REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

UNIT 2 NATURAL RESOURCES

SOIL
• Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials that develop on the Earth’s surface.
• Mineral particles, humus, water, and air are the components of soil.
• Various forces of nature, such as changes in temperature, actions of running water, wind, glaciers, and
activities of decomposers, contribute to the formation of soil.
• It takes millions of years to form soil up to a few centimetres in depth

The soils of India are diverse and shaped by climate, parent material, topography, biological activity, and time.
The major soil types include alluvial, black, red, laterite, desert, forest, peaty, and saline soils, each with
distinct characteristics and agricultural significance. Alluvial soil is the most fertile and widespread, crucial
for agriculture, while black soil is ideal for cotton.
However, soil degradation affects 30% of India’s land, caused by unsustainable farming, poor water
management, deforestation, and urbanization. Conservation efforts are essential to maintain soil health,
ensuring food security and economic stability.
Soils of India
• India’s diverse geography and climate have resulted in the formation of a wide variety of soils in India,
each playing a crucial role in the agricultural landscape. Soil formation is a complex process
influenced by several factors, including climate, parent material, topography, biological activity, and
time.
• The type of parent material, such as igneous or sedimentary rocks, determines the soil’s composition.
• Climate, particularly temperature and rainfall, affect weathering rates and soil fertility, with high
rainfall regions experiencing leaching and arid zones leading to less fertile soils.
• Topography influences soil moisture and vegetation, while biological activity, including the
decomposition of organic matter, contributes to soil fertility.
• Over time, these factors interact, gradually forming distinct soil profiles.

SOILS OF INDIA CLASSIFICATION

The soils of India are classified based on various criteria, including their physical and chemical properties, as
well as their agricultural significance. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed a
comprehensive classification system that categorizes Indian soils into eight major groups: alluvial, black, red,
laterite, desert (arid), forest, peaty, and saline soils.

ALLUVIAL SOIL
Alluvial soil is the most extensive and agriculturally significant soil type in India. Covering about 15 lakh
square kilometers or 45.6% of the country’s total land area, it forms the foundation of India’s agricultural
wealth and supports a majority of the population.
Formation and Composition: Alluvial soils are formed by the deposition of sediments (alluvium) by rivers,
winds, glaciers, and sea waves. They are rich in humus and nutrients like potash but often lack phosphorus.
Their fertility is further enhanced as they are renewed annually by river floods.
• Types of Alluvial Soil: Alluvial soils are categorized into two types:
o Old alluvium (Bhangar) is clayey, sticky, and darker with lime nodules.
o New alluvium (Khadar) is lighter and deposited in floodplains and deltas.

• Distribution: Great Northern Plain (from Punjab to West Bengal and Assam), the lower valleys of
the Narmada and Tapti rivers, the east coast deltas, and the northern Gujarat plains through a narrow
corridor in Rajasthan.
• Characteristics: Alluvial soils range in texture from sandy loam to clay and vary in color from light grey
to ash grey based on maturity.
• They are loamier and more clayey in the lower Ganga plain and Brahmaputra valley, with sand content
decreasing from west to east.
• Crops: Rice, Wheat, Sugarcane, Cotton, Tobacco, Pulses, Oilseeds and Jute.

BLACK SOIL (REGUR SOIL)

• The black soil, also known as Regur or Black Cotton Soil, is primarily found in the Deccan Plateau,
covering approximately 5.46 lakh square kilometres (16.6% of India’s total geographical area).
• Formation and Composition: Black soil, formed from fissure volcanic rock, is ideal for cotton
cultivation, earning it the name “black cotton soil.”
• It contains alumina, iron oxide, lime, magnesium carbonates, and poor nitrogen, phosphorus, and
organic matter content.
• Characteristics: Black soils are highly argillaceous, with over 62% clay, and are excellent at retaining
moisture.
• They have a black color due to titaniferous magnetite or iron and are ideal for cotton cultivation despite
being deficient in essential nutrients.
• Crops: Cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, millets (Jowar, sorghum), wheat, oilseeds (groundnut, linseed),
pulses (lentils, chickpeas), citrus fruits, sunflowers, turmeric.

RED SOILS
• Red soils occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km, approximately 10.6% of India’s total land area.
 • They are widely distributed across the country, notably in parts of south Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar
Pradesh, Aravallis, eastern Rajasthan, and parts of Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and
Meghalaya.
• Formation and Composition: Red soil forms from the weathering of ancient crystalline rocks, with its
red colour due to iron oxide. It is rich in iron but poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter
content.
• Characteristics: Red soils have textures from sandy to loamy, with moderate fertility, suited for dry
farming but require irrigation and fertilizers for enhanced productivity.
• Crops: Cotton, groundnut, tobacco, and pulses, though less suitable for water-intensive crops due to
limited moisture retention.

