AMBO UNIVERSITY, HACHALU HUNDESSA CAMPUS

SCHOOL OF INFORMATICS AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS

UNIT – II – NETWORK FUNCTIONS AND ITS PARAMETERS

2. Two-Port Networks

2.1 Terminals and Ports

In a two-terminal network, the terminal voltage is related to the terminal current by the impedance Z  V/I.
In a four-terminal network, if each terminal pair (or port) is connected separately to another circuit as in
Fig. 1-1, the four variables i1 , i2 , u1 , and u2 are related by two equations called the terminal characteristics.
These two equations, plus the terminal characteristics of the connected circuits, provide the necessary and
sufficient number of equations to solve for the four variables.

Fig. 1-1

2.2 Z-Parameters
The terminal characteristics of a two-port network, having linear elements and dependent sources, may be
written in the s-domain as

V1  Z11I1  Z12I2
(1)
V2  Z21I1  Z22I2

The coefficients Zij have the dimension of impedance and are called the Z-parameters of the network. The
Z-parameters are also called open-circuit impedance parameters since they may be measured at one terminal
while the other terminal is open. They are

V1
Z11 
I1 I20

V1
Z12 
I2 I10
(2)
V2
Z21 
I1 I20

V2
Z22 
I2 I10
 Type your text

EXAMPLE 2.1 Find the Z-parameters of the two-port circuit in Fig. 2-2.
Apply KVL around the two loops in Fig. 2-2 with loop currents I1 and I2 to obtain (3)

V1  2I1  s(I1  I2)  (2  s)I1  sI2

V2  3I2  s(I1  I2)  sI1  (3  s)I2

Fig. 2-2

By comparing (1) and (3), the Z-parameters of the circuit are found to be

Z11  s  2

Z12  Z21  s (4)

Z22  s  3

Note that in this example Z12  Z21.

Reciprocal and Nonreciprocal Networks

A two-port network is called reciprocal if the open-circuit transfer impedances are equal: Z12  Z21. Conse-
quently, in a reciprocal two-port network with current I feeding one port, the open-circuit voltage measured
at the other port is the same, irrespective of the ports. The voltage is equal to V  Z12I  Z21I. Networks
containing resistors, inductors, and capacitors are generally reciprocal. Networks that additionally have
4dependent sources are generally nonreciprocal (see Example 2.2).

EXAMPLE 2.2 The two-port circuit shown in Fig. 2-3 contains a current-dependent voltage source. Find its
Z-parameters.
As in Example 2.1, we apply Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) around the two loops:

V1  2I1  I2  s(I1  I2)  (2  s)I1  (s  1)I2

V2  3I2  s(I1  I2)  sI1  (3  s)I2

Fig. 2-3
The Z-parameters are

Z11  s  2

Z12  s  1
(5)
Z21  s

Z22  s  3

With the dependent source in the circuit, Z12 ≠ Z21 and so the two-port circuit is nonreciprocal.

2.3 T-Equivalent of Reciprocal Networks

A reciprocal network may be modeled by its T-equivalent as shown in the circuit of Fig. 2-4. Za , Zb , and Zc
are obtained from the Z-parameters as follows.
Za  Z11  Z12

Zb  Z22  Z21 (6)

Zc  Z12  Z21

The T-equivalent network is not necessarily realizable.

Fig. 2-4

EXAMPLE 2.3 Find the Z-parameters of Fig. 2-4.

Again we apply KVL to obtain

V1  ZaI1  Zc (I1  I2)  (Za  Zc)I1  ZcI2

(7)
V2  ZbI2  Zc (I1  I2)  ZcI1  (Zb  Zc I2

By comparing (1) and (7) the Z-parameters are found to be

Z11  Za  Zc

Z12  Z21  Zc (8)

Z22  Zb  Zc

2.4 Y-Parameters
The terminal characteristics may also be written as in (9), where I1 and I2 are expressed in terms of V1 and V2.
I1  Y11V1  Y12V2
(9)
I2  Y21V1  Y22V2

The coefficients Yij have the dimension of admittance and are called the Y-parameters or short-circuit
admittance parameters because they may be measured at one port while the other port is short-circuited.
The Y-parameters are
 I1
Y11 
V1 V20

I1
Y12 
V2 V10
(10)
I
Y21  2
V1 V20

I2
Y22 
V2 V10

EXAMPLE 2.4 Find the Y-parameters of the circuit in Fig. 2-5.

Fig. 2-5

We apply Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) to the input and output nodes (for convenience, we designate the admit-
tances of the three branches of the circuit by Ya , Yb , and Yc as shown in Fig. 2-6). Thus,

1 3
Ya  
2  5s/3 5s  6
1 2
Yb   (11)
3  5s/2 5s  6
1 s
Yc  
5  6/s 5s  6

Fig. 2-6

The node equations are

I1  V1Ya  (V1  V2) Yc  (Ya  Yc)V1  YcV2

(12)
I2  V2Yb  (V2  V1) Yc  YcV1  (Yb  Yc)V2
By comparing (9) with (12), we get

Y11  Ya  Yc

Y12  Y21  Yc (13)

Y22  Yb  Yc

Substituting Ya, Yb, and Yc from (11) into (13), we find

s3
Y11 
5s  6
-s
Y12  Y21  (14)
5s  6
s2
Y22 
5s  6
5s s
Since Y12  Y21, the two-port circuit is reciprocal.

2.5 Pi-Equivalent of Reciprocal Networks

A reciprocal network may be modeled by its Pi-equivalent as shown in Fig. 2-6. The three elements of the
Pi-equivalent network can be found by reverse solution. We first find the Y-parameters of Fig. 2-6. From
(10) we have

Y11  Ya  Yc [Fig. 2-7-(a)]

Y12  Yc [Fig. 2- 7-(b)]

(15)
Y21  Yc [Fig. 2- 7-(a)]

Y22  Yb  Yc [Fig. 2-7-(b)]

from which

Ya  Y11  Y12 Yb  Y22  Y12 Yc  Y12  Y21 (16)

The Pi-equivalent network is not necessarily realizable.

Fig. 2-7

2.6 Application of Terminal Characteristics

The four terminal variables I1, I2, V1, and V2 in a two-port network are related by the two equations (1) or (9). By
connecting the two-port circuit to the outside as shown in Fig. 2-1, two additional equations are obtained.
The four equations then can determine I1, I2, V1, and V2 without any knowledge of the inside structure of
the circuit.
EXAMPLE 2.5 The Z-parameters of a two-port network are given by

Z11  2s  1/s Z12  Z21  2s Z22  2s  4

The network is connected to a source and a load as shown in Fig. 2-8. Find I1 , I2 , V1 , and V4 .

