MTH 202: Complex Numbers

April 28, 2025

ii

0.1 Complex Numbers

Consider the set

R2 = R × R = {(x, y)| x , y ∈ R}.

Two elements (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) of R2 are equal if and only if x1 = x2 and
y1 = y2 . The operations of addition and multiplication are defined on the set R2
as follows:
z1 + z2 = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) ∈ R2

and
z1 · z2 = (x1 , y1 ) · (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) ∈ R2 ,

for all z1 = (x1 , y1 ) ∈ R2 and z2 = (x2 , y2 ) ∈ R2 . The element z1 + z2 ∈ R2 is called

the sum of z1 and z2 and the element z1 · z2 ∈ R2 is called the product of z1 and z2
and will often be written simply z1 z2 .
Remarks
(i.) If z1 = (x1 , 0) ∈ R2 and z2 = (x2 , 0) ∈ R2 , then z1 z2 = (x1 x2 , 0).
(ii.) If z1 = (0, y1 ) ∈ R2 and z2 = (0, y2 ) ∈ R2 , then z1 z2 = (−y1 y2 , 0).

Example 1. Let z1 = (−5, 6) and z2 = (1, −2). Then

z1 + z2 = (−5, 6) + (1, −2) = (−4, 4)

and
z1 z2 = (−5, 6) · (1, −2) = (−5 + 12, 10 + 6) = (7, 16).

Example 2. Let z1 = (−1/2, 1) and z2 = (−1/3, 1/2). Then

z1 + z2 = (−1/2 − 1/3, 1 + 1/2) = (−5/6, 3/2)

and
z1 z2 = (1/6 − 1/2, −1/4 − 1/3) = (−1/3, −7/12).

Definition 1. The set R2 together with the operations of addition and multiplication
is called the set of complex numbers, denoted by C. Every element z = (x, y) ∈ C is
called a complex number.
0.1. COMPLEX NUMBERS iii

0.1.1 Properties Concerning Addition

The addition of complex numbers satisfies the following properties:

(i.) Commutative law:

z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 f or all z1 , z2 ∈ C.

(ii.) Associative law:

(z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3 ) f or all z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C.

(iii.) Additive Identity: There is a unique complex number 0 = (0, 0) such that

z + 0 = 0 + z = z f or all z = (x, y) ∈ C.

(iv.) Additive Inverse: For every complex number z = (x, y), there is a unique
−z = (−x, −y) ∈ C such that

z + (−z) = (−z) + z = 0.

0.1.2 Properties Concerning Multiplication

The multiplication of complex numbers satisfies the following properties:

(i.) Commutative law:

z1 · z2 = z2 · z1 f or all z1 , z2 ∈ C.

(ii.) Associative law:

(z1 · z2 ) · z3 = z1 · (z2 · z3 ) f or all z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C.

(iii.) Multiplicative Identity: There is a unique complex number 1 = (1, 0) such

that
z · 1 = 1 · z = z f or all z = (x, y) ∈ C.
iv

(iv.) Multiplicative Inverse: For every complex number z = (x, y) ∈ C∗ , there is

a unique number z −1 = (x0 , y 0 ) ∈ C such that
z · z −1 = z −1 · z = 1,
where the notation C∗ indicates the set C\{(0, 0)}.

To find z −1 = (x0 , y 0 ), observe that (x, y) 6= (0, 0) implies x 6= 0 or y 6= 0, and

consequently, x2 + y 2 6= 0.
The relation z · z −1 gives (x, y) · (x0 , y 0 ) = (1, 0), or equivalently,
xx0 − yy 0 = 1, yx0 + xy 0 = 0.
Solving this system with respect to x0 and y 0 , one obtains
x y
x0 = 2 2
and y 0 = − 2 ;
x +y x + y2
hence the multiplicative inverse of the complex number z = (x, y) ∈ C∗ is
!
1 x y
z −1 = = ,− 2 ∈ C∗ .
z x2 + y 2 x + y2

By the commutative law, we also have z −1 · z = 1.

