d ≥ 0 … . Slack inequalities.
(vi) a x + b < 0 ; c x + d ≥ 3 …. .. Linear inequalities. ( a , c ≠ 0)
(vii) a x2 + b x + c ≥ 0 ; a x2 + b x + c < 0 .... Quadratic inequalities (a ≠ 0)
3. Different Types of Intervals :
(i) x ∈ (a , b) => a < x < b (open interval)
(ii) x ∈ [ a , b) => a ≤ x < b (semi open interval)
(iii) x ∈ (a , b] => a < x ≤ b (semi open or semi closed interval)
(iv) x ∈ [ a , b] => a ≤ x ≤ b (closed interval), where x ∈ R.
4. If |x| < a, then – a < x < a and
5. If |x| > a, then x < - a or x > a
6. (x – a) (x – b) < 0 , then a < x < b where a < b
7. (x – a) (x – b) > 0, then x < a or x > b
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Ch-4 Permutations and Combinations

1. Factorial: The continued product of first n natural numbers is called factorial n and is denoted by the symbol n! or
|n .
2. n! = 1.2.3.4………n.
= n (n - 1) (n - 2)……..1.
= n ( n - 1) ( n - 2)!
= n (n - 1)!
3. 0! = 1, 1! = 1.
4. m! ± n! ≠ (m ± n) ! , (m n)! ≠ m! n!
5. Fundamental Principle of Counting (F.P.C.) :
“If an event can occur in m different ways, following which another event can occur in n different ways, then the total
number of occurrence of the events in the given order is m × n” .
6. The number of (linear) permutations that can be formed by taking r things at a time from a set of n distinct things is
denoted by n P r . (1 ≤ r ≤ n)
7. nP
r = n (n -1) (n – 2) (n - 3)…… r factors. It is used, when the value of r is known.
n!
8. nP
r = ( n – r )!
. It is used when the value of r is not known.
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9. nP
n = n! , n- 1P
r + r n - 1 P r −1 = n P r
10. nP
0 = 1, n P 1 = n, n P 2 = n (n - 1)
11. Number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time, when repetition is allowed, is n r.
12. Number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is to be always included in
each arrangement , is n - 1 P r −1
13. Number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time, when a particular thing is excluded in each
arrangement, is r n - 1 P r .
14. The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time when p of them are all alike and the rest are all different
n!
is p!

15. If p things are alike of one type, q things are alike of other type, r things are alike of another type, then the number of
( p + q + r )!
permutations with p + q + r things is
p!q!r!

Combination
16. The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time is denoted by
nC or C ( n , r ). 0 ≤ r ≤ n
r
n (n−1) (n−2)…….. r factors
17. nC
r = . It is used when the r is given.
1.2.3.4……..r
n!
18. nC
r = . It is used when the value of r is not given.
r ! (n –r )!

19. (i) n C 0 = 1 = n C n
(ii) n C r = n C r −1
(iii) n C r + n C r −1 = n +1C
r 1≤ r ≤ n
(iv) If n C p = n C q => p = q or n=p+q
(v) n P r = r ! n C r
20. The number of combinations of n things taken r at a time in which :

(i) p particular things will always occur is n - p C r −p

(ii) p particular things will never occur is n-pC

r

(iii) p particular things always occurs and q particular things never occur is n – p - q C r−p

21. Number of ‘n’ distinct objects along a circle = (n – 1)!

1
22. Number of ‘n’ distinct objects along a circle when clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are same = 2 (n – 1)!

(In case of necklace)

1
23. Number of ways of arranging n persons along a round table so that no person has same two neighbors = (n – 1)!
2

24. When n points lie in a plane, then the number of :

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(i) Straight lines formed = n C 2

(ii) Triangles formed = n C 3

(iii) Quadrilateral formed = n C 4

25. When ‘n’ points lie in a plane, in which ‘m’ of them are on the same straight line, then the number of :

(i) Straight lines formed = n C 2 - m C 2 + 1

(ii) Triangles formed = n C 3 - m C 3

26. Number of Hand Shakes between ‘n’ persons = n C 2

27. Number of diagonals of ‘n’ sided convex polygon = n C 2 - n ; n ≥ 3

(2n)!
28. 2 × 6 × 10 × ….. …. upto ‘n’ factors = n!

