COURSE TITLE: Nigerian peoples and culture

COURSE CODE: GST 112

FIRST LESSON: INTRODUCTION

The Nigerian state is a colonial creation. It is a product of a historical accident that arose out of European
adventurism with its eventual culmination in the colonization of Africa. Thus, while the European
explorers discovered the undeveloped estate that later became Nigeria, the missionaries established the
presence of Europe in the area to pave the way for the eventual arrival of the European traders with their
aggressive trade interest.
First, the European explorers, second, the European Christian Missionaries and, third, the European
traders played very important roles in the chronological sequence of events that led to the colonization and
creation of the Nigerian state. It may be said that the aggressive economic interest and the contestation for
the avaricious acquisition of the natural wealth of the native peoples encouraged the convocation of the
inglorious Berlin Conference of 1884-85.
Arising from the Berlin Conference, the European interlopers adopted more carefully articulated control
mechanisms to bring their effectively occupied territories under their control. It was at the Conference that
the British got the imprimatur from the circle of European collaborators to occupy the area that later
became known as Nigeria. What the above development entailed was that the vast area that would soon
become Nigeria had become the property of the British colonial powers and thus had to be brought under
their effective control.

To achieve this, the British colonial administrators quickly established a colony and protectorate of Lagos
and Niger territories under the administration of the Royal Niger Company, through the instrumentality of
a Charter. The exigencies of the moment ultimately challenged the British colonial administrators to
come up with more viable ways of optimizing their control over the Nigerian territories at the barest
minimum cost. The Niger Committee of 1898, headed by Lord Selborne was, therefore, inaugurated by
the British colonial administrators to, among other things, find the means for achieving greater control
over the expansive area at the barest minimum cost. As a way out of the financial deficit in the
administration of the expansive areas – the Northern and
Southern Protectorates, the Selborne Committee recommended the use of available funds from the richer
Southern Protectorate to soften the large-scale financial short-falls of the Northern Protectorate. Very
significantly, the Selborne Committee recommended an installmental amalgamation process which
eventually took place in three phases. The first phase of the amalgamation took place in 1900, the second
phase was in 1906 and the last and final phase took place on January 1, 1914. It was the last phase that
brought about major challenges in defining the political future of Nigeria in the light of cultural diversity
and ethnic pluralism.

From the above background, it is indisputable that Nigeria is an agglomeration of various ethnic
groupings. These ethnic groupings significantly differ in their historical, social and cultural make-ups.
This reality points to a complex problematic of tangible socio-political proportions that constantly
manifests in socio-cultural conflicts, ethno-religious intolerance, imagined or real political marginalization
and many others within the Nigerian milieu. Most of these problems arise and persist mainly because of
our improper appreciation of the cultural values, religious beliefs and political inclinations of others. Yet,
we all belong to the same political entity that is administered from one centre; we have a common
currency; one federal constitution; one national anthem; one national team; one national assembly and
several other institutions. For us to be able to achieve our desire for unity in diversity, we need to first and
foremost, appreciate our history as a people and then we also have to appreciate and tolerate our divergent
cultures. This is the inescapable reality that highlights the need for the study of Nigerian peoples and
culture.

Culture: Some Conceptual Perspectives

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In our attempt to give a conceptual impetus to the appreciation of the term culture, it is proper to submit
that there is a seemingly irrefutable consensus among scholars of different intellectual orientations on
what the term connotes. This is because culture is commonly interpreted to mean the way of life of a
people and this could be material or non-material. To that extent, it becomes plausible to argue that a
people’s over-all life patterns are conditioned by the adherence to a specific order, which forms an implicit
code of conduct. 3 Eating habits, choice of foods, relationship with others, behavioural and attitudinal
patterns, among other things, can be said to be components of culture. Clearly, therefore, culture relates to
the way and manner with which a given people do the things that are peculiar to them.

This goes to explain why culture may be correctly defined as the totality of a people’s way of life that
manifests through the channels of their belief system, justice system, behavioural patterns, feelings,
emotions, morality, possessions and institutions. This validates the claim that culture is a social
inheritance that gives structure to people’s lives.

Culture takes the normative, learned and transmitted dimensions. Whereas the normative aspect of culture
entails the goals to be pursued, how to pursue them, the values to be espoused and what constitutes
morality, the learned culture involves acquired values, belief systems and rules of conduct.
The transmitted dimension of culture is symbolic. Some scholars view culture as the totality of group
expression, a historical process and a dynamic entity.

As a platform of cultural expression, cultural identity manifests through certain styles of clothing, totems,
tattoos and other aesthetic markers. Other channels of group cultural expression are language, graphic arts,
sculpture, drama, dance, music, rituals, etc. The strength of cultural identity resides in group cultural
expression. But fundamentally it transcends individual human life.

As a dynamic process, culture changes intermittently in line with the changing social, political and
economic realities of a people. Cultural dynamics constitute the inevitable aspect ofhuman existence and
can take the forms of cultural socialization,cultural adaptation, cross-cultural encounters or cultural
imperialism. While cultural socialization, cultural adaptation and cross-cultural encounters may take a
consciously voluntary
process, cultural imperialism essentially comes in the form of the super-imposition of a ‘superior’ culture
over an ‘inferior’ culture.

LECTURE 2
GST 105: CULTURE ZONES IN NIGERIA
The Nigerian nation developed from a fusion of independent chiefdoms, kingdoms, and empires. These,
among others included the Borno Empire, the Hausa States, and the Sokoto Caliphate in the North, the
Igbo segmentary societies in the East, Benin Kingdom and the Oyo Empire in the West and several ethnic
identities in the Benue Valley. The amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates gave birth to
Nigeria in 1914. Consequently, Nigeria has diverse ethnic groups with a population of over 170 million
people who have a very rich culture.

There are major and minor ethnic groups in each zone in Nigeria. In the Northern part of Nigeria which
comprises of North-West, North-East, and North-Central Geo-political zones, the major ethnic groups are
the Hausa, Fulani, Kanuri, Tiv, Jukum, Nupe, Idoma etc. Most minor ethnicities are found in the North-
Central region, also known as the Middle Belt Region. The Southern part of Nigeria on the other hand is
made up of South-West, South- East and South-South. The major ethnic groups in this part of the country
are; the Yoruba, Igbo, Ijaw, Urhobo, Itsekiri and Bini etc.
In this lecture, we will discuss the culture of some ethnic groups within these regions.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CULTURAL VARIATIONS:

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 1. ENVIRONMENT: The cultures of all the ethnic groups in Nigeria have been influenced in varying
ways by the environment. Geography seems to have impacted the spread of ethnic in the country.
For instance, the areas that could support life were well occupied while people avoided
environments that were hostile.
2. CONTACT WITH FOREIGN CULTURES: The location of groups has been a factor in the source
and types of influence they had. Those in the north were exposed to contacts and influences from
North Africa and the Middle East while those in the south, especially in the coastal regions had
interactions with the Europeans from about the 15 th Century onwards. These contacts partly
explain the cultural variations within these zones.
3. NATURAL FACTORS: Natural factors such as rivers and mountains have also defined the kind of
cultural activities found in an area. The rivers, especially the river Benue and the river Niger
enabled people to travel, to fish and to farm. People could also settle along the fertile banks. This
brought about economic specialisation. Groups of people could interact and engage in in trade in
order to have access to products of diverse origins. This led to inter-group relations amongst the
people of Nigeria.

THE PEOPLE OF NORTHERN NIGERIA AND THEIR CULTURE

The northern part of Nigeria is made up of three geo-political zones comprising of Nineteen (19) states of
the federation including the (FCT) Abuja. The northern zone is less culturally diverse. The region is
dominated by the Hausa, Fulani and Kanuri ethnic groups with the Hausa being the largest. All the
ethnicities of the Northern Region have unique but rich culture and tradition that differentiate them from
each other. Despite these differences, a reasonable population of Northern Nigeria use Hausa language is
the lingua-franca of the northern region. They are also predominantly Muslims. By and large, the culture
of the Northern Nigerians people would be discussed under three geo-political zones; North-West, North-
East and North-Central.

NORTH-WEST
The Hausa are predominantly found in the North-Western part of Nigeria comprising states like; Jigawa,
Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Zamfara, Sokoto and Kebbi. Other ethnic groups in this zone includes; Jabba,
Zuru, Fulani, Gbagi, Zara, Baju, Maguzaw etc.