LATERITE SOIL
• Laterite soils, named after the Latin word “later” meaning brick which hardened upon exposure. Found
in regions like South Maharashtra, the Western Ghats in Kerala and Karnataka, parts of Assam, Tamil
Nadu, and Western West Bengal (especially in Birbhum district), as well as parts of the Eastern Ghats.
• Formation and Composition: Laterite soils form under high heat and rainfall, causing intense mineral
leaching.
• They are rich in iron, aluminium, and manganese, giving them reddish to brown hues.
• Characteristics: Laterite soils are clayey, compact, and poorly drained, making them less suitable for
farming without proper management.
• They are poor in essential nutrients like lime, nitrogen, and phosphorus, requiring fertilisers and soil
amendments.
• Crops: Cashews, tea, coffee, tapioca, rubber, and tropical fruits.
• Other Uses: Laterite soils are often used in construction, particularly for making bricks, and roads, and
as a building material due to their hardened texture after exposure to air.

DESERT (ARID) SOIL

• Desert soils are primarily found in the arid regions of Rajasthan, Haryana, South Punjab, and parts of
Gujarat, as well as near the Indus River and the Aravallis. The Thar Desert is one of the largest stretches
of desert soil in India, covering vast areas of northwestern India.
• Composition: Desert soils contain high amounts of soluble salts and calcium carbonate, with calcium
increasing in deeper layers, making them less fertile.
• Distribution: Desert soils cover about 1.42 lakh square kilometres, which is approximately 4.32% of
the total land area of India.
• These soils are concentrated in the northwestern and western parts of the country.
 • Characteristics: Saline soils, with low rainfall and poor leaching, are challenging for cultivation
without irrigation.
• Their sandy texture, low organic matter, and poor moisture retention hinder fertility and plant growth.
• Crops: Only drought-resistant and salt-tolerant crops likebarley, cotton, wheat, millets, and pulses are
grown in desert soils.

FOREST SOIL
• Forest soils are predominantly found in the Himalayan region, Western Ghats, and parts of northeastern
states like Assam, Nagaland, and Mizoram. These soils are also seen in tropical and subtropical areas,
influenced by the type of vegetation and climate.
• Composition: Forest soils are rich in organic matter, including humus from decomposed plant material,
and are high in essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
• Characteristics: Forest soils vary in texture from sandy loam to clayey, with colours ranging from light
to dark brown due to high organic content.
• They are fertile but acidic, and deforestation can degrade soil quality, leading to erosion and reduced
productivity.
• Crops: Tea, coffee, spices, wheat, maize, barley etc.

PEATY SOIL
• Peaty and marshy soils form in humid regions with excess moisture and waterlogging, slowing plant
decomposition. These soils accumulate organic matter under stagnant water and are found in wetland
areas like Kottayam and Alappuzha in Kerala, coastal Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans in West Bengal,
and parts of Bihar and Uttaranchal.
• Formation and Composition: Peaty soils are black due to accumulated decomposed plant material,
rich in organic matter and nitrogen, but often lacking in phosphorus and potassium, requiring additional
fertilization for crops needing more minerals.
• Characteristics: Peaty soils are heavy, spongy, and moisture-retentive, while marshy soils are rich in
organic matter and suited for paddy cultivation.
• Both are naturally fertile but highly acidic, requiring proper water management for optimal growth.
• Crops: Cabbage, broccoli, peas, beans, carrots, radishes, potatoes, lettuce, spinach.

SALINE SOIL
• Saline soils are found in areas like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and parts of Gujarat covering about 68,000 sq km. The accumulation of salts
renders soil infertile, with 1.25 million hectares in Uttar Pradesh, 1.21 million hectares in Punjab, and
areas around the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat affected.
• Formation: Saline and alkaline soils are formed in dry regions due to the accumulation of salts like sodium,
magnesium, and calcium, primarily through evaporation and weathering of rock and mineral fragments.
• Characteristics: Saline and alkaline soils have compact, sandy or silty textures that hinder drainage and
root growth.
• These soils are nutrient-poor, with pale or cracked surfaces, making them infertile for most crops.
• Crops: Barley, sugar beet, cotton, wheat, rice, sorghum, maize, sunflower, potato, citrus fruits,
pomegranate, peas, lentils, cowpea etc.

SOILS OF INDIA SIGNIFICANCE

India’s diverse topography, from the Himalayan mountains to southern plateaus, fosters a wide range of soils.
These varied soils are significant in sustaining diverse agricultural activities, maintaining ecological balance
and supporting the economy.