Fig. 2-8

The terminal characteristics are given by Type your text

V1  (2s  1/s)I1  2sI2

(17)
V2  2sI1  (2s  4)I2

The phasor representation of voltage s(t) is Vs  12 V with s  j. From KVL around the input and output loops we
obtain the two additional equations

Vs  3I1  V1
(18)
0  (1  s)I2  V2

Substituting s  j and Vs  12 in (17) and in (18) we get

V1  jI1  2 jI2

V2  2 jI1  (4  2 j)I2

12  3I1  V1

0  (1  j)I2 2 V

from which

I1  3.29  10.2 I2  1.13  131.2

V1  2.88 37.5 V2  1.6 93.8

2.7 Conversion between Z- and Y-Parameters

The Y-parameters may be obtained from the Z-parameters by solving (1) for I1 and I2. Applying Cramer’s
rule to (1), we get

Z22 Z12
I1  V1  V2
DZZ DZZ
(19)
Z11
I2  Z21 V1  V2
DZZ DZZ
where DZZ  Z11Z22 Z12Z21 is the determinant of the coefficient matrix in (1). By comparing (19) with (9)
we have

Z22
Y11 
DZZ

Y12  Z12
DZZ
(20)
Y21  Z21
DZZ

Z11
Y22 
DZZ

Given the Z-parameters, for the Y-parameters to exist, the determinant DZZ must be nonzero. Conversely,
given the Y-parameters, the Z-parameters are

Y22
Z11 
DYY

Z12  Y12
DYY
(21)
Z21  Y21
DYY

Y11
Z22 
DYY

where DYY  Y11Y22  Y12Y21 is the determinant of the coefficient matrix in (9). For the Z-parameters of a
two-port circuit to be derived from its Y-parameters, DYY should be nonzero.

EXAMPLE 2.6 Referring to Example 2.4, find the Z-parameters of the circuit of Fig. 2-5 from its Y-parameters.
The Y-parameters of the circuit were found to be [see (14)]
s3 -s/5s  6 s2
Y11  Y12  Y21  Y22 
5s  6 5s  6

Substituting into (21), where DYY  1(5s  6), we obtain

Z11  s + 2

Z12  Z21  s (22)

Z22  s + 3 5s s

The Z-parameters in (22) are identical to the Z-parameters of the circuit of Fig. 2-2. The two circuits
are equivalent as far as the terminals are concerned. This was by design. Figure 2-2 is the T-equivalent of
Fig. 2-5. The equivalence between Fig. 2-2 and Fig. 2-5 may be verified directly by applying (6) to the
Z-parameters given in (22) to obtain the T-equivalent network.

2.8 h-Parameters
Some two-port circuits or electronic devices are best characterized by the following terminal equations:
V1  h11I1  h12V2
(23)
I2  h21I1  h22V2

where the hij coefficients are called the hybrid or h-parameters.

EXAMPLE 2.7 Find the h-parameters of Fig. 2-9.
This is the simple model of a bipolar junction transistor in its linear region of operation. By inspection, the terminal
characteristics of Fig. 2-9 are

V1  50I1 and I2  300I1 (24)

Fig. 2-9

By comparing (24) and (23) we get

h11  50 h12  0 h21  300 h22  0 (25)

2.9 g-Parameters
The terminal characteristics of a two-port circuit may also be described by still another set of hybrid
parameters as given in (26).

I1  g11V1  g12I2
(26)
V2  g21V1  g22I2

where the coefficients gij are called inverse hybrid or g-parameters.

EXAMPLE 4.8 Find the g-parameters in the circuit shown in Fig. 2-10.

Fig. 2-10

This is the simple model of a field effect transistor in its linear region of operation. To find the g-parameters, we first
derive the terminal equations by applying Kirchhoff’s laws at the terminals:
9
At the input terminal: V1  10 I1
At the output terminal: V2  10(I2 103 V1)

or I1 = 109 V1 and V2 = 10I2  102 V1 (27)

by comparing (27) and (26) we get
B

c
g11  109 g12  0 g21  102 g22  10 (28)
2.10 Transmission Parameters
The transmission parameters A, B, C, and D express the required source variables V1 and I1 in terms of the
existing destination variables V2 and I2. They are called ABCD or T-parameters and are defined by
V1  AV2  BI2

I1  CV2  DI2
(29)

EXAMPLE 2.9 Find the T-parameters of Fig. 2-11 where Za and Zb are nonzero.

Fig. 2-11

This is the simple lumped model of an incremental segment of a transmission line. From (29) we have

V1 Za b
A  Z  1  ZaYb
V2 I 2 0
Zb

V1
B   Za
I2
V20
(30)
I1
C  Yb
V2
I 2 0

I1
D  1
I2 V 2 0

2.11 Interconnecting Two-Port Networks

Two-port networks may be interconnected in various configurations, such as series, parallel, or cascade
connections, resulting in new two-port networks. For each configuration, a certain set of parameters may be
more useful than others to describe the network.
Series Connection
Figure 2-12 shows a series connection of two two-port networks a and b with open-circuit impedance
parameters Za and Zb, respectively. In this configuration, we use the Z-parameters since they are combined as
a series connection of two impedances. The Z-parameters of the series connection are (see Problem 2.10):

Fig. 2-12
 Z11  Z11,a  Z11,b

Z12  Z12,a  Z12,b

(31a)
Z21  Z21,a  Z21,b

Z22  Z22,a  Z22,b

or, in the matrix form,

[Z]  [Za] + [Zb] (31b)

Parallel Connection
Figure 2-13 shows a parallel connection of the two-port networks a and b with short-circuit admittance
parameters Ya and Yb, respectively. In this case, the Y-parameters are convenient to work with. The Y-parameters
of the parallel connection are (see Problem 2.11):

Y11  Y11,a  Y11,b

Y12  Y12,a  Y12,b

(32a)
Y21  Y21,a  Y21,b

Y22  Y22,a  Y22,b

or, in matrix form,

[Y]  [Ya]  [Yb] (32b)

Fig. 2-13

Cascade Connection
The cascade connection of the two-port networks a and b is shown in Fig. 2-14. In this case the T-parameters
are particularly convenient. The T-parameters of the cascade combination are
A  Aa A b  B a C b

B  AaBb  BaDb
(33a)
C  CaAb  DaCb

D  CaBb  DaDb

Fig. 2-14
or, in matrix form,

[T]  [Ta][Tb] (33b)

4.12 Choice of Parameter Type

What types of parameters are appropriate for and can best describe a given two-port network or device?
Several factors influence the choice of parameters. (1) It is possible that some types of parameters do not
exist as they may not be defined at all (see Example 4.10). (2) Some parameters are more convenient to
work with when the network is connected to other networks, as shown in Section 4.11. In this regard, by
converting the two-port network to its T- and Pi-equivalents and then applying the familiar analysis tech-
niques, such as element reduction and current division, we can greatly reduce and simplify the overall circuit.
(3) For some networks or devices, a certain type of parameter produces better computational accuracy and
better sensitivity when used within the interconnected circuit.