The Hausa are mostly Muslims and they were significantly Islamized even before the Sokoto Jihad of
1804. By the time of the Jihad, a distinction could be made between the pagan Hausa and the Muslim
Hausa. Immigration and conquest marked Hausa history. The Hausa people themselves are groupings of a
number of different people who have been incorporated into the ‘original’ stock through conquest and
assimilation. Homogeneity of the Hausa stems from a common language and religion (Islam).The social
and political organisation of the Hausa people is based on strict status differentiation. The system is
organised through the;
Sarakuna - (Chiefs)
MasuSarauta - (Holders of office)
MasuSarauta Na Asali - (Those who hold hereditary offices)
Masu Sarauta Na Cafka - (Those who hold offices of allegiance)…also known as the middle class
Talakawa - (made up of farmers, peasants, petty civil servants, craftsmen, traders etc)

Every Hausa migrant community has the equivalent of a central figure in Hausa land called
SarkinHausawa, just as they have among the professional guilds e.g. SarkinMakera or the blacksmith,
SarkinMakata of the drummers etc.

The three components of the economy of the Hausa are; farming, industry and commerce with
agriculture being in the forefront.

The main agricultural crops found in this zone are maize, millet, guinea corn and beans among others.
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 They are also known for craft products such as leather, blacksmithing, sculpture, perfumes and textile
wares.

THE FULANI
Apart from the Hausa people, the second largest group in this region are the Fulani people who live side-
by-side with the Hausa and others. The Fulani ethnic group is largely nomadic. They profess Islam while
others maintain syncretic practice. In the pre-colonial period, the Fulani, under ShehuUsmanDanfodiyo’s
leadership, were able to revive Islam in most parts of the Hausa land. They were very instrumental in
assisting ShehuUsman Dan Fodio in the execution of the popular Sokoto Jihad which helped in the socio-
political as well as the religious changes of Northern Nigeria in the nineteenth century. Following the
Jihad, they functioned basically as administrators and sometimes as cultivators.

The Fulani are of two categories, namely; FulaninDaji (nomadic Fulani) and FulaninGida (sedentary
Fulani). The former, who have maintained their nomadic way of life, move from one place to another in
search of pasture or grazing land for their livestock, while the latter have settled in towns and villages
teaching, farming, trading etc.

They are widely distributed in West Africa most especially in the Sahel, wandering from one place to
another with their herds of cattle. The pastoral Fulani’s life is principally basic and simple. They strive to
maintain their tradition and culture wherever they go. They also generally adhere to a code of behaviour
referred to as ‘pulaaku’ which suggests they must exhibit the following qualities of shyness, bravery,
ownership of cows etc

The basic settlement of the Fulani consists of a man and his dependents known as ‘wuru’. It is social but
ephemeral given that such settlements have no women and serve simply as shelters for the nomads who
tend the herds. As the modern nation state restricts the range of nomadism, the Fulani have adopted ever
increasingly complex ways to move herds among their related families. The families may reside in stable
communities, but the herds move according to the availability of water.

The nomadic Fulani therefore have two major types of settlements; the dry season and wet season camps.
The dry season camp last from about November to march while the wet season camp last from march to
the end of October.

Households are patrilocal and range in size from one nuclear family to more than one hundred people.
Families tend to remain in wet-season camps while sending younger males or increasingly hiring Non-
Fulani herders to accompany the cattle to dry season camps.
In terms of industrial arts, the Fulani are only known for leatherwork and some craft production. Many of
their former slaves who have assumed Fulani ethnicity follow the basic crafts of other West Africans;
silver and gold smiting, iron working, basket making and similar crafts. There is also division of labour
among the Fulani, herding cattle is a male activity. Tending and milking cattle, however are women work.
Women may also sell dairy products; their graceful movement with containers of milk or cheese is a
common sight in many northern Nigerian towns. Adolescent male traditionally have been in charge of
moving herds whereas their elders deal with political decisions and negotiate with sedentary people for
safe movement of herds through farmlands.

NORTH-EAST
North-Eastern Nigeria is made up of states like; Adamawa, Bauchi ,Borno, Yobe, Gombe and Taraba. The
ethnic formation in this zone include; Balewa, Fulani, Kanuri, Fulfulde, Mumuye, and Babur etc.
However, the Kanuri people are the predominant ethnic group in this part of the country.
The socio-political organization of the Kanuri people is based on kingship. The Kanuri people marry at an
early age, usually from at about 20 for men and for women at about the age of 14 years. The preferred
marriage for a man is to a young virgin of between 10-14 years of age. But this is a very expensive form
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of marriage and most men cannot afford it as at first marriage when they are in their late teens to mid-
twenties. The more common first marriage is to a divorcee for whom the bride-wealth payment is much
lower. The rate of divorce is extremely high in Kanuri, approaching 80 percent of all marriages. In case of
divorce, children stay with their father. Marriage between cousins sometimes occurs, a form that also
reduces bride-price.

The Kanuri people are sedentary agriculturalist, although almost all the men practice some other
occupation as well. Their economy is complex with commerce, transportation and construction
constituting the other main elements of the private business sector. Hunting is of minor significance but
fish are an important resource to villages along the shores of Lake Chad and Yobe River. Groundnuts
(peanuts) are also grown for sale. Most households use donkeys and draft animals. Sheep and goats are
commonly kept while Horses are symbols of prestige.

Millet is the staple food, supplemented by guinea corn (sorghum) while Kanuri diet consist large
quantities of millet, served either as porridge or as dumplings. A vegetable soup also containing meat,
groundnut oil, salt and other condiments especially red peppers are poured over the millet. The diet is
universal but the soup contents vary according to socio-economic class.

Cooked foods are sold in the markets and a wide range canned foods are available to city dwellers while
Goats and sheep are slaughtered for religious ceremonies. For beef, most Kanuri rely on the pastoral
Shuwa and Fulbe (Fulani) cattle herders with whom they exchange grain and craft work for the beef they
need. In some (few) areas, the Kanuri keep large herds of cattle.

North-Central
The Central Zone covers the whole area usually described as the Middle Belt or sometimes referred to as
KasashenBauchi. The zone is made up of states like; Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa, Niger, Plateau and
the Federal Capital Territory (FCT).

The North Central zone could be described as the home of minority ethnic groups. This is because a
majority of the ethnic groups within this zone are very small in population as compared to others in the
North, West and Eastern parts of Nigeria. For example, Jukun, Mumuye, Tere, Kaka, Koro, Anaguta,
Zaranda, Vomni, Mbula, Chuomu, Lan, Njirai, Vemgo, Wula, Higgi, Gade, Rubu, Amo, Kurama, Berom,
Kakanda, Tarok etc. while the Tiv, Gwari, Nupe and Idoma people have a considerable population.

In religion, the peoples of Middle Belt Region are predominantly Christians, although there are pockets of
Muslims and traditional religionists. The belief of these people is that,there is a supreme being who
created the entire universe. Onthis basis, God is known to them in different languages of theirethnicities.
For instance, among the Kurama people God is calledAshiliorBakashili, Among Tiv, he is known as
Aondo, to the IdomaHe is Owoichowhile the Rukuba call him Katakuru. The Gwaricall him Shekoki,
Shesha, Esse, Sheko or Soko. The Nupe call himSoko. Among the Jukun, he is referred to as Chidoor
Shido,etc. The people of this zone also believe in other forces such asancestral spirits, witchcraft and
magical powers. The Igala, Jukunand Tiv are well known for their strong beliefs in witchcraft,magic and
sorcery. It is also worth noting that the zone is themost representative of religious balance in Nigeria as
Islamand Christianity as well as other religions cohabit excellently. Itis also recorded that members of the
same family can belong todifferent faiths and still co-habit as brothers and sisters in thesame household.

Politically, the zone is also different from the rain forest people who are known for empires and
monarchies. Historically, before the rise of the northern emirates, ushered in by the 19th Century Jihad,
and the advent of the warrant chief system brought by colonialism, the people in this zone were never used
to culture of centralized governments. Only few ethnic groups such as Igala, Nupe and Jukun had
developed elaborate monarchical structures. The zone was rather known for its petty chiefdoms or village
lineage–based democracies.
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The main economic pre-occupation of the people in this zone is farming, perhaps as a result of the rich
Benue Valley and the Niger-Benue influence. They cultivate cereals, tubers and plant crops. Hoes (both
big and small) and cutlasses that are used for farming here are locally produced.

The farmers often work on a cooperative basis.This process of preparing pieces of land for cultivation is
known as ihumbe among the Tiv and known as Oluma among the Idoma. Theexercise involves cutting
down the bush, allowing it to dry afterwhich it is set ablaze. This is followed by mounding which is
alaborious aspect of farming. Consequently, a lot of food isprepared for the hoeing party by the wife or
wives of the ownerof the new farm.

Women apart from providing food for the workparty are usually responsible for subsequent weeding in
order toensure good harvests. Berom farmers both men and womenusually fence their farms with cacti to
prevent the menace ofdomestic animals such as goats and sheep that often destroycrops.