Two complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ) ∈ C and z = (x, y) ∈ C∗ uniquely deter-
mine a third number, called their quotient, denoted by zz1 and defined by
!
z1 x y
= z1 · z −1 = (x1 , y1 ) · 2 2
,− 2
z x +y x + y2
!
x1 x + y1 y −x1 y + y1 x
= , ∈ C.
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
Example 3. If z = (1, 2), then
! !
1 −2 1 −2
z −1 = , 2 = , .
12 + 2 1 + 22
2 5 5

Example 4. If z1 = (1, 2) and z2 = (3, 4) then

! !
z1 3 + 8 −4 + 6 11 2
= , = , .
z2 9 + 16 9 + 16 25 25
0.1. COMPLEX NUMBERS v

The following properties hold for all complex numbers z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C∗ and for
all integers m, n :
(i) z m · z n = z m+n ;
m
(ii) zzn = z m−n ;
(iii) (z m )n = z mn ;
(iv) (z1· z2 )n = z1n · z2n ;
n
z1 z1n
(v) z2
= z2n
.

(v.) Distributive law:

z1 · (z2 + z3 ) = z1 · z2 + z1 · z3 , f or all z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C.

0.1.3 Complex Numbers in Algebraic Form

The expression x + yi is called the algebraic representation (form) of the complex

number z = (x, y), so we can write

C = {x + yi| x ∈ R, y ∈ R, i2 = −1}.

The real number x = Re(z) is called the real part of complex number z and similarly,
y = Im(z) is called the imaginary part of z. The following relations hold:
(i.) z1 = z2 if and only if Re(z1 ) = Re(z2 ) and Im(z1 ) = Im(z2 ).
(ii.) z ∈ R if and only if Im(z) = 0.
(iii.) z ∈ C \ R if and only if Im(z) 6= 0.
Using the algebraic representation, the usual operations with complex numbers can
be performed as follows:
(1.) Addition:

z1 + z2 = (x1 + y1 i) + (x2 + y2 i) = (x1 + y1 ) + (y1 + y2 )i ∈ C.

Thus
Re(z1 + z2 ) = Re(z1 ) + Re(z2 ); Im(z1 + z2 ) = Im(z1 ) + Im(z2 ).
(2.) Multiplication:

z1 · z2 = (x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )i ∈ C.

vi

In other words,
Re(z1 z2 ) = Re(z1 ) · Re(z2 ) - Im(z1 ) · Im(z2 );
Im(z1 z2 ) = Im(z1 ) · Re(z2 ) + Im(z2 ) · Re(z1 ).

For a real number λ and a complex number z = x + yi,

λ · z = λ(x + yi) = λx + λyi ∈ C.
(3.) Subtraction:

z1 − z2 = (x1 + y1 i) − (x2 + y2 i) = (x1 − x2 ) + (y1 − y2 )i ∈ C.

That is,
Re(z1 − z2 ) = Re(z1 ) - Re(z2 ); Im(z1 − z2 ) = Im(z1 ) - Im(z2 ).

0.1.4 Powers of the Number i

The formulas for the powers of a complex number with integer exponents are pre-
served for the algebraic form z = x + iy. Setting z = i, we obtain

i0 = 1; i1 = i; i2 = −1; i3 = i2 · i = −i;

i4 = i3 · i = 1; i5 = i4 · i = i; i6 = i5 · i = −1; i7 = i6 · i = −i.
It can be proved by induction that for every positive integer n,

i4n = 1; i4n+1 = i; i4n+2 = −1; i4n+3 = −i.

Hence, in ∈ {−1, 1, −i, i} for all integers n ≥ 0. If n is a negative integer, we

have  −n
−1 −n 1
n
i = (i ) = = (−i)−n .
i
Example 5. We have

i105 + i23 + i20 − i34 = i4·26+1 + i4·5+3 + i4·5 − i4·8+2 = i − i + 1 + 1 = 2.

Example 6. Solve the equation

z 3 = 18 + 26i, where z = x + iy and x, y are integers.

0.1. COMPLEX NUMBERS vii

Solution:
(x + yi)3 = (x + iy)2 (x + iy) = (x2 − y 2 + 2xiy)(x + iy)
= (x3 − 3xy 2 ) + (3x2 y − y 3 )i = 18 + 26i.
Using the definition of equality of complex numbers, we obtain
x3 − 3xy 2 = 18,
3x2 y − y 3 = 26.
Setting y = tx in the equality 18(3x2 y − y 3 ) = 26(x3 − 3xy 2 ), let us observe that
x 6= 0 and y 6= 0 implies 18(3t−t3 ) = 26(1−3t2 ), which is equivalent to (3t−1)(3t2 −
12t − 13) = 0.
The only rational solution of this equation is t = 31 ; hence,
x = 3, y = 1, and z = 3 + i.