EXAMPLE 4.10
TypeFindthe Z-textand Y-parameters of Fig. 4-15.
your

Fig. 4-15

We apply KVL to the input and output loops. Thus,

Input loop: V1  3I1  3(I1  I2)

Output loop: V2  7I1  2I2  3(I1  I2)

or V1  6I1  3I2 and V2  10I1  5I2 (34)

By comparing (34) and (2) we get

Z11  6 Z12  3 Z21  10 Z22  5

The Y-parameters are, however, not defined, since the application of the direct method of (10) or the conversion from
Z-parameters (19) produces Dzz  6(5)  3(10)  0.

4.13 Summary of Terminal Parameters and Conversion

The various terminal parameters are defined by the following equations:

Z-parameters h-parameters T-parameters

V1  Z11I1  Z12I2 V1  h11I1  h12V2 V1  AV2  BI2

V2  Z21I1  Z22I 2
I2  h21I1  h22V2 I1  CV2  DI2

[V]  [Z][I]

Y-parameters g-parameters
I1  Y11V1  Y12V2 I1  g11V1  g12I2
I2  Y21V1  Y22V2 V2 21 1 22 2 g V g I
[I]  [Y][V]
UNIT – III – TWO PORT NETWORK
 UNIT –III
TWO PORT NETWORKS

1. Asymmetrical Networks

If a network is asymmetrical the input and output terminals cannot be interchanged

without affecting the electrical properties of the network. In this situation the characteristic
impedance has a different value when looking at either input or output. In this situation we
have to introduce the concept of the image impedance.

2.Image Impedance

It is the impedance which when connected to the input and the output of the transducer
makes both the impedances equal at the input and the output terminal. It is basically the
concept which is used in the field of the network analysis and design and also in filter
design methods. It applies to the seen impedance which is determined by looking through
the ports of the network.

The Two-port network shown in Fig.3.1 describes the concept of the image impedance in
the better way.

Fig.3.1 Two port network

The impedance zi1 – when considered from the port 1
Zi2 –image impedance when considered from the port 2

The image impedance will not be equal until the network is the symmetrical network or
anti-symmetrical with respect to the ports.

1
Characteristic impedance
The characteristics impedance also known as the surge impedance is usually considered in
the case of the transmission line and is represented as Z0. The characteristics impedance is
defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the voltage and the current taking the consideration
of the single wave through the line. The surge impedance is usually allocated through the
transmission line with its geometry and the material. It is to be noted that this impedance is
independent of the line length.SI unit – ohm

Iterative impedance

It is defined as the particular value of the load impedance which has the ability to produce
an input impedance with the value as same as the value of the load impedance. In the two
ports system when it is connected at the one end then it produces equal impedance when
looking at each other.

Image transfer coefficient

It is usually considered for the linear passive type of the two-port network, such network
must be terminated with the image impedance of the network. Let

V1 – voltage at the input terminal

I1 – current at the input terminal
I2 – current at the output terminal
V2 – voltage at the input terminal
Hence, the image transfer coefficient can be calculated as half the logarithm of the product
of V1 andI1 divided by the product of the V2 and I2.

Propagation constant

This constant is usually considered for the wave and is defined as change in the phase angle
with respect to the per unit change in the distance travelled by the wave. In other words we
can say the rate of the change in the phase of wave with distance. This constant is
represented by the term K.

2
Image Impedance for asymmetrical ‘T’ Network
Let Zi1 & Zi2 be the image impedance of asymmetrical T network.

Fig 2.2. Image Impedance of Asymmetrical T network

From Fig 2.2. a

Zi1 =(ZA+ZC)//(ZB+Zi2)

By Simplifying

Zi1(ZB+ZC)+Zi1Zi2-∑ZAZB-Zi2(ZA+ZC)=0----------------1

From Fig 2.2.b

Zi2= (ZA+Zi1)//ZC+ZB

By Simplifying

Zi2(ZA+ZC)+Zi1Zi2-∑ZAZB-Zi1(ZB+ZC)=0----------------2

Add 1and 2

Zi1Zi2=∑ZAZB----------------3

Sub 1and 2

Zi1/Zi2=ZA + ZC / ZB + ZC----------------4

MULTIPLY 3 and 4

 Z A  ZC 
Zi1 =  Z AZB  
 ZB  ZC 

3
Divide 3and 4

 Z B  ZC 
Zi2=  Z AZ B  
 ZA  Z C 

Image Impedance for asymmetrical ‘π’ Network

Fig.2.3 Image Impedance for asymmetrical ‘π’ Network

From Fig 2.3.a

Zi1 =ZC//Zi2+ ZA

By Simplifying

Zi1ZC+Zi1Zi2 -Zi2(ZA+ZC)- ZA ZC =0----------------1

From Fig 2.3.b

Zi2= (ZA+Zi1)// ZC.