29. Number of all ‘m’ digited numbers = 9 × 10 m – 1

30. Number of all ‘m’ digited numbers with distinct digits= 9 × 9 Pm−1

31. Number of ways in which ‘m’ similar balls can be put in ‘n’ different boxes is m +n - 1C
m

32. Number of rectangles or parallelograms, when m parallel lines are intersected by n parallel lines are m C 2× n C 2

33. A set contains 2 n + 1 elements, then the number of subsets which contain more than n elements is 2 2n

34. (1!)2 + (2!)2 + (3!)2 + …. + (n!)2 is divisible by 100, ∀n≥5

35. (1!) + (2!) + (3!) + ……..+ (n!) is divisible by 100, ∀ n ≥ 10

36. Number of ways in which ‘n’ distinct objects can be put into 3 different boxes is 3n

37. Number of ways of inviting one or more friends having n friends is 2 n – 1

38. Number of ways when 2 particular items out of n items never come together is (n – 2) (n – 1)!

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Ch-5 Sequences and Series

Arithmetic Progression (A.P.)

1. A given sequence is in A.P. if the difference between the consecutive terms is same.
i.e. a 2 – a1 = a 3 – a 2 and so on.
2. The Standard A.P. is a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d ,…..
3. General Term of an A.P.: T n = a + (n - 1) d.
where a- first term; d- common difference, T n = nth or last term; n - the number of terms.
4. Common Difference (d) = T n + 1 - T n
5. If the sum of n numbers in A.P. is given, then assume numbers :
(i) a – d, a, a + d for n = 3;
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(ii) a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d for n = 4;
(iii) a – 2d, a – d, a , a + d, a + 2d for n = 5.
n
6. Sum of n terms of an A.P. : S n = 2
[2a + (n - 1) d]
n
Sn= (a + l )
2
n
Sn= [2 l - (n - 1) d]
2

7. Sum of interior angles of a polygon = 1800 (n – 2)

8. Sum of first n odd natural numbers i.e. 1 + 3 + 5 + …… … n terms = n 2
9. Sum of first n even natural numbers i.e. 2 + 4 + 6 + …… … n terms = n (n + 1)
10. T n = S n - S n–1
11. Arithmetic Mean (A.M.): If a, A, b are in A.P., then A is the A.M. of a and b.
a+b
i.e. A= 2

12. Let A 1 , A 2 , A 3,………… A n be n arithmetic means between a and b, then

n(b−a)
An=a+ n +1

13. Sum of n A.M.s between a and b = n (A.M. between a and b)

a+b
i.e. A 1 + A 2 + A 3 +…………+ A n = n ( )
2
a−b a
14. If a, b, c are in A.P., then =
b−c a
an+1+ bn+1
15. If is A.M. between a and b, then n = 0
an + bn

16. Important Results of A.P. :

(i) If T m = n, T n = m, then T m + n = 0 & T r = m + n - r
(ii) If m T m = n T n, then T m + n = 0
1 1 1
(iii) If T m = n and T n = , then T m n = 1, S m n = 2 (m n + 1)
m

iv) If S m = n, S n = m, then S m + n = - (m + n)

(v) If S m = S n , then S m + n = 0

Geometric Progression (G.P.)