Apart from farming and rearing of domestic animals forconsumption, hunting also forms a good part of
the people’ssocial organisation for the purpose of obtaining protein. Muchof this game meat is also sold at
the local markets. Hunting canbe done on an individual or group basis. Some of the locallyavailable game
includes cane rats, monkeys, antelopes andporcupines. Other animals found in this region include tigers,
elephants, lions and buffalos especially in the pre-colonial times.

However, over-killing or indiscriminate hunting methods using bows and arrows and spears have led to
the near total disappearance of these endangered animals. Local traps are fabricated by blacksmiths and
are used to catch cane rats and antelopes among others. Animals were not only used for food but were also
used in conjunction with other plant resources for medicinal purposes.

Other forms of livelihood of the peoples of Central Nigeria include blacksmithing, pottery making and
wood carving done especially at leisure times.

THE PEOPLES OF THE SOUTHERN NIGERIA AND THEIR CULTURE

Southern part of Nigeria is also made up of three geo-political zone of South-West, South-East and South-
south.
1. The South-West is dominated by the Yoruba ethnic group while the
2. South- East is the Igbo.
3. South-South on the other hand has a lot of minority ethnic groups just like the central Nigeria. They
have occupied an area that is refers to as the Niger Delta Region. Anarea that is naturally endow with
ocean of crude oil which hasbeen sustaining the Nigeria economy since the oil boom period.It is on
the basis of this knowledge that each zone in Southern partof Nigeria is isolated and discussed.

SOUTH-WEST
South-East is made up of states like; Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo. The zone is the principal
habitat of Nigeria’s ethnic groups referred to as the Mennonites. These include the Yoruba, the Ndoki,
Oduel, Urhobo, Bini, Itsekiri and Isoko among others. The Yoruba ethnic group dominate other groups.
They are linguistically classified under Kwalanguage which belong to the Yoruboid group of the Niger-
Congo Phylum. The Yoruba ethnic group is rich with culture of a typical African society.

Their origin is shrouded in myths and legends. One among these legends is that, the Oduduwais the
founder of the Yoruba nation. The legend alleged that, he descended from heaven sent by God to create
the earth. That Oduduwa’sfirst point of arrival on earth was Ile-Ife, hence the notion that Ile-Ife is the
centre of the earth.Other ethnic groups as well have their own legends. The Bini had the Ogbafe’s version
as well as the Ogiso version which discusses differently the origin of the Bini people.

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Generally, the peoples of South-West Region are politically organised on village groups or clans with
each developing distinct dialect. While the Yoruba ethnic group has a different pattern; their basic
political units are in the town.

A town is made up of lineage organised in order of seniority determined by the order of settlement. Each
lineage has a hereditary title assumed by its leader.

In most cases political heads of the town is called Baaleor Oba. For the purpose of administration, the
town is divided into wards under the leadership of ward chiefs called (Ijoye, AdugboorOloriItun). Wards
are further subdivided into administrative units, i.e. Compounds (Agboile) headed by the eldest man
(Baale). There is no distinction between judicial and legislative power but a hierarchy of power from
Baale, Ijoyeand the highest Oba.

The cultures of this zone are also remarkable for their sophisticated artistic traditions and skills such as the
science of metallurgy, iron smelting and bronze-smelting in such communities as Ife, Oyo etc.

The people of this zone are as religious as elsewhere in the nation. There is a general belief in the
existence of the Supreme God who is called different names e.g. Olodumareor Olorunamong the Yoruba,
Osanobuaamong the Bini, Osenobuaamong the Esan, Oghenaamong the Etsako, etc. Supreme God is
believed in this zone to have created the world with no direct involvement in the affairs of men, but have
unlimited power as well as benevolence and punitive measure.

Due to the forest vegetation of this region, the major occupation of the people is fishing, cultivation of
root crops as well as trees like rubber, cocoa, kola-nut among other things. The people also plant tobacco
and cocoa on a very large scale for the purpose of commercialisation…. Cocoa and palm products were
the main export cash crops in Nigeria before the discovery of crude oil.

The people of this region also cherish gorgeous attires, like Aso-Oke, Ofi, Aran, Agbadaetc. Dressing
among this people is gender sensitive. The main dress among these groups is the wrapper usually worn
with a jumper or broad shirt for men and blouse for women. Men wore Buba, Esiki, Saparawhich are
regarded as under wear. There is also Dandogo, Agbada, Gbariye,Sulia, Oyalawhich are over wear.
Women wore Iro, Buba, Gele while Tobi and Sinmiserves as their under wear.

SOUTH-EAST
South-eastern part of Nigeria is made up of Abia, Anambra, Ebony, Enugu and Imo States. The Igbo are
the predominant group in this region, although there are pockets of other ethnic groups like; the Ijaw,
Ibibio and Efik. The Igbo are grouped into at least five sub-cultures. They are; the Igbo of the Eastern
Nigeria, the Igbo of the South-Eastern Nigeria, the Igbo of the North-Eastern Nigeria, the Western Igbo
and the Northern Igbo. Despite some cultural diversity among them, they do share a common basic culture
in their language with a cluster of dialects that are mutually intelligible. They also share a common
political system based on decentralization of power and delegation of authority exercised by the holders of
the staff of authority, the Ofo. In the political arrangement, the people of this zone are highly
decentralised.

At the level of the village in Igbo land, public administration is under the control of the village assembly
which comprises every able-bodied male adult.

At the core is what is called the inner council (AmaAla) which consists of lineage heads, title holders and
other elders on the basis of their personal qualities. Title holders express great authority and they are men
of great repute. Example include; the Ozo, Ichie, Mazi, Ozioko, Nze, Diokpa, Isi, Okpara, Ezejiand a few
others.
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Similarly, others that hold powers include priests, elders, diviners, medicine men, the Okparas, members
of secret society and age grades. They all have recognized roles to play within the Igbo political set up.

There are at least three most important family events in this region. These are birth, marriage and burial.

Igbo traditional marriage, known as Igbankwu is not just an affair between the future husband and wife, it
involves parents, the extended family and the whole village. The would-be groom parent will bring palm
wine and kola nuts to the bride’s family and other items such as goats, chickens etc., as requested by the
family. However, the wedding ceremony varies from village to village.

Birth is also celebrated among the Igbo but the naming ceremony is usually performed on the 28th day.
Many customs surround the burial rites such as paying last respect to the dead, singing traditional songs
and traditional dances, acrobatic displays by masquerades etc.

This zone is also remarkable for its sophisticated artistic traditions and skills such as the science of
metallurgy, iron smelting and bronze-smelting in such communities as Nkwere, Awka, Abiriba, etc. The
idea of iron work in this zone has been dated in the village of Igbo-Ukwu where an excavation of the
grave of a man of importance and wealth dates back to the 9th Century which produced some of the
earliest bronze castings, glass beads, bowls and ornaments.

The objects found at Igbo-Ukwu are also for ritual as well as secular purposes and included a large
collection of objects and regalia mostly made through the “lost wax” technique and through smiting and
casting method.

In terms of style, the artefacts found at Igbo-Ukwu are not similar to the Bini, Ife or any other Nigerian
arts; they are originally local in shape and content. The findings at this site indicate a very well developed
economy with surplus to engage in artistic production.

SOUTH-SOUTH
This zone is made up states like; Akwa-Ibom, Cross-River, Bayelsa, Rivers and Delta. Languages spoken
by the peoples of this area are classified under the Benue-Congo, a sub-family of the large Niger-Congo
family of African languages. Although there are pockets of the kwa speaking group as well. South-South,
otherwise known as the Niger Delta Region, is a consummation of minority ethnicities like Ijaw, Efik,
Ibibio, Andoni, Ogoni, Abua, Ikwere, Annang, Iyala, Nkum, Nkoro, Ibani etc.

Among these groups, the Ijaw ethnic group accounts for a sizeable percentage of the region’s population.
They are located along the coastal belts of Southern Nigeria from the Forcados to Bonny River. Long and
extensive years of interaction with various neighbours have greatly influenced their traditions thereby
leading to differences in the cultural assumptions of component Ijaw groups.

They are mostly identified as Western Delta Ijaw (Gbaramatu, Mein, Iduwini, Arogbo, Egbema(Bassan),
(ApoiIjaw); the Central Delta Ijaw (Apoi, Furupagha, OlodiamaIjaw); and the Eastern Delta Ijaw (Bonny,
Elem Kalabari, Nembe(Brass), Okrika).