By Simplifying

Zi2(ZA+ZC)+Zi1Zi2 -Zi1ZC- ZA ZC =0----------------2

Add 1and 2

Zi1Zi2=ZAZC----------------3

Sub 1and 2

Zi1/Zi2=ZA + ZC / ZC----------------4

MULTIPLY 3 and 4

4
Zi1 = Z A (Z A  ZC )

Divide 3and 4

ZA
Zi2= ZC
ZA  ZC

Iterative Impedance for asymmetrical ‘T’ Network

Fig.2.4 Iterative Impedance Zt1 for asymmetrical ‘T’ Network

Zt1 = ZA+( ZB + Zt1)//ZC

(ZA  ZB )  (ZB  ZA )2  4( ZAZB )

Zt1 
2

Fig.2.5 Iterative Impedance Zt2 for asymmetrical ‘T’ Network

Zt2= ZA+( ZB + Zt2)//ZC

(ZA  ZB )  (ZA  ZB )2  4( ZAZB )

Zt2 
2

5
Iterative Impedance for asymmetrical ‘π’ Network

Fig.2.6 Iterative Impedance Zt1 for asymmetrical ‘π’ Network

Zt1 = ZA+ Zt1//ZC

ZA  ZA2  4ZAZc
Zt1 
2

Fig.2.7 Iterative Impedance Zt2 for asymmetrical ‘π’ Network

Zt2= (ZA + Zt2)//ZC

ZA  Z A  4Z A Z c
2

Zt2 
2

6
Iterative Impedance in terms of ABCD parameter

Fig.2.8 Iterative Impedance for Zi1 open

V2=-I2Zi2

Zi1=V1/I1

CONSIDER LINEAR EQUATION FOR ABCD

V1=AV2-BI2------------------------- 1

I1=CV2-DI2------------------------- 2

Divide Equation 1 by 2

 Zi2 A  B 
 CZi2  D 
Z 
1i  ------------------ 3

Fig.2.9 Iterative Impedance for Zi2 open

Zi2=V1/I2

V1=-I1Zi1

7
  Z A B 
Zi1   i2  ------------------ 4
CZi2  D 

Rearranging Equation 3 & 4

CZi1Zi2+DZi2=AZi2+B------------------ 5

-CZi1Zi2+DZi1-AZi2+B=0 ---------------- 6

Adding equation 5 & 6

Zi1 A
 --------------- 7
Zi2 D

Subtracting equation 5 from 6

Zi1 B
 ---------------- 8
Zi2 C

Multiply equation 7 and 8

AB
Zi1 
CD

Divide Equation 7 by8

DB
Zi2 
CA

Lattice and bridged network

A network that is made up of four branches connected in series to form a mesh; two
nonadjacent junction points serve as input terminals, and the remaining two junction
points serve as output terminals. The lattice networks are being widely used in the areas
like grid computing, sensor networks and in many more areas. The main points which
highlights the lattice networks are

1. Its optimal routing policies

8
 2. limits on the capacities of its elements

3. Its performance with the finite amount of the buffers

A bridge-T network has a fourth branch connected between an input and an output
terminal and across two branches of the network.

Insertion Loss
The insertion loss can be explained as the loss in load power because of the insertion of a
particular component or device in a transmission system. It is represented in the ratio of
the decibels of the power received at the side of the load before the insertion of the
component to the power received at the load side after the insertion of the component or
the device.

LATTICE NETWORKS
One of the common four-terminal two-port networks is the lattice, or bridge network,
shown in Figure 2.10 (a). Lattice networks are used in filter sections and are also used as
attenuators filter and attenuators. Lattice structures are sometimes used in preference to
ladder structures in some special applications. Za and Zd are called the series arms; Z b and
Z c are called the diagonal arms. The lattice network is redrawn as a bridge network as
shown in Figure 2.10 (b). It can be observed that if Zd is zero, the lattice structure as shown
in Figure 2.10 (c).

Z-parameters,

When

9
 Fig.2.10 Lattice networks

Therefore

If the network is symmetric, then Za = Zd, Zb = Zc

Therefore

When I2 = 0, V2 is the voltage across 2-2

Substituting the value of V 1 from Equation, we have

10
Therefore

If the network is symmetric, Z a = Z d, Z b = Z c

When the input port is open, I 1 = 0,

The network can be redrawn as shown in Figure 2.11

11
 Fig.2.11 Modified Lattice networks

Substituting the value of V2 into V1, we get

If the network is symmetric, Z a = Z d, Z b = Z c,

Therefore

We have

If the network is symmetric, Z a = Z

12
π and T networks

Transforming from π to T and vice versa

Any pi network can be transformed to an equivalent T network. This is also known as the
Wye-Delta transformation, which is the terminology used in power distribution and
electrical engineering. The π is equivalent to the Delta and the T is equivalent to the Wye
(or Star) form.

Fig.2.12 π Network Fig.2.13 T Network

The impedances of the π network (Za, Zb, and Zc) can be found from the impedances of
the T network with the following equations:

Za = ( (Z1*Z2)+(Z1*Z3)+(Z2*Z3) ) / Z2
Zb = ( (Z1*Z2)+(Z1*Z3)+(Z2*Z3) ) / Z1
Zc = ( (Z1*Z2)+(Z1*Z3)+(Z2*Z3) ) / Z3

Note the common numerator in all these expressions which can prove useful in reducing
the amount of computation necessary.

The impedances of the T network (Z1, Z2, Z3) can be found from the impedances of the
equivalent pi network with the following equations:

Z1 = (Za * Zc) / (Za + Zb + Zc)

Z2 = (Zb * Zc) / (Za + Zb + Zc)
Z3 = (Za * Zb) / (Za + Zb + Zc)

13
The Twin-T Bridge
The twin-T bridge shown in Fig. 2.14 is frequently used as a feedback element in selective
amplifiers, oscillators and for many other purposes. It consists of two T-circuits connected
in parallel. The analysis of this circuit is best carried out by transforming both T into
equivalent Π-connection and connecting them parallel as shown in Fig. 2.15, where

Fig.2.14 Twin –T bridge network

Fig 2.15 T to π bridge network Fig 2.16 Simplified T to π bridge network

14
Adding the impedances in Fig.2.15 in parallel we get a new circuit as shown in Fig.2.16

The complex transmission coefficient is

The absolute value of transmission coefficient is given by

where ω0 = 1/(RC). If the resistors and capacitors in Fig. 2.14 are fixed, the output voltage
is dependent on the frequency of the input voltage. The dependence of Uout (ω/ω0) is
shown in Fig. 2.17.

Fig.2.17 Dependance of Uout

15
We see, that there is a single frequency

at which the output voltage is zero. In the vicinity of this frequency the circuit behaves
itself as a resonant circuit with relatively high Q- factor. The circuit is particularly useful at
low frequencies where the equivalent RLC-circuit request large values of L and C.

Bartlett's Bisection Theorem

It is an electrical theorem in network analysis due to Albert Charles Bartlett. The

theorem shows that any symmetrical two-port network can be transformed into a lattice
network. The theorem often appears in filter theory where the lattice network is sometimes
known as a filter X-section following the common filter theory practice of naming sections
after alphabetic letters to which they bear a resemblance.

The theorem as originally stated by Bartlett required the two halves of the network to be
topologically symmetrical. The theorem was later extended by Wilhelm Cauer to apply to
all networks which were electrically symmetrical. That is, the physical implementation of
the network is not of any relevance. It is only required that its response in both halves are
symmetrical.