0.1.5 Conjugate of a Complex Number

For a complex number z = x + yi the number z̄ = x − yi s called the complex

conjugate of z or occasionally the conjugate complex number of z.
Proposition:
(1.) The relation z = z̄ holds if and only if z ∈ R.
(ii.) For every complex number z, the relation z = z̄¯ holds.
(iii.) For every complex number z, the number z· z̄ ∈ R is a nonnegative real number.
(iv.) (z1 +¯ z2 ) = z̄1 + z̄2 (the conjugate of a sum is the sum of the conjugates).

(v.) (z1 ¯· z2 ) = z̄1 · z̄2 (the conjugate of a product is the product of the conjugates).
(vi.) For every nonzero complex number z, the relation z̄ −1 = (z̄)−1 holds.
¯
(vii.) zz12 = zz¯¯12 , z2 6= 0. (the conjugate of a quotient is the quotient of the conju-
gates).
(viii.) The formulae
z + z̄ z − z̄
Re(z) = and Im(z) =
2 2i
are valid for all z ∈ C.
 viii

Example 7. Compute
5 + 5i 20
z= +
3 − 4i 4 + 3i
Solution:
(5 + 5i)(3 + 4i) 20(4 − 3i) −5 + 35i 80 − 60i
z= 2
+ 2
= +
9 − 16i 16 − 9i 25 25

75 − 25i
= = 3 − i.
25

0.1.6 The Modulus of a Complex Number

p
The number |z| = x2 + y 2 is called the modulus or the absolute value of the complex
number z = x + yi. For example, the complex numbers

z1 = 4 + 3i, z2 = −3i, z3 = 2

have moduli
√ p √
|z1 | = 42 + 32 = 5, |z2 | = 02 + (−3)2 = 3, |z3 | = 22 = 2.

Proposition: The following properties are satisfied:

(i.) −|z| ≤ Re(z) ≤ |z| and −|z| ≤ Im(z) ≤ |z|.
(ii.) |z| ≥ 0 for all z ∈ C. Moreover, we have |z| = 0 if and only if z = 0.
(iii.) |z| = | − z| = |z̄|
(iv.) z · z̄ = |z|2 .
(v.) |z1 · z2 | = |z1 | · |z2 | (the modulus of a product is the product of the moduli).
(vi.) |z1 | − |z2 | ≤ |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
(vii.) |z −1 | = |z|−1 , z 6= 0.
z1 |z1 |
(viii.) z2
= |z2 |
, z2 6= 0 (the modulus of a quotient is the quotient of the moduli).

(ix.) |z1 | − |z2 | ≤ |z1 − z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

0.1. COMPLEX NUMBERS ix

0.1.7 Solving Quadratic Equations

To solve the quadratic equation with real coefficients

ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0,
in the case that its discriminant ∆ = b2 − 4ac is negative.
By completing the square, we easily get the equivalent form
" 2 #
b −∆
a x+ + 2 = 0.
2a 4a

Therefore,  2 √ 2
b 2 −∆
x+ −i = 0,
2a 2a
and so √ √
−b + i −∆ −b − i −∆
x1 = , x2 = .
2a 2a
Note that the roots are conjugate complex numbers, and the factorization for-
mula
ax2 + bx + c = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 )
holds even in the case ∆ < 0.
Now, consider the general quadratic equation with complex coefficients
az 2 + bz + c = 0, a 6= 0.
Using the same algebraic manipulation as in the case of real coefficients, we get
" 2 #
b −∆
a z+ + 2 = 0.
2a 4a

This is equivalent to  2
b ∆
z+ = 2
2a 4a
or
(2az + b)2 = ∆,
where ∆ = b2 − 4ac s also called the discriminant of the quadratic equation.
Setting y = 2az + b, the equation is reduced to
y 2 = ∆ = u + vi,
x

where u and v are real numbers.

This equation has the solutions
r r !
r+u r−u
y1,2 = ± + sgn(v) i ,
2 2
where r = |∆| and sgn(v) is the sign of the real number v. Indeed, we have
2 r+u 1√ 2
y1,2 = + 2i r − u2 sgn(v) = u + i|v|sgn(v) = u + iv.
2 2
The roots of the initial equation are
1
z1,2 = (−b + y1,2 ).
2a
Note that the relations
b c
z1 + z2 = − , z1 z2 = ,
a a
between roots and coefficients as well as the factorization formula
az 2 + bz + c = a(z − z1 )(z − z2 )
are also preserved when the coefficients of the equation are elements of the field of
complex numbers C.