• Agricultural Productivity: Diverse soil types support a wide range of agricultural activities, directly
sustaining over 40% of India’s population. Alluvial soils, in particular, offer highly productive lands
essential for farming.
• Ecosystem Health: Soils are vital for maintaining ecological balance, enabling plant growth that
supports animal life and biodiversity. Each soil type fosters specific ecosystems critical for
environmental stability.
• Economic Foundation: Agriculture, dependent on soil fertility, is the backbone of India’s economy,
supporting 65-70% of the population and influencing food production and economic stability.
• Carbon Sequestration: Soils are crucial for carbon sequestration, aiding in climate change mitigation.
Properly managed soils can capture large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, helping to
regulate the climate.
• Resilience Against Natural Disasters: Healthy soils strengthen landscape resilience to natural disasters
like floods and droughts. They help ecosystems recover by retaining moisture and minimizing erosion
during heavy rainfall.
 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Why in the News?

• According to Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, India's renewable energy capacity grew by
165% in 10 years, rising from 76.38 Gigawatts (GW) in 2014 to 203.1 GW in 2024.
• India’s renewable energy journey has reached a notable milestone, with the total installed capacity
surpassing 200 GW. This marks a crucial step toward the nation’s 500 GW non-fossil energy target by
2030. This achievement underscores India’s commitment to sustainable development and combating
climate change.
• As a rapidly developing nation, India has significant potential for renewable energy (RE) generation,
which aligns with its commitments under the Paris Agreement and its target to achieve net-zero carbon
emissions by 2070.

What is Renewable energy (RE)?

• It is energy derived from natural sources that are replenished at a higher rate than they are
consumed. Renewable energy sources are plentiful and all around us.
• For Example: Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Geothermal Energy, Hydro Power, Ocean Energy, Bio
Energy.
RENEWABLE ENERGY IN INDIA
• Solar Power: The largest contributor, with rapid installations under large-scale solar parks and rooftop
solar systems.
• Wind Power: Second largest, particularly in states like Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
• Hydropower: A steady contributor to the renewable energy mix.
• Biomass and Other Sources: Supporting cleaner energy solutions, especially in rural and industrial
areas.
Renewable Energy Sources and Potential
1. Solar Energy
• Potential: ~748 GW
• Reasons: High solar insolation (4-7 kWh/m²/day) and over 300 sunny days annually.
• Developments:
• India ranks among the top countries in solar power capacity.
• Solar parks like the Bhadla Solar Park in Rajasthan are examples of India’s large-scale
solar projects.
• Initiatives: National Solar Mission and Solar Rooftop Program.
2. Wind Energy
• Potential: ~302 GW (at 100-meter hub height).
• Key States: Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Rajasthan.
• Developments:
• Onshore wind power is well-developed, while offshore wind is an emerging focus.
• Initiatives: National Offshore Wind Energy Policy.
3. Hydropower
• Potential: ~148 GW (Large and small hydro combined).
• Key Regions: Himalayan states (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand) and
Northeastern states.
• Small Hydro: Focused on decentralized power generation.
4. Biomass Energy
• Potential: ~25 GW.
• Sources: Crop residues, animal waste, and agro-industrial by-products.
• Importance: Provides power for rural areas and reduces waste.
5. Geothermal Energy
• Potential: ~10 GW.
• Key Sites: Puga Valley (Ladakh), Tattapani (Chhattisgarh), and Manikaran (Himachal
Pradesh).
 • Challenges: High upfront costs and technological gaps.
6. Tidal and Wave Energy
• Potential: Tidal (~12 GW) and Wave (~40 GW).
• Key Regions: Gujarat and Sundarbans are used for tidal energy; Kerala and Tamil Nadu are
used for wave energy.
• Challenges: High costs and limited pilot projects.
Leading States in Renewable Energy Capacity

➢ Several states in India have emerged as leaders in renewable energy capacity, contributing
significantly to the nation’s progress.
• Rajasthan tops the list with an impressive 29.98 GW of installed renewable energy capacity, benefiting
from its vast land and abundant sunlight.
• Following closely is Gujarat, which boasts a capacity of 29.52 GW, driven by its strong focus on solar
and wind energy projects.
• Tamil Nadu ranks third with 23.70 GW, leveraging its favourable wind patterns to generate substantial
energy.
• Karnataka rounds out the top four with a capacity of 22.37 GW, supported by a mix of solar and wind
initiatives.