The communities within this zone, especially peoples from the cross-river area, are organised in
segmented political system deriving their stability over social controls from the various forms of societies
or associations and age-grade organisation like; Ekpo,Idong, Ekon, and Ekpeof the Ibibio group. The
Ekpeor leopard society, Obong, EkpiriAkata, Ukwa, EmanaEka, and Ekangmen’s society among the Efik
people.

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It should be noted that, the real seat of moral authority in the past, rested in the council of priest or the
heads in each village. Among these secrete cults, Ekpeis most popular and initiation into it attracts certain
amount of fee according to the grade of the entrant.

Among the Ijaw cosmology, a High God (Tamuno) is acknowledged. An ancestral cult similar to that of
the Igbo also exists. Being a riverine people, there is a strong belief in the water goddess ( Owu) that plays
certain roles in human affairs.

In the area of economy, the peoples of the South-South Region because of their riverine environments do
not engage in large-scale production of cash and food crops. As a result of this, majority of the earliest
settlers depended on fishing and manufacturing of salt which they traded for vegetables and other food
stuffs with the people of the hinterlands.

Commodities of trade from the far West (Yoruba land) reached the Eastern Delta States by relay system
from Ijaw groups on the Benin River, and from the Itsekiri kingdom of Warri, through the BassanIjaw of
the Central Delta. It was because of this experience that trade routes developed from this earlier internal
trade that the Eastern Delta States participated successfully in the overseas trade in slaves and other goods.

Canoes are the means of carrying the transportation that enhanced the trade across the length and breadth
of the Niger Delta. Most people in the Delta knew about the making of canoes but not all the areas had the
right timber for this purpose. It is on this basis that the Apo iIjo was known for canoe building. They sold
their canoes to other parts of the delta.

Salt making was another lucrative business and was in two ways. There was simple evaporation of the sea
water and there was method which salt was made from the roots, shoots and leaves of the mangrove tree.
These were burnt and the ash solution filtered and evaporated. The Itsekiri, GbaramatuIjo, Bassan and
Nembe people were known for salt production of this kind. Other Delta peoples bought salt from these
known centres and merely supplemented supplies with their own locally made one.

Conclusion
Note: There are few major ethnic groups in Nigeria while most of the ethnicities are rather minority
groups. The minority ethnic group are found most especially in the North-Central Nigeria otherwise
known as the Middle Belt Region and South-South Zone of the country.

NOTABLE ETHINIC GROUPS IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA

In the second lecture we learnt about the notable ethnic groups in Northern Nigeria. The third lecture will
focus on notable ethnic groups in southern Nigeria. These are Yoruba, Igbo, Bini, Itsekiri and Ijaw (Izon).
The emphasis will be on their origins and their socio-political organisations.

THE YORUBA CULTURE

The ethnic group now commonly referred to as the ‘Yoruba’ have been acknowledged by different names
for several centuries. In 1500, Pacheco Pereira identified them as the Lucumiwhile early missionary
accounts of the 19th Century referred to them as the Aku. Yoruba, which originally referred to the Oyo,
began to be used for the generality of the group by the Europeans and that came to stay.

The earliest known account of their existence in the region according to archaeological evidence dates to
around 9000 BCE as revealed by human remains at Iwo Eleru. However, because they did not develop the
art of writing early in their history, there exists conflicting accounts of their origin.

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 1. The story of the origin of the Yoruba as told in the first written account by R.C.C. LAW traces the
Yoruba to the second Sultan of the Sokoto Caliphate, Sultan Mohammed Bello. In his writing,
Infaq al Maisuri, Bello in his version in 1812 stated that the Yoruba derived from Nimrod, a
descendant of the cursed Ham who fled Mecca while resisting Islam.
This account was later adopted by new Oyo palace historians who expanded it to identify Nimrod as
Lamuruduwhom they now referred to as the father of Oduduwa, the acclaimed ancestor of the Yoruba.
SAMUEL JOHNSON on his part adapted this account but replaced the Meccan origin with Egyptian
Coptic Christians.

2. Another myth of the Yoruba origin has it that, Oduduwa sent byGod to create the earth. That when
Oduduwadecended from heaven, his first point of arrival on earth was Ile-Ife. This is what brought
thebelief that Ile-Ife is the centre of the earth.

What is however certain is the fact that the Yoruba are indigenous to Southwest Nigeria. A sizeable
number of them also constitute the population of Middle Belt states of Kwara and Kogi. There are also
indigenous Yoruba in Edo state.

Until the colonial conquest of Africa, the Yoruba region extended from Benin Republic to parts of Togo.
A sizeable number also settled in Sudan en route to or from Mecca. The Trans-Atlantic slave trade also led
to their forced migration to the Americas where Yoruba cultural traditions have endured to the present in
Brazil (as Lucumi), in Trinidad and Tobago and in Cuba, amongst many other places.

In Nigeria, the Yoruba constitute a homogenous socio-linguistic and cultural group. Their language
belongs to the Niger-Congo language family and shares basic characteristics with the Igbo, Edo, Fulani,
Bariba, Efik, Jukun, among other groups.

Ile-Ife developed a centralized state system, complex artistic and craftsmanship abilities, socio-cultural
and religious practices, as well as economic versatility. It became a cultural and political model for other
Yoruba communities which began to replicate the Ife model in their territories. Ile-Ife became the spiritual
motherland of the Yoruba. However, as time went on, Oyo developed a more complex political and
military system.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
The Yoruba political system is very complex. The Oba (king) is an absolute ruler with divine authority,
yet his powers are checked by various institutions such as the council of chiefs (the Oyomesi– hereditary
advisers in Oyo in particular and Ilu in other Yorubalands), the Ogbonisociety, Ifadivination, and
sometimes by mass rebellion or rejection of his authority or person. However, any member of the council
of chiefs could in turn be deposed by the king.

Kingship rotates among several royal houses; hence, the son of a reigning king cannot succeed his father.
A paramount ruler (the king) seldom appeared in public and was not commonly accessible to his subjects.
His subordinate chiefs administered the quarters, villages, the towns and other domains on his behalf. Yet,
each of the chiefs has specific traditional duties limited to each of them alone.

SOCIAL LIFE
Yoruba settlement had the Oba’s palace in the centre. Village heads (Baale) are subject to the king
through his chiefs, while lineage heads (baaleand mogajiin Ibadan) administer the quarters and the wards
but are subjected to the immediate higher head. The Youths and quarter children have their roles and
rights. The rights of women are assured as their leader (Iyalode) is an official member of the council of
chiefs.

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Marriage among the Yoruba was not a mere event between two individuals but an event involving two
previously unrelated families. After betrothal, a man must not only give presents to his future wife, but
also should help her father on his
farm or when building a house. The would-be in-law also plays important role in funeral rites.

The Yoruba operate patrilineal societies. Polygamy is a common feature among the Yoruba.

ECONOMIC LIFE
Apart from farming, the Yoruba were also traders and craftsmen. Cooperative efforts used in farming
include ‘aaro’ and ‘owe’. The ‘aaro’ form of labour mobilisation was reciprocal in that farmer who was
assisted to weed his farm or build his house today would be called upon tomorrow to render similar
service. While the ‘owe’ was not reciprocal. Drumming and feasting would normally follow after the
execution of an ‘owe’ or an ‘aaro’ task. Generally speaking, even strangers did have access to land for
farming purposes through Isakole(i.e., land rent) charge.

THE IGBO CULTURE

The Igbo have a unique culture. There are three versions on the origin of the Igbo.

1. The first version says the Igbo migrated from the Middle East to their present location.
2. The second version says they have been in their present location in eastern Nigeria from the
beginning.
3. The third version says they descended from the sky.

The language of the Igbo belongs to the Niger-Congo family.

The Igbo people thrived in the Igbo-Ukwu art culture while they cherished Arochukwu in the spiritual
realm.
The Igbo people consider BIRTH, MARRIAGE AND BURIAL as the three most important
family events. Their traditional marriage, known as igbankwuis not just an affair between the future
husband and wife, it involves parents, the extended family and the whole village. The would-be groom
parent will bring palm wine and kolanuts to the bride’s family and other items such as goats, chickens etc
as requested by the family. Nevertheless, the wedding ceremony varies from village to village.

Birth is also celebrated among the Igbo but the naming ceremony is usually performed on the 28th day.

Also, many customs surround the burial rites such as paying last respect to the dead, singing traditional
songs and traditional dances, acrobatic displays by masquerades, etc.

The village of Igbo-Ukwu is the harbinger of the oldest known sculpture from Igboland. In that village
(Igbo-Ukwu), there was an excavation of the grave of a man of some importance and wealth dating back
to the 9th Century which produced some of the earliest bronze castings, glass beads, bowls and ornaments.
The objects found at Igbo-Ukwu are also for ritual as well as secular purposes. The objects found at this
site were a large collection of objects and regalia mostly made through the “lost wax” technique and
others made through smiting and casting method.