Example 8. Solve, in complex numbers, the quadratic equation

z 2 − 8(1 − i)z + 63 − 16i = 0.
Solution: We have
∆0 = (4 − 4i)2 − (63 − 16i) = −63 − 16i
√  2
and r = |∆0 | = 632 + 162 = 65, where ∆0 = 2b − ac. The equation

y 2 = −63 − 16i
has the solution
!
65 − 63 65 + 63
y1,2 =± +i = ±(1 − 8i).
2 2
It follows that
z1,2 = 4 − 4i ± (1 − 8i).
Hence,
z1 = 5 − 12i, and z2 = 3 + 4i.
0.1. COMPLEX NUMBERS xi

EXERCISES
(a) Consider the complex numbers z1 = (1, 2), z2 = (−2, 3), and z3 = (1, −1).
Compute the following:
i. z1 + z2 + z3
z12 +z22
ii. z22 +z32
z1 z2 z3
iii. z2
+ z3
+ z1

(b) Solve the following quadratic equations:

i. z 2 − 6z + 10 + (z − 6)i = 0, z ∈ C
ii. iz 2 + (1 + 2i)z + 1 = 0
(c) Compute the following:
i. i2000 + i1999 + i201 + i82 + i47 ;
ii. i−5 + (−i)−7 + (−i)13 + i−100 + (−i)94
iii. i1 · i2 · i3 · · · i2000
P13  n n+1

iv. n=1 i + i

(d) Given that z and w are complex numbers, show that

|z + w|2 − |z + w̄|2 = 4Re(z)Re(w),

where w̄ denotes the conjugate of w.

(e) Find the value of k if the complex number z1 and z2 satisfy
2 2 2
2

1 − z¯1 z2 − z1 − z2 = k 1 − z1 1 − z2 .

(f) If z1 , z2 , and z3 , are complex numbers such that

1 1 1
|z1 | = |z2 | = |z3 | = + + = 1,
z1 z2 z3

then find |z1 + z2 + z3 |.

(h) Show that (i) Re(iz) = -Im(z); (ii) Im(iz) = Re(z);
xii

0.2 Complex Numbers in Trigonometric Form

0.2.1 Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem

To work effectively with powers and roots of complex numbers, it is helpful to use a
polar representation for complex numbers, as shown in Figure 6.

Specifically, if x + yi is a nonzero complex number, then let θ be the angle from

positive x-axis to the radial line passing through the point (x, y) and let r be the
modulus of x + yi. So,
p
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, and r = x2 + y 2

and we have
x + yi = (r cos θ) + (r sin θ)i,
from which the polar form of a complex number is obtained.

Definition 2. The polar form of the nonzero complex number z = x + yi is given

by
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ),
p
where x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, r = x2 + y 2 , and tan θ = y/x. The number r is the
modulus of z and θ is the argument of z.
Remark: The polar form of z = 0 is expressed as z = 0(cos θ + i sin θ), where θ is
any angle.    
Note: θ = tan−1 xy , f or x > 0 or θ = tan−1 xy + π, f or x < 0. If x =
π 3π
0 and y > 0, then θ = 2
and if x = 0 and y < 0, then θ = 2
.
0.2. COMPLEX NUMBERS IN TRIGONOMETRIC FORM xiii

Because there are infinitely many choices for the argument, the polar form of a
complex number is not unique. Normally, the values of θ that lie between −π and
π are used, although on occasion it is convenient to use other values. The value of θ
that satisfies the inequality
−π < θ < π
is called the principal argument and is denoted by Arg(z). Two nonzero complex
numbers in polar form are equal if and only if they have the same modulus and the
same principal argument.

Argument and quadrant adjustments: The argument arg(z) is the angle θ

between z and the real
 axis.
 We calculate this using the tangent function: tan(α) =
y y
x
, and so α = tan−1 x . We then adjust α based on the quadrant that z is in to
find the argument θ (see table 1).

Table 1: How to obtain θ from α

Quadrant x and y values θ from α
1st x > 0, y > 0 θ=α
2nd x < 0, y > 0 θ = π − α
3rd x < 0, y < 0 θ = α − π
4th x > 0, y < 0 θ = −α

Consider the following diagrams:

In the first quadrant, the angle between z and the real axis is equal to tan−1 ( xy ) = α,

so we do not adjust this angle.