17. A given sequence is in G.P. if the ratio between the consecutive terms is same.
a2 a
i.e. = a3 and so on.
a1 2

18. The Standard G.P. is a, a r, a r 2, a r3, …….. a r n - 1

19. nth or last term of an G.P. : T n = a r (n - 1)
1 n−1
20. nth term from the end of an G.P. = T n = l ( r )

a - first term; r - common ratio; l -last term; n - no. of terms

# A sequence will be in A.P. as well as in G.P. if it is a constant function.
21. If the product of n numbers in G.P. is given, then assume numbers :
a
(i) r
, a, a r for n = 3 ;
a a
(ii) , , a r, a r 3 for n = 4 ;
r3 r
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a a
(iii) , ,a,ar, ar2 for n = 5;
r2 r
a ( rn −1 )
22. Sum of n terms of an G.P. : S n = ( r −1 )
,r>1
a ( 1− r n )
Sn= ,r<1
( 1− r )

23. Geometric Mean (G.M.) : If a, G, b are in G.P., then G is the G.M. between a and b. Then
G = √ab or √Product of extremes
24. Product of n G.M.s between a and b = (G.M. between a and b)n
n
i.e. G 1 × G 2 × G 3 ×…………× G n = (√ab)
an+1+ bn+1 1
25. If is G.M. between a and b, then n = -
an + bn 2

26. Relation Between A.M. and G.M. : A ≥ G. if given numbers are distinct, then A > G

a
27. Sum of Infinite G.P. : S∞ = ( r −1 ) , if r > 1
a
S∞ = ( 1− r , if r < 1
)

n ( n+1 )
28. i) 1 + 2 + 3 + ….. ….+ n = ∑ n = 2
n ( n+1)( 2 n+1)
ii) 12 + 22 + 32 + …..+ n2 = ∑ n2 = 6

n ( n+1 ) 2
iii) 13 + 23 + 33 + ….. …. + n3 = ∑ n3 = ( )
2
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Ch-6 Set, Functions and Relations

1. SET: A set is a well-defined collection of objects. The objects are called elements or members of a set.
Sets are usually represented by capital letters of English alphabets while the objects are denoted in by small
letters or numeric.
e.g. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {a, e, i, o, u}
2. STANDARD SETS:
(i) The set of all natural numbers (N)
(ii) The set of all positive integers (Z +)
(iii) The set of all integers (Z or I)
(iv) The set of all rational numbers (Q)
(v) The set of all irrational numbers (Qc)
(vi) The set of all real numbers (R)
3. REPRESENTATION OF SET:
Generally there are two ways to represent a set.
(i) Tabular or Roaster form:
Here the elements of a set are listed and separated by commas.
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {a, e, i, o, u}
(ii) Set Builder form:
Here the property satisfied by each element of the set is mentioned.
e.g. A = {x: x ∈ N, x ≤ 4}, B = {x: x is a vowel}
4. TYPES OF SET:
(i) Empty set/ Null set/ Void set:
A set having no element is called a null set. It is denoted by ∅ or { }
e.g. A set of odd numbers divisible by 2
(ii) Singleton set: A set having only one element is called singleton set.
e.g. A = {1}, B = set containing chief minister of Punjab
(iii) Finite set: A set having finite number of elements is called a singleton set.
e.g. A = {a, b, c, d}
(iv) Infinite set:
A set having infinite number of elements is called infinite set.

e.g. A = stars in the sky. B = of Natural numbers.