Applications of Bartlett's Bisection Theorem

Lattice topology filters are not very common. The reason for this is that they require
more components (especially inductors) than other designs. Ladder topology is much more
popular. However, they do have the property of being intrinsically balanced and a
balanced version of another topology, such as T-sections, may actually end up using more

16
inductors. One application is for all-pass phase correction filters on balanced
telecommunication lines. The theorem also makes an appearance in the design of crystal
filters at RF frequencies. Here ladder topologies have some undesirable properties, but a
common design strategy is to start from a ladder implementation because of its simplicity.
Bartlett's theorem is then used to transform the design to an intermediate stage as a step
towards the final implementation (using a transformer to produce an unbalanced version
of the lattice topology).

Fig.2.18 Bartlett's bisection theorem

Definition
Start with a two-port network, N, with a plane of symmetry between the two ports.
Next cut N through its plane of symmetry to form two new identical two-ports, ½N.
Connect two identical voltage generators to the two ports of N. It is clear from the
symmetry that no current is going to flow through any branch passing through the plane of
symmetry. The impedance measured into a port of N under these circumstances will be the
same as the impedance measured if all the branches passing through the plane of symmetry
17
were open circuit. It is therefore the same impedance as the open circuit impedance of ½N.
Let us call that impedance .

Now consider the network N with two identical voltage generators connected to the ports
but with opposite polarity. Just as superposition of currents through the branches at the
plane of symmetry must be zero in the previous case, by analogy and applying the principle
of duality, superposition of voltages between nodes at the plane of symmetry must likewise
be zero in this case. The input impedance is thus the same as the short circuit impedance of
½N. Let us call that impedance .

Bartlett's bisection theorem states that the network N is equivalent to a lattice network
with series branches of and cross branches of .

Proof
Consider the lattice network shown with identical generators, E, connected to each port. It
is clear from symmetry and superposition that no current is flowing in the series
branches .

18
 Fig.2.19 Lattice network

Those branches can thus be removed and left open circuit without any effect on the rest of
the circuit. This leaves a circuit loop with a voltage of 2E and an impedance of giving
a current in the loop of;

and an input impedance of;

as it is required to be for equivalence to the original two-port.

Similarly, reversing one of the generators results, by an identical argument, in a loop with
an impedance of and an input impedance of;

Recalling that these generator configurations are the precise way in

which and were defined in the original two-port it is proved that the lattice is
equivalent for those two cases. It is proved that this is so for all cases by considering that all
other input and output conditions can be expressed as a linear superposition of the two
cases already proved.

19
Problems

1. A network has the following open-circuit and short circuit impedances:

Z1oc= (600+j300)Ω, Z2oc500Ω, Z1sc=(500+j400)Ω, Z2sc=(450+j150)Ω

Find its image parameters.

Solution:

ZI1=√(600+j300)(500+j400)

=552.05+j353

ZI2=√ Z2oc Z2sc

= 480.7+j78.02

Tanhθ==√ Z1sc/ Z1oc

2. The Z parameters of the two port are Z11 =10 Ω, Z22 =15Ω, Z12=Z21=5 Ω .Compute the
equivalent T network ABCD parameters.

Solution:

ABCD parameters

A= Z11/ Z21 =3 Ω

B= ∆Z/ Z21=70 Ω

C=1/ Z21=.2

25
D= Z22/ Z21=5

Equivalent T network

Z11=ZA+ZC=15

Z12=Z21=ZC=5

ZA=10

Z22=ZB+ZC

ZB=20

3. Two networks have been shown in figure. Obtain the transmission parameters of the
resulting circuit when both the circuits are in cascade.

Solution :

Consider the network as shown in circuit 1

26
Open circuiting the port 2 as shown in circuit 2

27
Related Questions

Part-A

1. What are the different types of connection in two port network?

2. Draw the symmetrical lattice network.
3. Define Iterative impedance?
4. What is Lattice network?
5. Draw the symmetrical Twin–T network.
6. Define propagation constant.
7. Find the image parameters of the network shown in figure

8. The currents of a two port network are given by I1=6V1-V2, I2=-V1+2V2.Find the
equivalent π network.
9. Find the lattice network by using Barlett’s theorem.

10.The Z-parameters of two port network are Z11=15Ω, Z22=25Ω, Z12=Z21=5Ω.Determine

the ABCD parameters.

28
 Unit IV

Synthesis of LC, RL & RC Network

Hurwitz polynomial:-

A polynomial is said to be Hurwitz polynomial, if its zeros lie on the left hand side of S-plane or on jω
axis provided on the jω axis, zeros are simple.

Conditions:

The conditions for the polynomial

P(S) = ansn + an–1sn–1 + ··· + a1s + a0 to be Hurwitz are

i) P(S) is real, when ‘s’ is real

ii) The roots of polynomial P(S) must have zero or negative real parts.

Properties:-

Let P(S) = ansn + an–1sn–1 + ··· + a1s + a0 be a Hurwitz polynomial where a0, a1, … an are the coefficients

i) All the coefficients of the polynomial ai where i = 0, 1 … n are positive.

ii) All the terms starting from highest power of S to lowest power of S must be present.
P(S) = S4 + 2S2 + 8 ⟹ evenpolynomial
P(S) = S5 + 2S3 + 5 ⟹ evenpolynomial
iii) If the polynomial is even or odd then all the roots must be on imaginary jω axis.
iv) Given Hurwitz polynomial can be separated into even and odd parts. Odd part is denoted by
O(S) & even part denoted by E(S).P(S) = E(S) + O(S)
v) If the ratio of odd to even parts of P(S) or even to odd parts of P(S) is expressed in the
continued fraction expansion then all the quotient terms must be positive.

P(S)= O(S) or E(S)

E(S) O(S)
=q (S)+ 1
1
q2 (S)+ 1
1
q3 (S)+ 1
+
qn (S)

1
 E(S) O(S) q1(S)
---

R1(S) E(S) q2 (S)
---

R 2 (S) R1(S) q3 (S)
---
R3 (S)

vi) If P(S) is either odd or even function then the continued fraction expansion is obtained from
the ratio of polynomial P(S) to its derivativeP′(S).
Eg: P(S) = S4 + 3S2 + 2. ThenP′(S) = 4S4 + 6S
vii) If the continued fraction expansion terminates prematurely, then that indicates the functions
E(S) & O(S) contain a common factor X(S).In that case, P(S) = X(S)Y(S).If X(S) & Y(S) are
Hurwitz, then P(S) is Hurwitz.