For the second quadrant:

tan−1 ( xy ) = α, is not the angle between z and the real axis. The entire angle of the
xiv

first and second quadrants is π, so we simply take the angle α away from π.

For the third quadrant: The entire angle of the 3rd and 4th quadrants is π. Since we

are removing α from π, we must add the α to π (as opposed to minusing it, since we
are in the negative quadrants).

Finally, for the fourth quadrant: We find the negative of α since we are in the

negative quadrants.
Example 9. Find the polar form of each of the complex numbers. (Use the principal
argument.) (a) z = 1 − i (b) z = 2 + 3i (c) z = i.

Solution: √
(a) Because x = 1 and y = −1, then r2 = 12 + (−1)2 = 2 =⇒ r = 2.
From x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, we have
√ √
x 1 2 y 1 2
cos θ = = √ = and sin θ = = − √ = − .
r 2 2 r 2 2

So,
√
  π  π 
θ = −π/4 and z= 2 cos − + i sin − .
4 4
0.2. COMPLEX NUMBERS IN TRIGONOMETRIC FORM xv
√
(b) Because x = 2 and y = 3, then r2 = 22 + 32 = 2 =⇒ r = 13. So,

x 2 y 3
cos θ = =√ and sin θ = =√
r 13 r 13
and it follows that θ ≈ 0.98. So, the polar form is
√
 
z ≈ 13 cos(0.98) + i sin(0.98) .

(c) Because x = 0 and y = 1, it follows that r = 1 and θ = π/2, so

 
π π
z = 1 cos + i sin .
2 2

Example 10. Converting from Polar to Standard Form

Express the complex number in standard form.
  π  π 
z = 8 cos − + i sin − .
3 3

√
Solution: Because cos − π3 = 21 and sin − π3 = − 23 , we can obtain the standard

form √ 
√
  π  π  
1 3
z = 8 cos − + i sin − =8 −i = 4 − 4 3i.
3 3 2 2

Suppose we have two complex numbers in polar form

z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

Then the product of z1 and z2 is expressed as

z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )

   
= r1 r2 cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 + i cos θ1 sin θ2 + sin θ1 cos θ2 .

Using the trigonometric identities

cos(θ1 + θ2 ) = cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2

xvi

and
sin(θ1 + θ2 ) = sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 ,
we have
z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )].

Theorem 1. Product and Quotient of Two Complex Numbers:

Given two complex numbers in polar form

z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ),

the product and quotient of the numbers are as follows.

z1 z2 = r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )], Product

z1 r1
= [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )], z2 6= 0. Quotient
z2 r2

This theorem says that

(i) to multiply two complex numbers in polar form, multiply moduli and add argu-
ments;
(ii) to divide two complex numbers, divide moduli and subtract arguments.

z1
Example 11. Find z1 z2 and z2
for the complex numbers
 π   π    π 
1 π 
z1 = 5 cos + i sin and z2 = cos + i sin .
4 4 3 6 6

Solution: Because we have the polar forms of z1 and z2 , we can apply Theorem 1
as follows:
 1  π π   π π  5  5π 5π

z1 z2 = (5) cos + + i sin + = cos + i sin .
3 4 6 4 6 3 12 12
  π π   
z1  5  π π  π π
= cos − + i sin − = 15 cos + i sin .
z2 1/3 4 6 4 6 12 12
0.3. DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM xvii

0.3 DeMoivre’s Theorem

Repeated use of multiplication in the polar form yields

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

z 2 = r(cos θ + i sin θ)r(cos θ + i sin θ) = r2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ)

z 2 = r(cos θ + i sin θ)r2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ) = r3 (cos 3θ + i sin 3θ).
Similarly,
z 4 = r4 (cos 4θ + i sin 4θ)
z 5 = r5 (cos 5θ + i sin 5θ).
Theorem 2. If z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) and n is any positive integer, then

z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ).

0.3.1 De-Moivre’s Theorem for Trigonometric Identities

Using the binomial theorem and de Moivres theorem, we can express cos nθ and
sin nθ in terms of powers of cos θ and sin θ.
Recall that for any integer n, (r(cos nθ + i sin nθ))n . = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ).
We note that the left-hand side of the equation is a binomial expression, since it is
of the form (a + b)n .

Theorem 3. The Binomial Theorem: For any integer n,

       
n n n n−1 n n−2 2 n n−r r n
(a + b) = a + a b+ a b +· · ·+ a b +· · ·+ abn−1 + bn ,
1 2 r n−1

where nr = (n−r)!r!
n!