(v) Subset:
A set A is called a subset of B if every element of set A is present in B.
e.g. Here A = {1, 2, 3} is subset of B = {1, 2, 3, 4}and D = {1, 2, 3}
Symbolically A C B, A C D
* The total no. of subsets of a given set having ‘n’ elements is 2 n
(vi) Proper subset:
If A is a subset of B but B is not a subset of A, then A is called proper subset of B.
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e.g. A = {a, b} is a proper subset of B = {a, b, c}
Symbolically A C B
* The total number of proper subsets of a set having ‘n’ elements is 2 n - 1.
* A non-empty set has at least one proper subset.
* Empty set has no proper subset.
(vii) Power set:
The set formed by all the subsets of a given set A is called power set. It is denoted by P(A)
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3}, P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}
The number of elements in Power set P(A) = 2n(A)
(viii) Equal sets:
Two sets A and B are said to be equal if every element of set A is in B and every element of set
B is in set A.
e.g. Here A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 3, 2} are equal sets.
(ix) Equivalent sets:
Two finite sets A and B are equivalent if number of elements in set A is equal to the number of
elements in set B. i.e. n(A) = n(B)
e.g. Here A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 3} are equivalent sets.
(x) Superset:
The set A is called superset of B if B is subset of A.
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3} is called superset of B = {1, 2}
(xi) Compareable sets:
Two sets A and B are said to be compareable if either A is a subset of B or B is a subset of A.
e.g. A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 4} are compareable sets as A is a subset of B.
C = {a, b, c} and D = {b, c} are compareable sets as D is a subset of C.
(xii) Universal set: (U) A set that contains all the sets under consideration is called universal set.
(xiii) Disjoint sets:
Two sets A and B are called disjoint sets if A ∩ B = ∅
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} are disjoint sets.
(xiv) Pair set:
A set having two elements is called a pair set.
e.g. {1, 2} and {3, 4} are pair sets.
5. Cardinal number or order of a set: The number of elements in a finite set A is called cardinal no. of given set A. denoted
by O (A). e.g. A = { 1, 2, 3} then O(A) = 3
6. Venn diagram:
Graphically representation of a given set/sets. Here universal set is represented by a rectangle while
the sets are represented by circles in the rectangle.
7. Union of Two sets
* Written as A ∪ B, read as A union B.
*Symbolically, A ∪ B = {x: x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
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A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 5, 6} then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6}
7. Intersection of Two sets :
* Written as A ∩ B, read as A intersection B.
*Symbolically, A ∩ B = {x: x ∈ Aand x ∈ B}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 3, 5, 6} then A ∩ B = {2, 3}
e.g. A = {a, b}, B= {c, d} then A ∩ B = ∅.
8. Difference of Two sets : (A - B)
A – B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∉ B}
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3} ; B = {2, 4, 5}, then
A – B = {1, 3} & B – A = {4, 5}
9. Symmetric difference of Two sets :
A ∆ B = (A - B) ∪ (B – A)
e.g. A = { 1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5} then A ∆ B = (A - B) ∪ (B – A) = {1, 2} ∪{5} = {1, 2, 5}
A ∆ B = A ∪ B if A and B are disjoint sets.
10. Complement of a set : Ac = {x: x ∈ U and x ∉ A} or if x ∈ Ac => x ∉ A e.g. A = {x: x is a vowel} then Ac = {x: x is a
consonant}

Laws of Sets

i) A ∪ A = A, A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law)

ii) A ∪ ∅ = A, A ∩ U = A (Identity law)

iii) A ∪ B = B ∪ A; A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law)
iv) (A∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C); (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C), (Associative law)

v) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A∪B) ∩ (A ∪ C); A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). (Distributive law)

vi) (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ Bc ; (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ Bc (De- Morgan law)

vii) A - (B ∪ C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C), A - (B ∩ C) = (A – B) ∪ (A – C)

viii) A – B = A ∩ BC = A – (A ∩ B)

ix) n (A ∪ B) = n (A) + n (B) if A and B are disjoint sets.

x) n (A ∪ B) = n (A) + n (B) - n (A ∩ B)

xi) n (A ∪ B) = n (A - B) + n (B - A) + n (A ∩ B)

xii) n (A – B) = n (A) - n (A ∩ B) , n (B – A) = n (B) - n (A ∩ B)

xiii) n (A ∪ B ∪ C) = n (A) + n ( B) + n (C) - n (A ∩ B) - n (B ∩ C) - n (C ∩ A) + n (A ∩ B ∩ C)
xiv) n (A – B – C) = n (A) - n (A ∩ B) - n (A ∩ C) + n (A ∩ B ∩ C)
xv) n(AC ∪ BC) = n(U) - n (A ∩ B)
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xvi) n(AC ∩ BC) = n(U) - n (A ∪ B)
xvii) Number of elements belonging to exactly two of the sets A, B and C =
n (A ∩ B) + n (B ∩ C) + n (C ∩ A) - 3 n (A ∩ B ∩ C)
xviii) Number of elements belonging to exactly one of the sets A, B and C =
n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - 2 n (A ∩ B) - 2 n (B ∩ C) - 2 n (C ∩ A) + 3 n (A ∩ B ∩ C)