In terms of style, the artefacts found at Igbo-Ukwu are not similar to the Bini, Ife or any other Nigerian
arts; they are originally local in shape and content. The findings at this site indicate a very well developed
economy with surplus to engage in artistic production.
The Igbo political system is a segmentary system of governance where you have hierarchy of power from
the family to the age group and to special titles. This power is often distributed among the following title
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holders: Ozo, Ichie, Mazi, Ozioko, Nze, Diokpa, Isi, Okpara, Ezejiand a few others. Similarly, others that
hold powers include priests, elders, diviners, medicine men, the Okparas, members of secret society and
age grades. They all have recognized roles to play within the Igbo political set up.

THE BINI CULTURE

Three versions describe the origin of the Benin kingdom.
1. The first version is from Edo mythology. According to this mythology, the Benin Kingdom was
founded by the youngest of the children of Osanubua(the high god).
This child came with his elder brothers who subsequently founded Ife and Yoruba
Kingdoms.
2. The Second Version talks about how the elders of Benin requested King of Ife (Oduduwa) to send
his son as the King of Benin. Oduduwacomplied by sending Oranmiyan. But Oranmiyandid not
stay for long. He impregnated the daughter of the Onogieof Edo. This woman later delivered a son
who was installed as the first Oba of Benin. This Oba was later called Eweka. He and the people of
Benin lived at Usama.
3. The Third Version according to Igharevba (1968), the Bini migrated from Egypt and in the course
of their journey southward, they settled at Ile-Ife and finally moved to their present location.

The leadership of the Bini people was based on segmentary system where authority is exercised right from
the family. There are three types of families:
1. The Nuclear Family
2. The Joint Family
3. The Extended Family
Each is headed by an elder who sanctions each member of the family. Similarly, there are societal elders
constituting authority based on the village system and there are representative title holders who constitute
a councillor court for discharging laws and justice in the whole kingdom.

THE ITSEKIRI CULTURE

1. The people of Itsekiri claimed to have descended from Umale-Okun(the sea god).
2. Some of the Itsekiris claim to have descended from Ode, a Yoruba town in Ijebu Water-side.
3. In a different dimension, one part of the Itsekiri tradition claimed a relationship with
Iginuwa, a son of one of the chiefs of the Yoruba; it was said that Iginuwawas sent to the Itsekiri land in
company of chiefs and their servants whereby, the chief, together with the Itsekiri established the present
land. On his arrival Iginuwamet with some Ijaw who took him along with his followers and consolidated
his power as a leader of the new land.

The socio-political organisation of the Itsekiri was closely related to the Bini people. The palace and titles
for instance were modelled after that of the Benin kingdom. But in the Itsekiri’s case, instead of the Oba,
the kingdom was ruled rather by the Olu. He alone presided over a council known as Ojoyewhich was
made up of seven nobles or title holders. The Olucombined in himself spiritual and temporal powers.

THE IJAW CULTURE

The Ijaw ethnic group accounts for a sizeable percentage of Nigeria’s population. You also need to know
that they are located along the coastal belts of Southern Nigeria from the Forcados to Bonny River, long
and extensive years of interaction with various neighbours have greatly influenced their traditions thereby
leading to differences in the cultural assumptions of component Ijaw groups. They are mostly identified as
Western Delta Ijaw (Gbaramatu, Mein, Iduwini, Arogbo, Egbema(Bassan), ApoiIjaw); the Central Delta
Ijaw (Apoi, Furupagha, OlodiamaIjaw); and the Eastern Delta Ijaw (Bonny, Elem Kalabari,
Nembe(Brass), Okrika). Some scholars have come up with different Ijaw traditions of origin.

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These scholars include Kenneth Dike (1956), G.I. Jones (1964) and E.J. Alagoa (1972).

Dike ascribed the establishment of Ijaw politico-religious institutions to the commencement of trans-
atlantic trade around the 15th Century, while G.I. Jones modified this submission by propounding claims
of migration from Eastern Delta pinning it to the period of or before Portuguese contact with the region
(1450-1550).

On the contrary, Alagoa, an Ijaw, brought up ‘Mein tradition’ to assert migration from Central Delta to
Eastern Delta. Archaeological studies sponsored by Alagoa to settle this controversy provided a more
concrete information.

The results showed that Eastern Delta Ijaw communities were settled far ahead of the Central Delta
region. They belong to the Niger-Congo linguistic subgroup and they speak Izon.

The eastern Ijaw group, however, speak Kalabari. The western Delta Ijaw also speak Edoid languages
while the Ogbia clan, the Andoni as well as the Obulom speak Cross-River languages.

Horton (1969) noted that the politico-religious organisations of the Ijaw is similar to those of other South-
eastern Nigerian groups especially the Igbo. The entire adult male population seats in three age grades
assembly to perform legislative and judicial functions presided over by the Amanyanabo
(village head). The village head is chosen from a single descent group.

In Ijaw COSMOLOGY, a High God (Tamuno) is acknowledged. An ancestor cult similar to that of the
Igbo also exists. Being riverine people, there is a strong belief in the water goddess (Owu) that plays
certain roles in human affairs.

The Ijaw, over the course of their history are reputed fishermen, canoe builders, salt manufacturers and
above all elaborate and extensive merchants and traders, well known for the establishment of merchant
houses.

TRADITIONAL CRAFTS AND CULTURALFESTIVALS IN NIGERIA

To the Sociologist, culture is “a way of life of a people” acquired through learning, as a member of a
community.Here, we will adopt the literary meaning of culture. Culture is seen as “documentary evidence
of man’s creativity.” We shall see culture as, essentially, the Literary Arts, Performing Arts and the Visual
Arts. Through these Arts, man is able to mirror himself and his society in a way that will enable other
people to gain adequate glimpse of the culture of any given society through the Arts.
• The Literary Arts include both oral and written materials such as folktales, poetry, short stories,
novels and drama (as in dramatic literature). Until very recent times, the most common
manifestation of literary artistic creativity among pre-literate Africans was their oral narratives.
• The Performing Arts include music, dance, drama (acting), and puppetry. This is sometimes
regarded as the “noise sector of culture,” but they are often the most noticed aspects of African
culture. In fact, to a layman in Nigeria, this is all that there is to culture.
• The Visual Arts refer to paintings, drawing, sculpture (molding, carving and constructing), pottery,
textiles, and several other useful crafts.
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FESTIVALS
It is not every festival that is religious in nature. We distinguish sacred/religious festivals from the secular
ones. In sacred festivals, the gods and spirits are communicated with by means of prayer, libation,
sacrifice, incantation and exorcism. These activities may be carried out in such places like shrines, sacred
grooves, at special tress, caves, and hills and wherever these are considered to be the home of these forces.
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In some communities, the gods and the ancestors may present themselves in the form of masquerades, and
as guests to their living descendants. They are prayed to, offered gifts and treated in the way only reserved
for the most honoured visitor.
During festivals, more activities than theatre takes place. Non-theatrical events are prayers and sacrifices,
feasting, wrestling contests; the taunting of social misfits and engaging in various antics. We often find
“total theatre” during most of these traditional festivals. There is music, singing, dancing, costuming,
puppetry, drama, incantations and narratives.

As defined by J. N. Amankulor, Festival as... “Festival theatre in traditional African societies means
dramatic activity which occurs within the context of a festival celebrated in African villages or similar
settings”. Such dramatic activity must portray typical beliefs, ideas and customs of an African society. It
is, in other words, a communal drama in which the people mirror, within the festival environment, their
religious, secular and aesthetic philosophy.

In other words, the study of theatre enables us to understand African culture. This is so because Africans
project aspects of their culture through the audio and visual language of theatre.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRADITIONAL FESTIVAL
A Cultural festival is an event that has very important religious, educational, historical and political
function in the lives of African peoples.

Most cultural festivals come up annually but there are some that are so important that they come up every
three to ten or more years.

The oracle or a special god concerned has to approve or give the date the festival can be held.

Festivals are organised and presented in three stages: (a) Pre-Festival stage, (b) Festival-Proper and (c)
Post-Festival stage.
The venue where Festivals are featured can be at the village squares, market places, palaces, shrines, cult
houses and at any other appropriate places.
The entire festival is run by a group of people usually headed by the Chief himself.