Current Status of RE in India

• The share of RE in the total installed generation capacity in the country stands at 43.12%.
• India ranks fourth globally in renewable energy capacity.
o 4th in Wind Power (46.65 GW) capacity and 5th in solar photovoltaic power (85.47 GW).
• First time crossed 200 GW capacity from non-fossil fuel sources.
o It includes Solar power: 85.47 GW, Large hydro power: 46.93 GW, Wind power: 46.66 GW,
Biopower: 10.95 GW, Small hydropower: 5.00 GW, Waste to Energy: 0.60 GW.
• RE targets in India
o India aims reaching a non-fossil fuel energy capacity of 500 GW by 2030.
o Fulfilling at least half of its energy requirements via RE by 2030.

OVERALL CHALLENGES FACED BY RE SECTOR IN INDIA

• High cost: The material and natural resource (primarily land) costs to generate one unit of
electricity are substantially higher for RE compared to the generation of one unit of electricity from
fossil fuels.
o The highly diffused nature of RE requires elaborate installations such as solar panels and
wind turbines.
• Land acquisition: For e.g., Identification of land with RE potential, its conversion (if needed),
clearance from land ceiling Act, decision on land lease rent, clearance from revenue department, and
other such clearances take time.
• Poor DISCOMS performance: Since most DISCOMS are bound by Power Purchase Agreement
(PPA) for thermal power, their capacity to procure solar based power is reduced, thus affecting the
overall Renewable purchase obligations (RPO) targets.
o RPOs are mechanisms designed to compel power procurers in every state to annually purchase
a certain minimum amount of renewable energy.
• Storage Concern: Due to Intermittency (Renewable sources are not constant, they fluctuate based
on weather conditions) and grid balancing challenge (sudden surges or drops in renewable energy
generation can strain the grid).
 • Environmental: For e.g., birds and bats can have collisions with wind turbines, especially during
migration seasons. Also, large amount of water is needed for hydrogen production.
Challenges in different sub-sectors of RE
Solar • Impact of Heat Wave: According to study, every 1-degree rise in temperature results in
a 0.5% drop in the voltage due to solar panel.
• Dependency: China dominates the PV module supply chain with a more than 80 % share.
Wind • Skill: Requirement of higher level of technical qualifications and skills to build turbines and
construct and maintain wind farms.
• Inadequate Transmission Infrastructure: Longer Extra high voltage (EHV) transmission
lines are required, which raises construction costs and increases operational losses.
Hydro • Decline in hydro power generation: Due to lower rainfall in the southern region. Also, natural
disasters impacting key power stations in the northern and eastern regions.
• Socio-Environment: Displacing people, disrupting river ecology, large scale deforestation, loss
of aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity, negatively alter food systems etc.
Biomass • Inadequate feedstock supply: Lack of long-term contract with a feedstock supplier.
• Limited platforms for biomass trading: At present, biomass trading in the country is
fragmented and exists only in a handful of states.
Waste-to- • Technological challenge: High percentage of wet solid waste than dry solid waste making it
Energy difficult for power generation.
(WTE) • Absence of regulations: particularly the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) requirement
for WTE plants.

Key Initiatives taken to promote Renewable Energy in India

• FDI: Up to 100% FDI is allowed under the automatic route for renewable energy generation.
• PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana: Aimed to install rooftop solar plants in one crore households
with a total financial outlay of ₹75,021 crore and to be implemented until FY27.
• Green Energy Corridor (GEC) projects: Initiated to facilitate renewable power evacuation and
reshaping of the grid for future requirements.
• Solar Parks Scheme: To provide solar power developers with a plug and play model, by facilitating
necessary infrastructure along with all statutory clearances.
• National Green Hydrogen Mission, 2023: The mission targets to achieve about 5 million metric
tonnes (MMT) of annual Green Hydrogen production capacity by 2030.

Way Forward
• Increase Energy Storage Capacity: Energy storage system (e.g. pump‐storage hydroelectricity,
battery storage etc.) can be used for storing energy available from RE sources to be used at other times
of the day.
 o This can bring down the variability of generation in RE sources, improving grid
stability, enabling energy/peak shifting etc.
• Centre-State Coordination: The central government needs to work with the state governments to
identify exclusive land (for e.g., RE zones). Similarly, States need to ensure the 'must run' status for
renewable power feeding into grid is being implemented in true spirit.
o A 'must run' status means that the concerned power plant has to supply electricity to the grid
under all condition.
• Financing Innovations: Streamlining the contracting process (e.g., standardization of contracts), and
making available relevant information, expanding the use of green bonds etc.
• Upgrade grid technology: System operators at all levels (i.e. state, regional and national) should have
visibility of the grid status in neighbouring balancing areas and also the ability to easily coordinate
with them,
o Centralized RE forecasting mechanisms need to be integrated with system operations.
• Optimise land use: Promoting the use of wasteland, marginal land, and rooftops for solar projects can
reduce competition with agricultural, forest land