INTERVALS
i) [a, b) = a ≤ x < b (Semi open/semi closed interval)
ii) (a, b) = a < x < b (Open interval)
iii) [a, b] = a ≤ x ≤ b (Closed interval)

Relations and Functions

1. Cartesian Product of Sets: Written as A × B, read as A cross B.

Symbolically A × B = {(x, y): x ∈ A and y ∈ B}
e.g. A = {a, b} , B = {1, 2} , C = {3, 4} then A × B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2)}
* n(A × B) = n(A) × n(B) and n(A × B × C) = n(A) × n(B) × n(C).
2. RELATIONS: A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is a subset of A × B
i.e. R = {(x, y); x ∈ A, y ∈ B}
(i) A relation may be represented algebraically either by the Roaster method or set-builder form.
(ii) Graphically it is represented by arrow diagram.
3. Domain & Range :
If R is a relation from A to B, then the set of first elements of ordered pairs in R is called the domain of R and the set
of second elements of ordered pairs in R is called the range of R.
*Domain of R = {x : (x, y ) ϵ R }, Range of R = {y : (x, y ) ϵ R}, Codomain of R = set B
4. Total number of relations = 2 m n , where m = n(A) & n = n(B)
5. A relation R on the set A is the :
i) Universal relation if R = A × A
ii) Identity relation if R = {(a, a) : a ϵ A }
iii) Void relation if R = ɸ
6. Inverse relation : if R is a relation from set A to set B, then the inverse relation R -1 is given by
R -1 = {(b, a): (a, b) ϵ R}, Here R-1 is from set B to set A.
7. A relation R in a set A is said to be :
i) Reflexive if (a, a) ϵ R for every a ϵ A.
ii) Symmetric if (a, b) ϵ R => (b, a) ϵ R
iii) Transitive if (a, b) ϵ R & (b, c) ϵ R => (a, c) ϵ R.
iv) Anti-symmetric if (a, b) ϵ R & (b, a) ϵ R => a = b
8. Equivalence relation: A relation R on non-empty set A is said to be an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,
symmetric & transitive.
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9. Properties of an equivalence relation :
i) If R is an equivalence relation on a set A, then R -1 is also an equivalence relation.
ii) The union of two equivalence relations on set A is not necessarily an equivalence relation.

iii) The intersection of two equivalence relations on set A is an equivalence relation.