.

By using de Moivre’s theorem and the binomial theorem together, we can express
powers of sine and cosine in terms of lower powers.

Deriving Expressions for Powers of Trigonometric Functions

Suppose we want to find a relation between cosn (θ) and terms of lower powers of
xviii

cosine on one side, and cos nθ on the other side. Then, we can do the following.
(i.) Using de Moivre’s theorem, we have

cos nθ + i sin nθ = (cos θ + i sin θ)n .

(2.) We use the binomial theorem on the right-hand side to get

   
n n n−1 n
cos nθ + i sin nθ = cos θ + cos θ(i sin θ) + cosn−2 θ(i sin θ)2 +
1 2
 
n
··· + cos θ(i sin θ)n−1 + (i sin θ)n
n−1

(3.) Multiplying out the (i sin θ)k terms and moving the i-terms to the front, we
get
   
n n n−1 2 n
cos nθ + i sin nθ = cos θ + i · cos θ(sin θ) + i · cosn−2 θ(sin θ)2 +
1 2
 
n−1 n
··· + i · cos θ(sin θ)n−1 + in · (sin θ)n
n−1

(4.) We use the fact that i2 = −1 to evaluate the powers of i. This will result in half
of the terms in the expansion being real and half being imaginary, as shown:
   
n n n−2 2 n
cos nθ + i sin nθ = cos θ − cos θ sin θ + cosn−4 θ sin4 θ + · · ·
2 4
    
n n−1 n n−3 3
i cos θ sin θ − cos θ sin θ + · · · .
1 3

(5.) We can then equate the real parts and the imaginary parts of the above equation
together. Since we only want to find cosn θ, we only consider the real parts (if we
wanted sinn θ, we would possibly need to consider the imaginary parts, depending
on whether in is real or imaginary). This gives us
   
n n n−2 2 n
cos nθ = cos θ − cos θ sin θ + cosn−4 θ sin4 θ + · · · .
2 4

(6.) We use the identity sin2 θ ≡ 1 − cos2 θ to eliminate the sine terms:
   
n n n−2 2 n
2
cosn−4 θ 1 − cos2 θ θ + · · · .


cos nθ = cos θ − cos θ 1 − cos θ +
2 4
0.3. DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM xix
          
n n n n n−2 n n
= 1+ cos θ − + cos θ+ + cosn−4 θ + · · ·
2 2 4 4 6
Note: The procedure for sinn θ is almost the same, except we aim to eliminate cos
terms instead.
Example 12. Use DeMoivres theorem to express sin5θ in terms of powers of sinθ.
Solution: Using de Moivre’s theorem,

cos 5θ + i sin 5θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)5

Applying the binomial theorem to the right-hand side, we get

   
5 5 4 5
2
cos3 θ i sin θ


cos 5θ + i sin 5θ = cos θ + cos θ i sin θ +
1 2
   
5
3 5
4
+ cos2 θ i sin θ + cos θ i sin θ + (i sin θ)5
3 4

= cos5 θ +5i cos4 θ sin θ +10i2 cos3 θ sin2 θ +10i3 cos2 θ sin3 θ +5i4 cos θ sin4 θ +i5 sin5 θ.
Evaluating the power of i, we have

= cos5 θ + 5i cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ − 10i cos2 θ sin3 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ + i sin5 θ.

Equating the imaginary gives

sin 5θ = 5 cos4 θ sin θ − 10 cos2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ.

To eliminate the powers of cos θ, we use the identity cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ. Substituting
this in, we have

2
sin 5θ = 5 1 − sin2 θ sin θ − 10 1 − sin2 θ sin3 θ + sin5 θ.

Expanding and removing the brackets, we get

sin 5θ = 5 1 − 2sin2 θ + sin4 θ sin θ − 10 sin3 θ − sin5 θ θ + sin5 θ

sin 5θ = 5 sin θ − 10 sin3 θ + 5 sin5 θ − 10 sin3 θ + 10 sin5 θ + sin5 θ.