India’s renewable energy sector holds immense promise with the right blend of policy support, technological
advancements, and public-private partnerships. This will not only ensure sustainable growth but also position
India as a global leader in green energy.
• The global renewable energy workforce expanded to 16.2 million in 2023, up from 13.7 million in
2022, with India playing a significant role in this growth.
• In 2023, India added 9.7 GW of solar PV capacity, ranking fifth globally for new installations and
cumulative capacity, which reached 72.7 GW by the end of the year.
Natural vegetation refers to the plant community that has evolved without human intervention. It includes
various plant species co-existing in a specific environment. India’s diverse climate, from the Himalayan alpine
to tropical rainforests, supports a rich variety of natural vegetation, including rainforests, deciduous forests,
desert vegetation, mangroves, and alpine vegetation. These ecosystems contribute to India’s biodiversity and
significantly impact its climate and economy.

Climatic factors like temperature, precipitation, humidity, and edaphic factors such as soil composition and
topography determine the vegetation of a region. India, one of the world’s 12 mega biodiversity countries,
houses 6% of the world’s flowering plant species, ranking tenth globally and fourth in Asia.

MAJOR VEGETATION TYPES IN INDIA

India’s diverse climatic conditions and geographical features have given rise to various types of natural
vegetation. The major vegetation types in India can be classified as follows:

➢ TROPICAL EVERGREEN AND SEMI-EVERGREEN FORESTS

Tropical Evergreen and Semi-evergreen Vegetation are found in regions with high rainfall and humidity.

TROPICAL EVERGREEN: RICH FLORA, DIVERSE FAUNA, AND ENCHANTING

ECOSYSTEMS

• Location: Tropical Evergreen forests are located along western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of
the northeastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Climate and Rainfall: Climate in these forests are warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation
of over 250 cm, short dry season and mean annual temperature above 22℃.
• Characteristics of Natural Vegetation: Vibrant Forests in Lower Rainfall Regions
• These forests are well-structured, featuring layers near the ground covered in shrubs and
creepers, followed by short and tall trees that can reach heights of 60 meters or more.
• The region’s warm and consistently wet climate fosters lush vegetation, including various types of
trees, shrubs, and creepers, creating a multi-layered forest.
• Leaves on the trees do not have a specific season for shedding, flowering, or fruiting, resulting
in year-round greenery.
• Flora: Notable commercially valuable trees in these forests include ebony, mahogany, rosewood,
rubber, and cinchona.
• Fauna: Common natural vegetation and wildlife in these forests includes elephants, monkeys,
lemurs, and deer.
o The one-horned rhinoceros is also found in Assam and West Bengal’s jungles.
o Additionally, these forests are home to numerous birds, bats, sloths, scorpions, and snails.
SEMI EVERGREEN FORESTS: NATURE’S BLEND OF TREES IN LOWER RAINFALL
REGIONS

• Semi-evergreen forests are located in regions with lower rainfall. These forests contain a
combination of evergreen and moist deciduous trees, and the presence of undergrowth climbers
contributes to their evergreen appearance.
• Locations: Found in the less rainy parts of the same regions like the Western Ghats, Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, and the Eastern Himalayas.
• – Climate:
• Annual Rainfall: Ranges from 200-250 cm.
• Key tree species in these forests include white cedar, hollock, and kail.

➢ TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS: MONSOON WONDERS WITH TEAK AND WILDLIFE

These are the most widespread forests in India and are also called the monsoon forests.
• Location: Spread over regions which receive rainfall between 70-200 cm.
• Classification on the basis of the availability of water: Basic of Natural Vegetation
• Moist Deciduous Forests: These forests are found in regions which record rainfall between 100-200
cm; in the northeastern states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
and Odisha.
• Flora: Teak is the most dominant species of this forest, while Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood,
khair, kusum, arjun and mulberry are other commercially important species.
• Dry Deciduous Forests: These forests are found in regions where rainfall ranges between 70 -100
cm.
• On the wetter margins, it has a transition to the moist deciduous forest; having a parkland
landscape with open stretches in which teak and other trees interspersed with patches of grass.
• Rainier areas of the Peninsula and regions of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in the northern Indian plain.
• In drier margins, it has a transition to thorn forests; having a vast grassland with naked trees all
around.
• Flora: Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc. are the common trees of these forests.
• Fauna: In these forests, the common animals found are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant.
o A huge variety of birds, lizards, snakes and tortoises are also found here.