10. Ordered Relation: A relation R is called ordered if R is symmetric and transitive.

e.g. R = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (1, 3)}
11. Partial Ordered Relation:
A relation R is called partial ordered relation if R is reflexive, transitive and anti-symmetric.
e.g. R = {(1,1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (1,3)}
12. Standard Results of Relations:
(i) Every relation has an inverse.
(ii) A relation may be both symmetric as well as anti-symmetric.
(iii) Every relation is always symmetric and transitive.
(iv) A relation R on a non-empty set is symmetric iff R-1 = R
FUNCTIONS
13. Let A and B are two non-empty sets. A function f is defined from A to B
if to each element x in A, there exists a unique element y in B,
i.e. y = f(x) & we write f : A → B
*The element x of A is called pre- image of y.
*The set A is called the domain of f.
*The set B is called the co-domain of f
*The set consisting of all images of the elements of under f is called the range of f.
*Number of functions from A to B = n m. where m = n (A) & n = n (B)
14. Properties of function :
i) Every element of A must have a unique image in B.
ii) Different elements of A may have the same image in B.
iii) There may be some elements in B which are not images of elements of A.
Different Functions
15. Even function :
A function f is called an even function if f (-x) = f (x) e.g. x2 + 2 is even function.
Moreover the graph of an even function is always symmetrical about y-axis. i.e. the curve on the left hand side on y-
axis is always the mirror image of the curve on its right hand side.
16. Odd function:
A function f is called an odd function if f (-x) = - f (x).
e.g. x3 + 5 x is odd functions.
17. Equal functions: Two functions f and g defined from A to B are said to be equal functions if the images of elements
of A under f and g are equal. i.e. f(x) = g(x)
18. Identity function: Here f (x) = x, D f = R, Rf = R.
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*Its graph is a straight line passing through the origin.
19. Constant function: Here f (x) = k, where k is a constant. D f = R, Rf = {k}
*Its graph is a line parallel to x-axis.
20. Exponential function: The domain of exponential function is R and range is the set of all positive real numbers.
21. Logarithmic function: The domain of logarithmic function is the set of all real positive and range is the set R of all real
numbers. In particular:
(i) f(x) = log e x is called natural logarithmic function and
(ii) f(x) = log 10 x is called common logarithmic function
22. Explicit function: A function which can be expressed directly in the form y = f(x) is called explicit function. e.g. y = x 2
+ 4 x + 5; y = log x + e x
23. Implicit function: A function which can not be expressed directly in the form y = f(x) is called implicit function. e.g. x
y +yx +2xy
−x, 𝑥 < 0
24. Modulus function : Here f (x) = | x | = {
x, 𝑥 ≥ 0
Df = R, Rf = [0, ∞)
25. Greatest integer function: Here f (x) = [x]
Df = R, R f = Z.
The value of greatest integer function is always less than equal to the value of x but an integer.
* Its graph is a unit step function.
26. Properties of Greatest integer function: If x is any real number and a be any integer, then

(i) [- a] = - [a]

(ii) [x + a] = [x] + a

27. One- One function (Injective function) :

(i) A function f: A →B is said to be one-one iff different elements of A have different images in B.
i.e. if x1 ≠ x2 => f(x1 ) ≠ f(x2 ) for all x1 , x2 ϵ A.
* if a function is not one-one , then it is called many one.
Number of one-one functions = n P m
m = n (A) & n = n (B); Here n (A) ≤ n (B)
28. Many One:
A function f: A →B is many one if two or more elements of set A have the same image in B.
Thus A function f: A →B is many one if there exists at least two elements x1 , x2 ∈ A
i.e. if x1 ≠ x2 => f(x1 ) = f(x2 ) for all x1 , x2 ϵ A.
29. Onto function (Surjective function) :
A function f: A →B is said to be onto iff every element of B is the image of at least one element of A.
Here Range of f = Co-domain of f.
*If a function is not onto, then it is called into function.
30. One- One Onto function (Bijective function) : A function which is both one- one and onto is called bijective function.

Number of one- one onto functions from A to B = n!

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Here n(A) = n(B)

31. Invertible function: A function is said to be invertible or its inverse exists if it is one-one and onto.
32. Composite function : Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions.Then the composition of f and g, denoted by gof
called composite function, is defined as the function gof : A → C given by :
gof (x) = g(f(x)) ∀ x ϵ A.
33. Properties of Composite functions:
(i) The composition of functions is not commutative. i.e. fog ≠ gof
(ii) The composition of functions is associative. i.e.(fog)oh = fo(goh)