In the pre-festival stage, members of the community are expected to carry out religious, artistic or sanitary
preparations. The date of the festival once obtained is sent to all those concerned. The town or village has
to be cleaned, shrines, drums and costumes repaired. Musicians and dancers will carry out rehearsals.
Hunters will hunt for more meat, palm wine tapers go for more palm wine and where the local gin like
burukutu, pito or ogogoro is consumed, steps are taken to acquire and soak grain and to start the
fermentation process. Each household in the community is involved for there must be adequate food for
feasting on the festival day itself.
On the day of the festival itself, series of events are put up. It is not unusual for the priest or the Chief to
make the required offerings to ancestors or spirits and to, thereafter, proceed with the celebrations. Some
of the more religious aspects of the festival may be carried out in secret although there are usually many
public elements that will involve almost everyone.
After the festival ceremonies proper, which may last from one day to ten days, important post festival
activities are carried out. It is not unusual for a special thanksgiving to be made to the ancestors and gods
for a successful festival, as well as the removal of whatever sanctions that was in place before and during
the festival. Indeed, it is at this time that those who were busy entertaining the public can have their own
turn at feasting privately. Also, the paramount Chief will summon his assistants for a meeting to review
what had happened. Any donations that had been made to the participants can now be shared out among
members.

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF FESTIVALS
1. Fertility or Birth Festivals
2. Farming Cycle Festivals
3. Title taking or Initiation Festivals
4. Religious Worship Festivals
5. Funeral and Mortuary Festivals
6. Occasional and Children’s Festivals

FERTILITY OR BIRTH FESTIVALS: The festival is the occasion for prayer for the fertility of women.
Women are normally expected to bear children. The children are expected to remain alive and to grow up
into healthy members of the community. It is not unusual that during this festival request is also made to
the gods and ancestors for plentiful food, which they would cat and remain alive.
Even with food there is the fear of evil spirits who may snatch their children from them. If there is so
much religious activity seen among our people it is for the fact that they realise how helpless they are in
confronting all sorts of evil or negative forces that can ruin man’s hope. Only God, the gods, or our
ancestors can spiritually help us overcome problems of lack of food, infertility in our women and sickness
among our children.

FARMING CYCLE FESTIVALS: These can be likened to fertility festivals but they are different. They
are concerned with ensuring that there is adequate food for the sustenance of the entire family or
community. At the time of planting his crops it is the prayer of the farmer that his efforts should not be in
vain. Lack of rain, or of oil fertility too much rain, pests and crop failure due to inexplicable evil causes,
are challenges he can only face with the assistances of supernatural forces. Hence the invitation of the
ancestors to intercede on the behalf of their living descendants. At the time of harvest there comes the “
thanksgiving” festival when the living express their happiness to the gods and ancestors for having got
them this far. It is the norm to offer the first portions of the first harvest to the gods before members of that
community begin to fresh foodstuff. The New Yam festival among the Igbo and the Igede is a good
example of this sort of festival.

TITLE TAKING AND INITIATION FESTIVALS are staged to Celebrate individual achievements
such as the purchase or award of a chieftaincy, the promotion of an age group. The entire community may
be involved rite of passage festivals whether it is an individual title taking. In Tivland, enlistments into the
lbiamegh cult or the purchase of a horse were occasions for such festivals.
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP FESTIVALS have definite have religious attributes. Communities worship
deities during such festivals which are led by their priests. The Igbo priests of Ala, or Ani, the goddess of
the earth and the Idoma have Ej’Alekwu festival when dead ancestors come to visit. The living
descendants and worshippers of these gods celebrate. There are special festivals when the spirits of our
dead parents are worshipped. There are also festivals during which gods or goddesses are worshipped.
Ani, Ala, (Igbo goddess of the earth) is very popular among them. The Idoma have Ej’ Aje. The Yoruba
have Ogun, god of Iron which is worshipped by drivers, blacksmiths etc.
Note: Osun is founder goddess of Osogbo town. Osun Festival is the occasion during which she is
worshipped.
FUNERARY AND MORTUARY FESTIVALS: These festivals are held to celebrate the passing away
of elders of good repute. This is deemed necessary if their souls are to be converted from wandering spirits
of the dead into the benevolent ancestral spirits. It is believed that failure to carry out this festiv
al may lead to the return of the dead man’s spirit to harm the living for having failed to give it a befitting
send off. This is often called the Second Burial Ceremony and is practised in some parts of Nigeria.
OCCASIONAL OR CHILDREN’S FESTIVALS: This is often an occasion to celebrate an event which
members of the community feel good about. The arrival of an important visitor to the village, the winning
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of an inter village war or even a land case etc can throw the whole community into a festive mood. That is
why it is an occasional festival.
Children’s festivals are their own plays which often continue well beyond the village’s major festival. The
community permits children to frolic about without the usual parental restraint.

OTHER FESTIVALS: Nigeria has had several centuries of contact with the Islamic Arab world and the
Christian European world. Therefore, there are celebrated in Nigeria such non-traditional festivals like
Easter and Christmas among the Christians and the Id el Fitri, Id el Kabirand Id el Mauludfestivals of the
Muslims. In addition to these, the Nigerian Government has approved public holidays for New Year’s
Day, Good Friday, May Day and Independence Day.

SELECTED NIGERIAN TRADITIONAL FESTIVALS

The UholaFestival is featured among the Zuru (or Dakarkari) people of Kebbi State. The Zuru people use
this occasion to pray to their gods, ancestors and spirits. The rain god is requested to cease rains to enable
crops ripen better thereby producing higher yields in preparation for the Uhola. Young Zuru men and
women do their last dance before marriage while the much younger boys begin a seven year bridal service
with their prospective parents-in-law by working on their farms – Galmo- for the hand of their daughter in
marriage. The Festival is also a time for feasting, dancing, singing, wrestling and fashion display.

The Festival provides the avenue to praise the valiant, and castigate the profligate children thereby
ensuring the social adherence to group norms and unity. It is expected to come up annually subject to the
approval of the gods who must be consulted before it is put up. Secondly, there should be not mass deaths
or similar calamity within the community Uhola will be banned for that year. All families must slaughter
an animal on
the eve of the festival and donate food to all who call on them on the festival day. Boys between 5 and 15
years old are placed on aspecial diet of porridge and meat during the festival period. It isafter each annual
U hola that fresh batches of young men jointhe Galmobridal service.

The Fulani Sharo

The Fulani (Fulo, Fula) are found throughout the West Africa sub region. They are understood to have
migrated into N igeria from the Futa Jallon districts of the Guinea Bissau area. We have the town Fulani
as well as the “cattle Fulani”. These latter are
nomadic pastoralists who graze their cattle throughout the West Africa region. They live a very hardy
nomadic life. The Sharo Festival is found among the nomadic Fulani. It essentially consists of a session of
public floggings to test the endurance of young men. They are expected to bear the pain without as much
as flinching when whipped. If they cry or show any signs of pain they remain disqualified to be considered
as men who can get married.
It comes up twice a year during the major Sallah Festival and at the period of the guinea corn harvest in
December January. Any open shade preferably at the corner of a market is suitable. Girls dress in their
best. Fulani musicians play their music accompanied by hand clapping dancers who stamp their feet. The
girls do most of the singing and clapping, however. From time to time a Fulani boy embraces a girl of his
choice and they do a short dance. The Sharo is actually an initiation ceremony into adulthood. Those who
cannot stand the pain remain children.

Igue Festival of Benin is the most popular and colourful festival of the Edo people of Edo state. It
consists of up to nine smaller events or mini festivals. It is celebrated by the Oba of Benin and all Edo
people to mark the end of the year and for the ushering
in of a new year. The Oba dresses in his full regalia and dances with the scimitar; the king’s sword.
It is an occasion for the Oba and Edo people to thank the gods for their protection during the year. The
Oba sacrificed animals to propitiate the spirits, the gods and souls of dead Obas. Evil spirits are exorcised

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from the land. Finally, it is on this occasion that the Oba re-enacts important events in the history of the
kingdom.

The festival used to take place in September every year but it was in the 1980s that the late Oba Akenzua
changed the Benin “end of the year” to December. The Igue Festival is now celebrated every December of
the year. We shall only list some of these events without detailed descriptions because to do so will cover
too much time and space.

(i) OtueUgierhoba: When chiefs and their special dancing groups visit the palace wearing their full
ceremonial dresses to pay homage, and pledge their continued loyalty
to the Oba.
(ii) Ugierhoba: On this occasion the Oba confers traditional chieftaincy titles to his loyal deserving
citizens.
(iii) Iron: This event recalls the battles fought between the indigenous and pro royalist elements. The Ife
dynasty of the Benin ruling family won the battle against Chief
Ogiamien.
(iv) OtueIguoba: Chiefs of various grades dance to the Obas palace to wish him a successful celebration of
the Igue Festival.
(v) Iguoba: The Oba sacrifices to the guardian spirit of the Oba himself.
(vi) UgieEwere: Ewere leaves are presented to the Oba to wish him good luck and the people purify their
city by carrying lighted firebrands to drop into the river. The Oba appears in the public with all his wives;
the only time he does this throughout the year. The Igue festival is important event in Benin history.