Collecting like terms, we obtain

sin 5θ = 16 sin5 θ − 20 sin3 θ + 5 sin θ.

xx

We can also use DeMoivre’s theorem to derive identities for sin nθ and cos nθ, To do
this, we start by writing z1 = z −1 . Applying DeMoivre’s theorem, we have

1
= cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ).
z
Using the odd/even identities for sine and cosine, cos(−θ) = cos θ and sin(−θ) =
− sin θ, we can rewrite this as
1 1 1
= cos θ − i sin θ and z + = 2 cos θ, z − = 2i sin θ.
z z z
Similarly, we can consider z n = (cosθ + i sin θ)n , n ∈ R. Using DeMoivres theorem,
we can rewrite
1
= cos(−nθ) + i sin(−nθ)
zn
Applying the odd/even identities for sine and cosine, we get
1
= cos nθ − i sin nθ.
zn
Hence, adding and subtracting the above derivations, we obtain the following pair
of useful identities:
1 1
zn + n
= 2 cos nθ, z n − n = 2i sin nθ
z z
Example 13. Express cos6 θ in terms of cos 6θ, cos 5θ, cos 4θ, cos 3θ, cos 2θ, cos θ
and any constant terms.
Solution: Letting z = cos θ + i sin θ, we write
 6
1 1
2 cos θ = z + =⇒ 26 cos6 θ = z+ .
z z

Thus  6
6 1 1
cos θ = z+ .
64 z
We now apply the binomial theorem to the right-hand side as follows:
"                      #
6 1 6 6 5 1 6 4 1 2 6 3 1 3 6 2 1 4 6 1 5 1 6
cos θ = z + z + z + z + z + z + .
64 1 z 2 z 3 z 4 z 5 z z
0.3. DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM xxi

n


Substituting in the values of r
and simplifying, we have
!
1 15 6 1
cos6 θ = z 6 + 6z 4 + 15z 2 + 20 + 2 + 4 + 6 .
64 z z z

1
Grouping z n terms with zn
terms, we have
!
1  1   1   1 
cos6 θ = z 6 + 6 + 6 z 4 + 4 + 15 z 2 + 2 + 20 .
64 z z z

1
Using z n + zn
= 2 cos nθ, we obtain
!
1
cos6 θ = 2 cos 6θ + 6(2 cos 4θ) + 15(2 cos 2θ) + 20 .
64

Therefore
1 3 15 5
cos6 θ = cos 6θ + cos 4θ + cos 2θ + .
32 16 32 16

Solving Trigonometric Equations Using Products of Powers of Sine and

Cosine Functions

Example 14. (i) Express sin2 θ cos3 θ in the form of a cos θ + b cos 3θ + c cos 5θ,
where a, b, and c are constants to be determined. (ii.) Hence, find all the solutions
of cos 5θ + cos 3θ = 0 in the interval 0 ≤ θ < π.
Solution: Recall that
1 1
z+ = 2 cos θ, z − = 2i sin θ.
z z
Thus  
2 1 
3 1 2 1  1 3
sin θ cos θ = z− z+
(2i)2 z 23 z
1  1 2
  1 3

=− z− z+
32 z z
Using the binomial expansion, we have
1 2 1  3 1
sin2 θ cos3 θ = − z − 2 + 2 z 3 + 3z + + 3
32 z z z
xxii

Removing the brackets and simplifying, we get

!
2 3 1 1 6 2 3 3 1
sin θ cos θ = − z 5 + 3z 3 + 3z + − 2z 3 − 6z − − 3 + z + + 3 + 5
32 z z z z z z

1
Collecting z n and zn
terms, we have
!
1  1   1   1 
sin2 θ cos3 θ = − z5 + 5 + z3 + 3 − 2 z + .
32 z z z

1
Using z n + zn
= 2 cos nθ, we can express this as

2 3 1

sin θ cos θ = − 2 cos 5θ + 2 cos 3θ − 2 2 cos θ .
32
On simplifying, we obtain

1 
sin2 θ cos3 θ = 2 cos θ − cos 5θ − cos 3θ .
16

(ii.) From part (i), cos 5θ + cos 3θ = 2 cos θ − 16 sin2 θ cos3 θ.

Hence,
cos 5θ + cos 3θ = 0
is equivalent to
0 = 2 cos θ − 16 sin2 θ cos3 θ.
Factoring this expression results in
 
0 = 2 cos θ 1 − 8 sin2 θ cos2 θ ,

which is true if either cos θ = 0 or 1 − 8 sin2 θ cos2 θ = 0.

For the first case, given that 0 ≤ θ < π, cos θ = 0 when θ = π2 .
Also for case
1 − 8 sin2 θ cos2 θ = 0,
using the double-angle formula for sine,

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ,

0.3. DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM xxiii

we can rewrite this as 1 − 2 sin2 2θ = 0.