Ch-7 Differential and Integral Calculus

d
1. dx
(x)=1
d
2. ( 1/x ) = -1/x2
dx
d
3. ( xn ) = n x n-1
dx
d 1
4. ( √𝑥 ) =
dx 2√x
d 1
5. ( √f(x) )= f ’(x)
dx 2√f(x)

d
6. (constant) = 0
dx
d 1
7. ( log x ) = x
dx
d
8. ( 𝑒𝑥 ) = 𝑒𝑥
dx
d
9. ( 𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 log a
dx
d
10. ( ax + b )n = n ( ax + b )n-1 a
dx
d f(x)
11. (|f(x)| = f ‘ (x )
dx |f(x)|

d du dv
12. ( u +v ) = + (Summation Rule)
dx dx dx
d dv du
13. (u.v) = u + v (Product Rule)
dx dx dx
du dv
d u v dx − u dx
14. ( )= (Quotient Rule)
dx v v2
d
15. (f(x))n = n (f(x))n – 1
dx
d 1
16. dx
(log f(x)) = f(x) f ’(x)
d
17. (𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) ) = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) f ’(x)
dx
d
18. (𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) ) = 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) log a × f ’(x)
dx
dy dy du dv
19. Chain Rule : If y = f(u), u = g(v) and v = h(x); Then dx = du × dv × dx
dy dy dx
20. Parametric form: If y = f(t) and x = g(t): Then dx = / dt
dt
d d
21. Logarithmic derivative : (𝑢𝑣 )= 𝑢𝑣 (v log u)
dx dx
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Indefinite Integrals
xn+1
22. ∫ x n dx = n+1
+c

23. ∫ 1 dx = x + c
24. ∫(constant ) dx = ( constant ) x + c
1
25. ∫ x dx = log |x| + c
1 1
26. ∫ x2 dx = - x + c
1
27. ∫ √x dx = 2 √x + c
f ′(x)
28. ∫ √f(x) dx = 2 √f(x) + c
1 log | a x+b |
29. ∫ a x+b dx = a
+c
(a x+b)n+1
30. ∫(a x + b)n dx = n+1
+c
𝑎𝑥
31. ∫ ax dx = log 𝑎 + c

32. ∫ ex dx = ex + c
1 1 a+x
33. ∫ a2 − x2 dx = 2a log |a−x| + c
1 1 x−a
34. ∫ x2 − a2 dx = 2a log |x+a| + c
1
35. ∫√ dx = log | x + √x 2 − a2 | + c
x2− a2
x |x|
36. ∫ |x| dx = 2
+c

Types of Partial Fractions

1 A B
37. i) ( x + a)( x + b)
= +
x+a x+b
1 A B C
ii) ( x +a)( x + b)2
= + + ( x +b)2
x+a x+b

(x + c)(x + d) A B
iii) ( x +a)( x + b) = 1 + x+a + x+b
1 A B x+C
iv) ( x+a)( x2 +b) = +
x+a x2 +b
x 1
v) ( x2+a)( x2+b) , Put x2 = t and dx = 2 dt in the integral and use (i)

(x2+ a)
vi) ( x2 +b)( x2 +c)
, use x2 = t & do partial (i)

Some Important Integral Results

(f (x))n+1
38. ∫(f(x))n f ‘(x) dx = n+1
+c
f′(x)
39. ∫ f (x) dx = log |f(x)| + c

40. ∫ ex (f(x) + f ′(x)) dx = e x f(x) + c

Definite Integrals
41. Fundamental Theorem of Definite integral:
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b
∫a f(x) dx = F(b) – F(a)
42. Properties of Definite Integrals:
b b
(i) ∫a f(x) dx = ∫a f(t) dt
b a
(ii) ∫a f(x) dx = - ∫b f(x) dx
a a
(iii) ∫0 f(x) dx = ∫0 f(a − x) dx

b b
(iv) ∫a f(x) dx = ∫a f(a + b − x) dx

2a a
(v) ∫0 f(x) dx = 2 ∫0 f(x) dx, if f(2 a – x) = f(x)
= 0, if f(2 a – x) = - f(x)
a a
(vi) ∫− a f(x) dx = 2∫0 f(x) dx, if f(-x) = f(x) i.e. when f(x) is an even function
= 0, if f(-x) = - f(x) i.e. when f(x) is an odd function.
a a
(vii) ∫− a f(x) dx = ∫0 [f(x) + f(−x)] dx