1) Examine whether the given polynomials are Hurwitz or not

a) S5 + 4S4 + 7S2 + 6S + 2 ⇒ S3 term is missing. So not Hurwitz.
b) S6 + 7S5 + 5S4 − 3S3 + 2S2 + S + 4 ⇒ S3term is negative. So not hurwitz.

2) Test whether the following polynomials are Hurwitz.

a) P(S) = S3 + 2S2 + 4S + 2
O(S) = S3 + 4S; E(S) = 2S2 + 2.


2S2  2 S3  4S S  2
S S
3

3s)2s2+2( 2s


3
3S 2S
2S22  2 S
2)3s( 3


2
23S
3S S
0

1
1 .All quotient terms are positive. So P(s) is a Hurwitz polynomial.
C(s) = 3+3
2

2
Elementary Synthesis Procedure:

Properties of LC driving point functions:

1) LC imitance function is the ratio of odd to even or even to odd polynomials.

2) Poles and zeros are simple & on the imaginary axis.
3) Poles & zeros are alternating.
4) At origin (i.e.) at S = 0, there is a pole or zero
5) At infinity (i.e.) at S   , there is a pole or zero

6) ReF(jω)  0 ω

7) The residues of imaginary axis poles are positive & real

8) Highest power of Numerator & Denominator differ by unity. The lowest powers also differ by
unity.

The main methods for realizing a reactance function as a network are

1) Foster form I
2) Foster form II
3) Cauer form I
4) Cauer form II

H S2  ω12  S2  ω32  S2  ω52 

Foster form I: Z(S) 
SS2  ω22  S2  ω42  S2  ω02 

 Used to realize impedance function. If admittance function is given, the reciprocal of the function
is realized.
By partial fraction
K0 2K2S 2K4S
Z(S)   2 2  2 2   K S
S S  2   4

Z(S) 
K0
  2KiS
2  KS
2
S S  i
i2,4

K0,Ki, K are the residues of Z(S) at origin, ω and ∞ respectively.

K0 1
S represent a capacitor of 0farads

KS represent an inductor of K Henrys

16
 2KiS represent a parallel combination of a capacitor of 1
F & inductance of 2Ki H
S  ωi2
2
2Ki ωi2

Foster form II:-

 Used to realize admittance function.

 If impedance function is given, reciprocal of the function which gives admittance is realized.


H S2  ω12  S  ω 
2
32
Y(S) 

S S2  ω3 2  S  ω 
2
42

K0 2K2S 2K4S
Y(S)   2 2  2 2  KS.
S S  ω2 S  ω4
K0 2KiS
Y(S) 2 2 K S.
S i 2,4 S ωi

Where K0,Ki & K are the residues of Y(S) at origin, ωi and ∞ respectively.

K0 1
S represent a inductor of 0Henrys

KS represent an inductor of K farads

2KiS 1 2Ki
represent a series combination of a inductor of H &capacitor of F.
S 2
ωi 2
2Ki ωi2
Y(S) is the parallel combination of elemental admittance.

17
 1) The driving point impedance of a one-port reactive network is given by

5 S2  4 S2  25  
Z(S) 
S S 16
2
 
Obtain the 1st& 2nd Foster networks.

Foster 1:

5 S2  4  S 2  25  
5 S 4+4S2  25S2 100 
Z(S)  

S S2 1b  S3 16S
5S4 145S2  500

S3 16S

S3 16S 5S4 145S2  500 5S

5S4  80S2
65S2  500

65S2  500 65S2  500

Z(S)  5S   5S 
S3 16S SS2 16

65S2  500 A BS+C

  2
SS2 16 S S 16

135S
125
Z(S)  5S+  24
4S S 16

Z(S)  K0   2KiS 2 
2  KS.
S S  ωi

1 4
C0   F
K0 125
135
L1 
2K2
 4  135  H
ω2 2
16 64
1 1 4
C2   = F
2K2 135 135
4
L  K  2H

18
Foster form 2:


S S2 16 
Y(S) 
 
5 S2  4 S2  25 

S S2 16  AS  B CS  D
Y(S)   
 
5 S 2  4 S 2  25  S2  4 S2  25

4 S 3 S
Y(S)  35  2 35
2
S  4 S  25

Y(S)  K0S   2KiS

2 2
 KS

1 35i2,4 S  ωi
L1 H
2Ki 4
2Ki 1
C1  2  F
ωi 35
1 35
L2   H
2Ki 3
3
2Ki
C2  2
 35 = 3 F
ωi 25 875

Cauer form I:-

 Network is realized in Cauer I form by continuous fraction expansion. Highest power of

numerator & denominator differ by unity.
 Nr &Dr are arranged in the form of descending power of S.

19
 1
Z(S)  Z1(S)
1
(series)
Y2 (S)
(shunt)
1
Z3 (S)
(series) 1
Y4 (S) +
(shunt) Z5 (S)
1
Z(S)  4(S) 
1
C1S 
L2S  C2

 It gives a ladder network with series arm as inductors & shunt arm as capacitors
 If Numerator power is less than its denominator power, then driving point function is inverted.
 In that case, continued fraction will give capacitive admittance as 1stshunt element and a series
inductance.

Cauer II form:

Here Numerator &Denominator are arranged in the ascending power of S.

1
Z(S)  Z1(S) 1
(series)
Y2 (S)
(shunt)
1
Z3 (S)
(series) Y4 (S)
(shunt)

Here the series arms are capacitors and shunt arm are inductors.

20
 1 1
Z(S)  
C1(S) 1
4S  1
1
2S 
1

L2 (S)

SS2  4
1) Realise the network in both Cauer forms. Z(S) 
S 1 S
2
2  9
Cauer I:
Given Numerator degree should be higher than Denominator.