Osun Festival is held every year at Osogbo which is in Osun State. Osun is a Yoruba goddess who
changed into a River. A hunter called Timehin once discovered the Osun River during a drought. He
informed his village chief, the Owa of Ipole town, who later moved to the banks of this river for the water.
Thus, Chief Laroaye became the first Ataoja of Osogbo after entering into an agreement with the goddess
Osun that in return for her protection and blessings, he would annually offer sacrifices to her and feed the
sacred fishes in her river. The fishes are Osun’s messengers. As for the promised protection and blessings,
Osogbo had been saved from wars. Women who pray to Osun for children and drink or bathe in her
waters are blessed with children. Hence, the popularity of the festival. It is also an occasion during which
the sons and daughters of the land flock back to their city to renew their solidarity as well as to feast. The
Ataoja of Osogbo participates fully in the festival visiting shrines and eventually to the bank of River
Osun for the offerings to the goddess. The Osun festival attracts worshippers of Osun from South America
and Osun peoples at home and abroad every August. It should be noted that a German lady, Susanne
Wenger, was converted as a worshipper of Osun and has contributed her artistic talents in building an
enclave for her goddess.

The Great Ofala Festival of the Onitsha Igbo are unique because they operate a monarchical rather than
a republican system. They have historical relations with Igala to the north and Edo to the west. They are
generally a proud people. The Obi is considered divine although the office is not hereditary. He is rarely
seen in the public by his subjects. In the past, the Obi was the Commander in Chief of tile Onitsha army.
He is therefore subjected to several taboos.
Four days to the Ofala festival in September, the Obi goes into a period of mourning for the souls of all
the departed. The Oracle had been consulted on the future of the town, the health of the Obi and whether
there shall be famine or prosperity in the land. After this confinement the Obi returns to his palace and his
people flock to the palace to welcome him... and watch him begin the Ofala festival. The Festival, which
looks like a New Yam festival is largely on the importance the Obi as a monarch. Royal music is played
and only the Obi and his closest Chiefs in the hierarchy dance to it.

Kwagh-hirPuppet

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Kwagh-hir, can be directly translated as “thing magic” but is better understood as tales of the supernatural.
In the past this was merely the verbal art of storytelling which the Tiv speak of as “utankwaghhir”. Since
about 1960 kwagh-hir art has become transformed into dramatised folk tales that makes use of puppets
and masquerades
for performances. It is this theatrical form of puppet theatre that we are concerned with here.
The performance of the modern kwaghhir involves the use of puppets, drumming. dance, masquerades,
mime, singing, narrations and acrobatics. Because it is a composite art the kwagh-hir is able to attract and
hold the attention of audiences
throughout the night. Its popularity has raised eyebrows from Churches and educational organizations as it
keeps their members away from going to churches on Sundays or schools on Monday. Government
support has helped it to survive and. become the most popular Tiv art form to date.

A kwagh-hir group can have up to a hundred members. There are over ten drummers. over ten singers,
over ten miscellaneous musicians/instrumentalists over ten puppeteers, over five acrobats, over five floor
managers, over five backstage assistants
who arrange the props and, help puppeteers change between performances. There are usually up to three
or four security persons. There is usually the play director and one or two announcers; someone has to
keep in close touch with the backstage and the musicians so that they play the right sort of music that
herald in the performers.

FUNCTIONS OF FESTIVAL

1. Festivals entertain, persuade and educate people about their culture.

2. They serve as a means of renewing allegiance to the traditional gods of a people.
3. They serve as a means through which the people can ask for protection or blessing before a
planting season or over other traditional activities.

EVOLUTION OF THE NIGERIAN STATE

The territories that later became Nigeria comprised different states with sovereign status. Relations that
existed between these states were international relations before the colonial onslaught. Considering the
collection of state systems within the area — the Sokoto Caliphate to the north and the northwest, Borno
to the northeast, the Oyo and Benin empires to the southwest, and the numerous non-centralized
communities of the forest belt to the southeast, the possibility of the emergence of a state system similar to
the present Nigeria without an external intervention is indeed very remote.

However some scholars such as Billy Dudley have argued that the inter-group relationships such as those
of trade, conquests, political association, myths of common origin, etc could still have provided the basis
for a state like Nigeria, however, the credit for the amalgamation and emergence of Nigeria in its present
form goes to the British.

AMALGAMATION
An amalgamation is the bringing together of two or more separate things or units like a merger. In a
political or administrative sense, it is the combination of two or more political or administrative entities
such as municipalities (in other words cities, towns), districts or counties etc., into a single entity.

What became Nigeria was an amalgam of various colonial possessions which were acquired over different
times and later amalgamated gradually even though the general reference to amalgamation is the one of 1 st
January 1914, which brought the two giant territories of the Northern and Southern protectorates together.

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The name “Nigeria” was first used by Flora Shaw who later became the wife of
Frederick Lugard. It was used in reference to the territories around the River Niger in an article to the
London Times of 1899. The name was originally applied to the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria before it
later came to be applied to the whole country.

It is pertinent to note, that British interest in Northern Nigeria predated the nineteenth century. However,
by the beginning of the nineteenth century as early as 1879, the British government allowed British
trading companies access to these territories for commercial activities.

By 1826 British merchant ships had traded on the Bonny River, and by 1886 up to 1900 the British
allowed the United Africa Company (UAC), which later became the chartered Royal Niger Company
power to administer the Northern Nigeria territories on its behalf. This meant that the company was the
government of Northern Nigeria at this period.

By 1900 the British government took over administration of the territory from the Royal Niger Company
and appointed Frederick (later Lord Lugard) as High Commissioner. It was Lugard who proclaimed the
Protectorate of Northern Nigeria.

In 1861 the British annexed the Territory of Lagos as a colony but administered it by the governor for the
West African settlements resident in Sierra Leone between 1866 and 1874 and the governor for Gold
Coast Colony between 1874 and 1886.

How did the British Royal Niger Company participate in the amalgamation process?
i. The British Royal Niger Company first came in for commercial purposes.
ii. Later the Company was given a charter to administer some part of the territory.
iii. Later the Company transformed to be called Royal Niger Company.
iv. The Royal Niger charter was revoked in 1900 and Lord Lugard became the High Commissioner
v. Lord Lugard then unified all the territories under his administration and called them the Protectorate of
Northern Nigeria.

REASONS FOR THE AMALGAMATION

The British amalgamated Nigeria for the same reasons that made them to colonize it in the first place. That
is, to serve their imperial interests. The main reasons for the amalgamation are:

First, they wanted a cheap and secure source of raw materials for their industries.

Second, they wanted a market for their manufactured goods.

Third, they needed a source for generating capital resources for investment in Britain thereby
strengthening the British pound sterling against other currencies.

Fourth, they needed a manpower reserve for military and other purposes.

Fifth, they wanted the ports, water ways, roads, railways, and air spaces for transportation and imperial
communication systems. All these would be easier and more efficient only if Nigeria was amalgamated.

COLONIAL RULE

Colonial rule can be described as the policy of a wealthy or powerful nation maintaining or extending its
control over other countries, especially in establishing settlements or exploiting resources.

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In colonising Nigeria, the major task before the British was to find the most cost effective way to rule their
newly acquired territory which was composed of different cultural and religious groups with different
systems of governance and administration. Based on Lord Lugard’s recommendations, the British decided
to interfere as little as possible in the day to day administration of the peoples they ruled. It was decided
that interference should be limited to what was necessary to the basic needs of colonial administration and
economic exploitation of the country or to eliminate what they perceived as repugnant to British
conception of justice and morality. Accordingly, a system of British rule through local traditional rulers
known as Indirect Rule was instituted.

These rulers were responsible for carrying out colonial policies and tax collection under the supervision of
British colonial officers. This system created the illusion of Africans ruling themselves and significantly
reduced the cost of administration. However, it created a strain between the traditional rulers who became
beneficiaries of the colonial system and patriots resisting colonial domination.

. The system was a success in the northern region.

The northern part of Nigeria, with its large states and developed emirates system was the most fertile
ground for the indirect rule system of administration. However, in the western and eastern regions it was
not so successful.

In Benin and Yorubaland the British reenacted the former empires in 1916 and an unpopular attempt to
bring back the Oyo Empire was also attempted. The Oba now appointed and backed by the British were
expected to serve them. Many of them became autocratic because the mechanism for removing despotic
ones was no longer effective. This did not eliminate resistance as four officials of the Oyo Native
Authority were killed at Iseyin in 1916. Similarly, in 1918 a rebellion broke out after the Abeokuta Native
Authority introduced direct taxation.