➢ TROPICAL THORN FORESTS: RESILIENT FLORA AND WILDLIFE IN ARID REALMS

• Location: Tropical Thorn Forests occur in the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm.
 • In semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh.
• Characteristics of Natural Vegetation: Grasses, Succulents, and Wildlife in Thorn Forests
• These consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs.
• Roots: Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order to get moisture.
• Leaves and Stems: The stems are succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly thick and small to
minimize evaporation.
o In these forests, plants remain leafless for most part of the year and give an expression
of scrub vegetation.
• Flora: Important species found are babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas,
Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti etc.
o Tussocky grass grows up to a height of 2 m as the undergrowth.
• Fauna: In these forests, the common animals are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass,
horses and camels.

➢ LITTORAL AND SWAMP FORESTS

Littoral and Swamp forests, known as wetland forests, are abundant in India. These forests play a crucial
role in maintaining the ecological balance and are an integral part of India’s natural vegetation.

WETLAND HABITATS IN INDIA

▪ Area Under Paddy Cultivation: Approximately 70% of wetland areas.
▪ Protected Sites:
Chilika Lake (Odisha), Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) under the Ramsar Convention.
▪ India’s wetlands can be categorised into eight types:
o Reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau: Located in the south, along with lagoons and other wetlands on
the southern west coast.
o Vast Saline Expanses: Found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and the Gulf of Kachchh.
o Freshwater Lakes and Reservoirs: Stretching from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan
(including Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya Pradesh.
o Delta Wetlands and Lagoons: Along India’s east coast by Chilika Lake.
o Freshwater Marshes of the Gangetic Plain: Vital ecosystems in the northern plains.
o Floodplains of the Brahmaputra: Including marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast India
and the Himalayan foothills.
o Lakes and Rivers of the Montane Region: Such as those in Kashmir and Ladakh.
o Mangrove Forests and Other Wetlands: Present in the island arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands
MANGROVE FORESTS
• location:
o Grow along coasts in salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats, and estuaries.
o Highly developed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal.
o Other significant areas: Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna deltas.
• Characteristics:
o Comprise salt-tolerant species of plants.
o Creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows crisscross it.
o Provide shelter to a wide variety of birds.
• Extent in India: Covers approximately 4992 sq. km (2.5% of the world’s mangrove forests).

➢ MONTANE FORESTS
• In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to a
corresponding change in natural vegetation.
• The Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra which change
in with the altitude.
• Mountain forests can be classified into two types namely the northern mountain forests and the
southern mountain forests.
• Mountain forests can be classified into two types, the northern mountain forests and the southern
mountain forests.

NORTHERN MOUNTAIN FORESTS

• Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas.
• Wet temperate type of forests between an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m.
o These trees found in the higher hill ranges of north-eastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal
and Uttaranchal.
o Evergreen broad leaf trees such as oak and chestnut are predominant.
• Pine forests are also well-developed between 1500-1750 m altitude.
o Chir Pine is very useful commercial tree.
o Deodar, a highly valued endemic species grows mainly in the western part of the Himalayan
range. Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in construction activity.
o Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, which sustain the famous Kashmir handicrafts, belong to
this zone.
• Between heights of 2,225-3048 m:
o Blue pine and spruce appear.
o At many places in this zone, temperate grasslands are also found.
• Between 3000-4000 m:
o There is a transition to Alpine forests and pastures.
o Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch and rhododendrons, etc are found.
o These pastures are used extensively for transhumance by tribes like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals,
the Bhotia’s and the Gaddis.
• At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the tundra vegetation.
• The southern slopes of the Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover because of relatively higher
precipitation than the drier north-facing slopes.

SOUTHERN MOUNTAIN FORESTS

• It includes the forests found in three distinct areas of Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the
Vindhyan and the Nilgiris.
• As they are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the
higher regions, and subtropical on the lower regions of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil
Nadu and Karnataka.
• The temperate forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills.
• Forest of economic significance include magnolia, laurel, cinchona and wattle.
• Such forests are also found in the Satpura and the Maikal ranges.
MINERAL RESOURCES

A mineral is a naturally occurring substance, representable by a chemical formula, that is usually solid and
inorganic, and has a crystal structure.
More than two thousand minerals have been identified and most of these are inorganic, which are formed by
the various combination of elements. However, a small proportion of the earth’s crust contains organic
materials, consist of single elements such as gold, silver, diamond, and sulfur.

Mineral resources can be divided into two major categories.