Y(S) 
S 1 S  9  S 10S  9
2
2 4 2

SS  4 2
S  4S 3


S3  4S S2 10S2  9 S Y
S4  4S2

 
6S2  9 S3  4S S 6 Z

3S
S
2
3

6S2  9
2  5

5  9 12
S 
S Y

6S2
5 5 21
S
2  18
5
S
2
0

1
Y(S)  S 
S
6 1
12S  1
5 5S
18
Z
 Cauer II:

S4 10S2  9 9 10S2  S4
Y(S)  
S3  4S 4S  S3

 9
4S  S3 9 10S2  S2  Y
 4S
9
9  S2
4
31 2
4
4 

3 16
S  S  4S  S 31S

Z

16
4S  S
31
15 3  31 2 4  961
S  S S  Y
31  4  60S
31 2
S
4
15 3  15
S4  S 
31 31S
Z

15 3
S
31
0

9 1
Y(S)  
4S 16  1
31S 961  1
60S 15
31S

22
 10S4 12S2 1
(2) Find the two Cauer realisations of driving point function given by Z(S) 
2S3  2S

Cauer 1:

2S3  2S10S4 12S2 15S

10S4 10S2
2S2 1 2S3  2SS
2S3  S
S 2S2 12S
2S2
1SS
S
0

1
Z(S)  5S 
1
S+
1
2S 
S

Cauer II

10S4 12S2 1 112S +10S

2

Z(S)  
4

2S3  2S 2S  2S3

23
 
2S+2S3 112S2 10S4 
1
 2S
2
1 S

  2
11S2 10S4 2S  2S3 
 11S
2
2S 
0
S
11S 10S 
11   2S
3

1
1
2 S 
 110S
S 2 3

Z(S)  

2


1
2
1

1
1
S
2

 2
10S4  2 3

11

S
11
0
2S 2 1
1 1 11S 121  1
2S
 2
110S

Properties of RC Driving point function

 RC network consists of R & C components.

 Driving point impedance of RC network is denoted as ZRC (S) .

 Properties of driving point admittance of RL network are identical.

24
 (S 1)(S  4) Poles are S  0, 2
eg:  zRC (S) 
S(S  2) Zeros are S  1, 4

Properties of RC Driving point Impedance fns:

1) Poles and zeros are simple, no multiple poles & zeros.

2) Poles & zeros are located on negative real axis & alternating.
3) Critical frequency nearest to the origin is a pole (located at origin).
4) Critical frequency farthest from the origin is a zero (located at  ).
5) The partial fraction expansion gives the residues values which are real & positive.
6) If ZRC (0)  ZRC ().
7) There is no zero at the origin & no pole located at infinity.

Synthesis of RC network:

Foster form I:
H S  σ1 S  σ3 
Driving point impedance RC n/w, Z(S) is given by Z(S) 
SS  σ2 S  σ4 
K0 K1 K2 Ki
ZRC (S)        K
S S  σ1 S  σ 2 S  σi
Where K0 , K , Ki are the residues at origin, infinity & i respectively.
K0 1
F.
S represents a capacitor of K0
K represents a capacitor of K ohms.
Ki 1 Ki
represents a parallel combination of capacitor of & resistance of
S  σi Ki σi

25
Foster Form II:
1
It is used to realize YRC (S)  [negative residues at poles]
ZRC (S)
YRC (S) K0 K1 K2 Ki
       K
S S S  σ1 S  σ2 S  σi
Residues of the expansion Ki will be negative, to make positive RCY (S)
S .
YRC (S)  K 0  K1S  KS2   KiS   KS
S  σ1 S  σ2 S  σi
1
K0 represents a resistance of .
K0
KiS 1 Ki
represents a series combination of resistance of ohms & a capacitance of .F
S  σi Ki i
Ki
K represents a capacitance of .F
i

3 S 2 S 4
1) Find the Foster I & II form for the function Z(S)
S 1 S 3
Numerator degree>denominator degree

3S 2+2S+4S  8 2
3S +18S+24
Z(S)  
S2  S  3S  3 S2  4S  3
S2 4S+3 3S2 18S 24 3
S2 12S 9
6S 15

6S+15 6S+15
Z(S)  3  2 3
S  4S  3 (S 1)(S  3)

26
 A B
Z(S)  3  
S 1 S  3
93
Z(S)  3  2  2
S 1 S  3
K0 Ki
Z(S)    K
S S  σi
R  3

Ki 9
9 Ri  σi  2 
2 
S 1 1 2
Ci   F
Ki 9
Ki 1
3 Ri  σi  2 
2 
S 3 1 2
Ci   F
Ki 3

Foster II:

S2  4S+3
Y(S) 
3S2 18S  24
1
3S2 18S  24S2  4S  3
3
S2  6S  8
 2S  5
Negative terms appear.

27
Y(S)  (S 1)(S  3)  A  B  C
S 3S(S  2)(S  4) S S+2 S+4
1 1 1
Y(S) 8  12  8

S S S+2 S+4
1 112 S  18 S
Y(S)  
8 S+2 S+4
1 1 1
  
8 12 (S+2) 8 (S+4)
S S
1 1 1
  
8 12  24 8  32
S S

KiS
Y(S)  K0   KS
S  i
1
K 0 =  R0  8
8

1 Ki 1
Ki   Ci   F
KiS  12 σi 24
S  σi 1
σi  2 Ri   12
Ki

1 Ki 1
1 S Ki  8 ,  Ci  σi  32 F
8  
S4 S  σi 1
σi  4, Ri   8
Ki

28
Synthesis of RC network by Cauer method:

Cauer I method:-

1
F(S)  q1 
1
q2S+
1 1
q3   
q4S qnS
1
 R1 
1
C1S+
1
R2  
C2S

Cauer II method:-

1 1
F(S)  
C1S 1 1
+
R1 1  1 
C2S 1
R2

(S  2)(S  4)
(1)Find the 1st& 2nd Cauer form of Z(S) 
S(S  3)

Foster 1:

S2  6S  8
Z(S) 
S2  3S

29
S2  3SS2  6S 181 Z
S2  3S

3S 18S3  3S S 3  Y

S2  8S
3
S

3 3S  89
Z
3S

8 S
3  S 24 Y

S
3
0

1
Z(S)  1
S 1
+
3 9 1 
S
24

Cauer II:


3S  S2 8+8S  S2 8  35
Z

8  8S
3
10S  S2
3
  910 Y
2
3S  9S 10

S2 
10 10S 3  S 100 3S
2
 Z

10S
3
S2 S  2

10  110 Y

S2
10
0

30
 8 1
Z(S)  
3S 9 1
+
10 100  1
3S 1
10

Synthesis of Driving point Impedance functions of RL Network’s:-

 Driving point impedance is denoted as ZRL (S) .