In lgboland, for example, there were no chiefs, therefore, the British had to create a class of chiefs referred
to as warrant chiefs, to collect taxes and enforce colonial policies. The policy of indirect rule was
premised on local peoples being ruled by their local traditional rulers without disruption to their lives.
However the warrant chiefs had no prior legitimacy in the places they ruled and were invariably corrupt
and unscrupulous; therefore they were deeply resented. In most of the southern provinces indirect rule was
a problem because of the absence of traditional rulers and centralized governments. This did not stop the
British from introducing them anyway.

Throughout Nigeria when traditional rulers or British appointed rulers served as intermediaries between
the government and the people, the result was always misrule and corruption by local officials and
eventually led to anti-colonial resistance. Native courts set up by the colonial administration to try cases
based on local traditions and customs failed to appease the people. The 1929 Aba Riots arose because of
tax abuse and other forms of bad governance. The most vocal opposition to the native authorities came
from the class of western educated Nigerians for example nationalists like Dr. NnamdiAzikiwe, Herbert
Macauley, ObafemiAwolowo and Aminu Kano.

THE ECONOMY AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

i. Pre- and post-IndependenceEconomic System in Nigeria
ii. The Structure of Economic Activities in Nigeria
iii. Problems of the Nigerian Economy
iv. Some Solutions to the Problems

Introduction

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Nigeria is a country made up of land covering 98.321 million hectares of which about 74.036 million
hectares are arable. Nigeria was also one of the leading countries in agriculture, tha nks to the good quality
of its soil, good heat and adequate moisture.

Of immense importance to the Nigerian economy is the large size of her population.The Nigerian
population is noted to have been increasing astronomically. Between 1952 and 1991, the Nigerian
population increased from 31.1 million to 88.5 million. Currently, population estimates put Nigeria’s
figure at 167 million (2012).

In 1990 the World Bank ranked Nigeria the seventh most populous country in the world, after China,
India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil and Japan.

NIGERIAN ECONOMIC SYSTEM PRE- AND POST-INDEPENDENCE

Before independence in Nigeria, agriculture accounted for over fifty percent of the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP).

About three quarters of the Nigerian population were engaged fully either in agriculture or agriculture-
related activities.

In the mangrove and rain forest areas, Cedar, iroko and walnut were abundant while cocoa, rubber, palm
produce, kola nut and gum-Arabic flourish within the Savannah region. Crops such as yam, cassava,
maize and citrus were also generated.

It is easy to raise cattle and obtain other dairy products Nigeria’s grassland. This is also true with the
cultivation of grains such as guinea corn, millet, rice, cotton, groundnuts, beans and other leguminous
crops.

THE STRUCTURE OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN NIGERIA

Economists say there are at least eighteen activity sectors of the Nigerian economy.
These include agriculture, livestock, forestry, fishing, crude petroleum, mining and quarrying,
manufacturing, utilities, building and construction, transport, communication, wholesale and retail trade,
hotels and restaurants, finance and insurance, real estate and business service, housing, producers of
government services, and community, social and personal services. The activities are spread all over the
federation.

As at 1960 agriculture absorbed over 75 percent of the work force while industry and other sectors
together employed the rest. This made agriculture the leading sector in contributing to the Nigerian GDP.
At this time, Nigeria enjoyed the modest tag of a middle-income country. However, from 1980 to the
present, the GNP per capita dropped.

This situation, coupled with the deteriorating social services, continuous high rates of inflation, declining
productivity and high rates of unemployment has made the average Nigerian poor by all standards.

Besides agriculture, there are some very important mineral deposits as well. These deposits are scattered
in almost all parts the country.

In the West we have the alluvial gold deposits, while there is tin in the North. The East is the centre of
coal. Edo/Delta, Rivers, Imo/Abia and Cross River/Akwa-Ibom States share the lion’s part of petroleum
products. Iron, brass and bronze are found in Lokoja.

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Although scattered, limestone, kaolin, diatomite and clay are found in abundance in Nigeria.

Nigeria’s inability to utilise all these resources towards developing the nation has made it impossible for it
to be self-reliant. A nation is said to be self-reliant when her citizens depend largely on her human and
material resources for most of their basic needs. In other words, self-reliance as a national development
strategy usually refers to a nation’s determination to rely on the utilization of domestic resources to
produce most of her required goods and services.

As far as Nigeria is concerned, we can say she is not economically self-reliant. This is because the
economic underdevelopment is so obvious judging from all the economic indicators which are on the
negative side. These economic indicators are;
1. low capacity utilization in industries
2. primitive and abandoned agriculture
3. debt problems,
4. inflation
5. balance of payments crisis
6. unemployment and underemployment
7. malnutrition and misdirection of resources
8. over-dependence on oil and other imported inputs

These are serious problems in the Nigerian economy that indicates that Nigeria for now is not
economically self-reliant.

A nation can only be said to be economically self-reliant when there is;

1. heavy reliance on domestic resources for the production of required goods and services;
2. reduced dependence on outsiders for the supply of required goods and services;
3. active use of international trade policy instrument for controlling imports and domestic prices that
are relatively higher than they would otherwise have been in the absence of development strategies
of self-reliance.

Self-reliance is a process that needs to be sustained. It is a perpetual task. That is why even when a
country is called self-reliant it is always very necessary to identify and examine likely factors which
enhance a country’s economic self-reliance capabilities on a consistent basis. For instance, in Nigeria’s
case, the likely factors are agriculture, capital, technology, energy and industrialization are the key aspects
of the economy.

MAJOR PROBLEMS OF THE NIGERIAN ECONOMY

Nigeria is regarded as a poor country despite the abundance of human and natural resources. This is
noticeable when we look at the standard of living index as mentioned earlier. It is a fact that the economic
situation of Nigeria today is negatively different from that of the past.

In the year 1970, for instance, Nigeria was self-sufficient in food production and the economy was
somehow balanced. But the relegation of agriculture to the background to the benefit of the so-called oil
boom has put Nigerian economy in a very precarious situation. The consequence is that almost all the non-
oil sectors of the economy have become stagnant. Worst still, revenues accruing from crude oil sales are
mismanaged.

This situation has led to some serious problems facing the Nigerian economy today. These problems are:

- Slow growth of the industrial sector with capacity utilization averaging about 3%
- High and growing rate of unemployment
- Slow growth of the agricultural sector
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- High internal and external debt burden

SOME SOLUTIONS TO THE NIGERIAN ECONOMY

Attempts have been made over the years to address the problems of the Nigerian economy through policy
regulation. One of such policies has been the attempt to revive agriculture. Two of such policies were the
Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) under the military regime of General OlusegunObasanjo (rtd) and the
Green Revolution programme under the civilian administration of AlhajiShehuShagari. Both policies
however failed to revitalise the agricultural sector.

Also, many successive administrations have put in place fiscal and regulatory policies to address Nigeria’s
economic problems. In respect of fiscal policy, various administrations have set the following objectives:
1. Reduction of the level of price inflation;
2. Provision of the necessary protection for local industries;
3. Provision of a suitable price incentive framework in favour of increased agricultural and industrial
production;
4. Expansion of agriculture and industry;
5. Encouragement of local production of import- substituting goods by encouraging local industries with
heavy local content;
6. Encouragement of dispersal of industrial location;
7. Discouragement of importation of consumer goods which are available locally in order to curtail the out
flow of foreign exchange;
8. Enhancement of government revenue
9. Moderation of the rate of price inflation,
10. Stimulation of industrial and agricultural production
11. High level of employment
12. Improvement of balance of payment positions,
13. Reduction of foreign indebtedness, and
14. Generation of more revenue, especially from the non-oil sector of the economy.

To achieve fiscal and monetary objectives mentioned above, the various governments also put some
measures in place such as:
1. Continuous reorganization and reformation of customs and excise tariff;
3. Encouragement of investment in agriculture through the abolition of duties on
machinery for exclusive use in agriculture and subsidizing inputs employed in the
sector;
4. Setting credit ceiling for banks and encouraging sectoral distribution of credit;
5. Regulation of the liquidity ratio and cash ratio of commercial banks;
6. Introduction of compulsory advance deposits scheme to restrict imports.

In 1986, the Babangida administration decided to modify and extend the previous fiscal and monetary
objectives and measures. Consequently, the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) was introduced. It
was mainly aimed at:
1. Restructuring and diversifying the productive base of the economy with a view to reducing dependence
on the oil sector and imports;
2. Achieving fiscal balance and ensuring balance of payments viability;
3. Laying the basis for sustainable and non-inflationary growth;
4. Intensifying private sector growth potential.

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