• Metallic Mineral Resources
• Non-metallic Mineral Resources

Metallic Minerals
• Metallic Minerals are minerals in which metal elements are present in their raw form. When metallic
minerals are melted a new product is formed.
• Metallic minerals constitute the second most important group of minerals after fossil fuels. They
are reserved in Archean rocks.
• Major examples of metallic minerals are iron ore, copper, gold, Zink, Silver, Manganese, Chromites,
etc. They constitute 7% of the total mineral value in India.
• These minerals provide a strong base for the development of the metallurgical industry, and thereby
help the process of industrialization and urbanization. India has a substantial reserve of these minerals.
• Metallic minerals are further sub-divided as ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals
▪ The minerals containing iron are known as ferrous (Chromites, Iron ore, and manganese),
and without iron are known as non-ferrous (lead, silver, gold, copper, bauxite, etc.).
• Significance of Metallic Mineral:
▪ the standard of living of the people living in a country is judged by the consumption of iron. It
is the backbone of modern civilization and the foundation of basic industry.

Non-metallic Minerals
 • Non-metallic minerals do not contain any metal substances in them. Nonmetallic minerals are a
special group of chemical elements from which no new product can be generated if they are melted.
• Depending upon the origination, non-metallic minerals are either organic (such as fossil fuels also
known as mineral fuels, which are derived from the buried animal and plant, e.g. such as coal and
petroleum), or inorganic minerals, such as mica, limestone, graphite, etc.

MINERAL RESOURCES IN INDIA (MINERAL RICH REGIONS)

There are five major mineral belts in India namely:
• Northern Belt
• Central Belt
• Southern Eastern region
• South Western region
• North-Western region

NORTHERN BELT:
The Northern Belt comprise of the following regions-
• Chhota Nagpur plateau:
▪ Minerals found in this region is Kynite(100%), Iron (90%), Chromium(90%), Mica(75%),
Coal(70%).
▪ Manganese, copper, and limestone are some other minerals found in this region.
 • Assam Petroleum reserve: This region comprises the reserves of petroleum and lignite coal, tertiary
coal, etc.

CENTRAL BELT:
• This region comprises the Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra region which is the extension of the Chhota
Nagpur plateau.
• There are huge reserves of Iron and limestone in Chhattisgarh.
• Godavari-Wardha valley with huge coal reserves lies in this region.

SOUTH EASTERN REGION

• Eastern Karnataka: In this region, Bellary and Hospet are known for their iron reserves
• Andhra Pradesh: Cuddapa and Kurnool region are major mining centres. Nellore in Andhra Pradesh is
known for Mica reserves.
• Telangana: Telangana is known for Bauxite reserves.
• Tamil Nadu: Tamil Nadu has the highest lignite coal reserves in India.

SOUTH WESTERN REGION

• Karnataka:Dharwad region of Karnataka is known for its high mineral reserves.
▪ Shimoga, Chitradurg, Yumkur, Chikmaglur are some other areas with high mineral reserves.
• Goa is known for its rich iron reserves.
• Ratnagiri in Maharashtra also has iron reserves.

NORTH WESTERN REGION

• This region consists of the areas Rajasthan and Gujarat along the Aravalli Range.
• Gujarat is known for its petroleum deposits. Gujarat and Rajasthan both have rich sources of salt.
▪ Example: Salt from Kutchh and Playa Lake of Rajasthan.
• Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble. Gypsum and Fullers earth deposits
are also extensive. Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for the cement industry.

IRON ORE
• Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be extracted.
• India has large iron ore reserves. It occurs in various geological formations but major economic
deposits are found in volcano-sedimentary Banded Iron Formation (BIF) from the Precambrian age.
• Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron up to 72 percent. It has excellent
magnetic qualities, especially valuable in the electrical industry.
• Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used but has a
slightly lower iron content than magnetite.
 • The highest producer is the Odisha Jharkhand belt, Durg Bastar Chandrapur belt, Bellary-Chitradurga-
Chikmagalur-Tumkur belt, and the Maharashtra Goa belt.

IRON ORE IS FOUND IN FOLLOWING FOUR TYPE:

• Magnetite: It is the most important and best kind of iron ore. It contains about 72 percent metallic
iron in it. It is found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala.
• Hematite: It is also an important source of Iron. It contains about 60-70 percent metallic iron in it. It
is red and brown in colour. It is found in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. In the
western section, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa have this kind of ore.
• Limonite: It contains about 30 to 40 percent metallic iron in it. It is mostly yellow in colour. It is low-
grade iron ore.
• Siderite: It has more impurities. It contains about 48 percent metallic iron content in it. It is brown in
colour. It contains a mixture of iron and carbon. It is low-grade iron ore. It is self-fluxing due to the
presence of lime.