 ZRL (S) & YRC (S) are identical

Properties:-

1) Poles & zeros are on the negative real axis of S-plane and are simple.
(S 1)(S  3)
Z(S) 
(S  2)(S  4)
Poles at S  2, 4
Zeros at S  1, 3
2) Poles & zeros are alternating.
3) Poles & zeros are the critical frequencies.
4) Critical frequency nearest to the origin is a zero.
5) Critical frequency farthest from the origin is a pole.
6) There cannot be a pole at the origin and cannot be a zero at infinity.
7) ZRL ()  ZRL (0)

ZRC (S)
8) Residues of ZRL (S) at its poles are real & negative and those of
S are real and positive.

Synthesis:-Foster form I:-

K1S K2S KiS

ZRL (S)  K0       KS
S  1  2   i

31
ZRL (S) K0 K Ki
K 1    
S S S  σ1 S  σi

K1S K2S KiS

RL (S) K0Z K S.    
S  σ1 S  σ 2 S  σi

Foster form II:-

K0 K1 K2 Ki
RL Y (S) K      
S S  σ1 S  σ 2 S  σi

1) Find the 1st foster form of the driving point function:-

2 2
S(S 1)(S 4) S(S +S 4S 4)(S 4) S +25S
Z(S)
(S 3)(S 5) S2 3S 5S 15 S2 8S 15

 S2
2

(–) (–)
2
8S 15 5S +25S
+40S 20755 
15S  55

Z(S) 5(S 1)(S 4) A B C
   
S   3)(S  5) S S+3 S+5
S(S
5(S 1)(S 4) 5(1)(4)
A
S(S 3)(S 5) S 0 (3)(5) 3

32
 5(S 1)(S  4) 5(2)(1) 5
B  
(S  3)(S  5) S3 (3)(2) 3

5(S 1)(S  4) 5(4)(1)

C  2
S(S  3) S5 (5)(2)

4 5
Z(S) 3 3  2

S S 5 S+3
S S+5
4 3  2S
Z(S)  
3 S+3 S+5
4 1 1 4 1 1
     
3 3 (S+3) 1 (S+5) 3 3  9 1 5
5S 2S 5 5S 2 2S

2) Find the 2nd foster form of the driving point function:-

2S +16S  30
2

Y(S) 
S2  6S  8
S2  6S  8 2S2 +16S  302
2S2 +12S 16
4S 14

2S +16S  30 4S 14 4S 14

2

Y(S)   2  2
S2  6S  8 S2  6S  8 (S+4)(S  2)
4S 14 A B
 
(S+4)(S  2) S+4 S+2
4S 14 16 14
A  1
S 2 S4 2
4S 14 8 14
B  3
S 4 S2 2

33
 1 3
Y(S)  2  
S+4 S+2
1 1
2 
S+4 S + 2
3 3

Cauer I:-
Descending power of S.
1 1
F(S)  q1(S)  L1S 
(series) 1 1
Y2 (S) R2 +
1 1 1
(shunt)
Z2 (S) L3 (S)   
(series) Y2 (S) R4 R
(shunt)

Cauer II:-

Ascending power of S.

1
Z(S)  R1 
1
SL1+ 1
R2 
1
SL2  
R3

34
 (S+4)(S+8)
1) Find the 1st Cauer form of Y(S) 
(S+2)(S+6)

S +12S  32
2

Y(S)  2
S +8S+12


S2  8S+12 S2 12S  32 1 Y

S2  8S+12

4S  20S2  8S+12 S  4 Z

S
2

5
S 4 3S 12  S


3S 12 4S  20 4 3 Y

4
S
+
1
6
3 Z
4
3S

 3
12 4 1
4

4
0
35
1
Y(S)  1 
S 1
+
4 4 1
3 3S 1
3 Y
 2
(2)Find the 2 nd Cauer form for Z(S)  22S +8S+6
S +8S+12

6+8S  2S2
Z(S) 
12  8S  S2

12+8S+S2  6+8S  2S2 1 Z

2
1
6  4S+ S2
2
3 2
4S  S 12  8S+S2 3 S
2 
 Y

12+ 9 2 S
7 S  S2
2
 2 7
8 Z

4S+ 8 S2
7
2
5 7
14
S  72 SS  S 495S
2

2
S2  5 14S2 514 Z

5 S2
14
0

36
 1 1
Z(S)  
2 3 1
+
S 8 1
7 49  1
5S 5
14

Synthesis of RLC networks:-

S2  7S  70
1) Synthesize the impedance function Z(S)  .
S(S 10)

S2  7S  70
Z(S)  has a pole at origin.
S(S 10)
0
S 
10S  S2  70+7S  S2 7
7
0


Z(S)  
7
S
S
2

S
2

S
2


1
S
7 S 1
S S 10 110 S

37

Z1(S)  , Z2 (S)  
 2) Synthesize a network having impedance function,
6S  3S2  3S 1
Z(S) 
6S3  3S
6S3  3S 6S3  3S2 +3S 11  Z
6S3  3S
3S2 1

3S2 1
Z(S)  1
6S3  3S
Z(S)  Z1(S)  Z1(S)

3S2 1
Z2 (S) 
6S3  3S
6S3  3S
Y2 (S) 
3S3 1

3S2 1 6S3  3S2S Y

S3  2S
S3S2 13S Z
3S2
1SS Y
S
0

38
 UNIT- IV
FILTERS
Introduction :
Filters are essential building blocks in many systems, particularly in communication and instrumentation systems. A filter
passes one band of frequencies while rejecting another. Typically implemented in one of three technologies: passive RLC
filters, active RC filters and switched capacitor filters. Crystal and SAW filters are normally used at very high frequencies.
Passive filters work well at high frequencies, however, at low frequencies the required inductors are large, bulky and
non-ideal.
Furthermore, inductors are difficult to fabricate in monolithic from and are incompatible with many modern assembly systems.
Active RC filters utilize op-amps together with resistors and capacitors and are fabricated using discrete, thick film and
thin-film technologies. The performance of these filters is limited by the performance of the op-amps (e.g., frequency
response, bandwidth, noise, offsets, etc.). Switched-capacitor filters are monolithic filters which typically offer the best
performance in the term of cost. Fabricated using capacitors, switched and op-amps. Generally poorer performance compared
to passive LC or active RC filters.
Filters are generally linear circuits that can be represented as a two-port network:
 FILTER DESIGN TECHNIQUES

The second stage of the design process is the synthesis of the ideal solution which meets the specification producing earlier.
Three techniques are available at this stage.
1) Firstly an existing design might be available which meets the specification exactly or nearly so.
2) Second techniques is the traditional method involving the design of L-section of capacitor and inductor which can be combined
into T and Pi network and then cascaded to form the complete filter, design of thesis image parameter constant K and
m-derived filters.

3)