IRON ORE DISTRIBUTION AND RESERVES

About 95% of total reserves of iron ore is found in the States of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka,
Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

➢ Iron Ore in Karnataka

Chikmagalur District:
• High-grade iron ore deposits in Kemmangundi (Baba Budan Hills) supply the Bhadravati steel plant.
• The Kudremukh Hills hold large reserves of low-grade magnetite, mined on a large scale for export
via New Mangalore Port.
Bellary-Hospet Area:
• High-grade iron ore deposits are located in Bellary, Sandur Ranges, and Hospet. These serve the
Vijayanagar Steel Plant at Hospet.
• Mining in this area is associated with issues of illegal activities and mafias.
Other Areas:
• Mining also occurs in Chitradurga, Uttar Kannad, Shimoga, Dharwad, Tumkur, Kumaraswamy, and
Ramandurg.
• Most ores are haematite and magnetite, with a predominance of high-grade deposits.

➢ Iron Ore in Orissa –

• The ores in Orissa are rich in Hematite. India’s richest Hematite deposits are located in Barabil-Koira
Valley. This valley lies in Keonjhar and adjoining Sundergarh district.
• The most important deposits occur in:
 ▪ Keonjhar
▪ Sundargarh
▪ Mayurbhanj
▪ Koraput
▪ Cuttack
▪ Sambalpur

➢ Iron Ore in Chhattisgarh –

• Chhattisgarh has about 18 percent of the total iron ore reserves of India.
• The iron ores are widely distributed, the prominent deposits being those of Bastar and Durg
districts. Bailadila in Bastar district and Dalli Rajhara in Durg district are important producers.
• Bailadila mine is the largest mechanized mine in Asia (Ore beneficiation only done here).
• A 270 km long slurry (a semi-liquid mixture) pipeline is being constructed to bring the ore from the
Bailadila pithead to the Vizag plant. Smelting is done in Vizag (Vishakhapatnam) Iron and Steel plant.
• Bailadila produces high-grade ore which is exported through Vishakhapatnam to Japan (there is no
iron ore in Japan, but the market is huge due to the Automobile industry) and other countries where it
is in great demand.
• The Dalli-Rajhara range is 32 km long with significant iron ore reserves with ferrous content of 68 to
69 percent.

➢ Iron Ore in Goa –

• Production of iron ore in Goa started quite late and it is a recent development.
• Goa now produces over 18 percent of the total production of India. There are nearly 315 mines in
North Goa, Central Goa, and South Goa.
• The richest ore deposits are located in North Goa. These areas have the advantage of river transport
(through river Mandovi and Zuari connect through Cumberjua canal) or ropeways for local transport
and that of Marmagao port for exporting the ore.
• Most of Goa’s iron ore is exported to Japan.

➢ Iron Ore in Jharkhand –

• Jharkhand accounts for 25 percent of reserves and over 14 percent of the total iron ore production of
the country. Iron ore mining, first of all, started in the Singhbhum district in 1904 (then a part of Bihar).
• Iron ore of the Singhbhum district is of the highest quality and will last for hundreds of years.
• The main iron-bearing belt forms a range about 50 km long extending from near Gua to Pantha in
Bonai (Orissa). The other deposits in Singhbhum include those of Budhu Buru, Kotamati Burn, and
Rajori Buru.
• The well-known Noamandi mines are situated at Kotamati Buru. Magnetite ores occur near Daltenganj
in the Palamu district.
• Less important magnetite deposits have been found in Santhal Parganas, Hazaribagh, Dhanbad, and
Ranchi districts.

➢ Iron ore in Other States –

• Apart from the major producing states described above, iron ore in small quantities is produced in
some other states also. They include :
▪ Andhra Pradesh (1.02%): Kumool, Guntur, Cuddapah, Ananthapur, Khammam, Nellore
▪ Maharashtra (0.88%): Chandrapur, Ratnagiri, and Sindhudurg
▪ Madhya Pradesh (0.66%)
▪ Tamil Nadu: Salem, North Arcot Ambedkar, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore, Madurai, Nellai
Kattabomman (Tirunelveli)
▪ Rajasthan: Jaipur, Udaipur, Alwar, Sikar, Bundi, Bhilwara
▪ Uttar Pradesh: Mirzapur
▪ Uttaranchal: Garhwal, Almora, Nainital
▪ Himachal Pradesh: Kangra and Mandi
▪ Haryana: Mahendragarh
▪ West Bengal: Burdwan, Birbhum, Darjeeling
▪ Jammu and Kashmir: Udhampur and Jammu
▪ Gujarat: Bhavnagar, Junagadh, Vadodara
▪ Kerala: Kozhikode.