Hence,
1 1
sin2 2θ = =⇒ sin 2θ = ± √ .
2 2
Starting with the positive square root, for θ in the range 0 ≤ θ < π,
1 π 3π
sin 2θ = √ when θ = or .
2 8 8

Similarly, for the negative square root,

1 5π 7π
sin 2θ = − √ when θ = or .
2 8 8

Hence, the solutions are

π π π 5π 7π
θ= , , , , .
8 8 2 8 8

Deriving Trigonometric Identities Involving the Tangent Function

Example 15. (i.) Express sin 6θ in terms of powers of sin θ and cos θ. (ii.) Express
cos 6θ in terms of powers of sin θ and cos θ. (iii.) Hence, express tan 6θ in terms of
powers of tan θ.
Solution: (i.) Using DeMoive’s Theorem, we have

cos 6θ + i sin θ = (cos θ + i sin θ)6 .

Applying the binomial expansion, we get
     
6 6 5 6 4 2 6
cos 6θ + i sin 6θ = cos θ + cos θ(i sin θ) + cos θ(i sin θ) + cos3 θ(i sin θ)3
1 2 3
     
6 2 4 6 5 6
+ cos θ(i sin θ) + cos θ(i sin θ) + (i sin θ)6
4 5 6
On simplifying, we have

cos 6θ + i sin 6θ = cos6 θ + 6i cos5 θ sin θ + 15i2 cos4 θ sin2 θ + 20i3 cos3 θ sin3 θ
+15i4 cos2 θ sin4 θ + 6i5 cos θ sin5 θ + i6 sin6 θ
xxiv

Evaluating the powers of

cos 6θ + i sin 6θ = cos6 θ + 6i cos5 θ sin θ − 15 cos4 θ sin2 θ − 20i cos3 θ sin3 θ
+15 cos2 θ sin4 θ + 6i cos θ sin5 θ − sin6 θ.

Equating imaginary and real parts, we have

(i.) sin 6θ = 6 cos5 θ sin θ − 20 cos3 θ sin3 θ + 6 cos θ sin5 θ

and
(ii.) cos 6θ = cos6 θ − 15 cos4 θ sin2 θ + 15 cos2 θ sin4 θ − sin6 θ.
(iii.) Using the definition of the tangent function in terms of sine and cosine, we
have
sin 6θ
tan 6θ = .
cos 6θ
From Parts (i) and (ii), we have

6 cos5 θ sin θ − 20 cos3 θ sin3 θ + 6 cos θ sin5 θ

tan 6θ = .
cos6 θ − 15 cos4 θ sin2 θ + 15 cos2 θ sin4 θ − sin6 θ

Dividing both the numerator and the denominator by cos6 θ, we obtain

6 tan θ − 20 tan3 θ + 6 tan5 θ

tan 6θ = .
1 − 15 tan2 θ + 15 tan4 θ − tan6 θ

0.3.2 Exponential Form of a Complex Number

The exponential number e raised to the power x can be written as a series of powers
of x :
x2 x3 x4
ex = 1 + x + + + + ··· .
2! 3! 4!
Similarly, series expansions exist for the trigonometric functions sin x and cos x :

x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ···
3! 5! 7!
and
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + ··· ,
2! 4! 6!
0.3. DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM xxv

in which x is measured in radians.

In the series for ex replace x on both sides by iθ to give:

(iθ)2 (iθ)3 (iθ)4

eiθ = 1 + (iθ) + + + + ···
2! 3! 4!
which gives
θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5
eiθ = 1 + iθ − −i + + i + ···
2! 3! 4! 5!
which, when re-arranged into real and imaginary terms gives

θ2 θ4 θ3 θ5
   
iθ
e = 1− + − ··· + i θ − + − ···
2! 4! 3! 5!

= cos θ + i sin θ.
iπ
Example 16. Find complex numbers in Cartesian forms (i.) e 4 and (ii.) eiπ .
Solutions:
iπ π π 1 1
(i.) e 4 = cos + i sin = √ + i √
4 4 2 2
(ii.) eiπ = cos π + i sin π = −1 + i(0) = −1.

Since z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) and = cos θ + i sin θ we therefore obtain another way in
which to denote a complex number:

z = reiθ ,

called the exponential form.

Note: The exponential form of a complex number is

z = reiθ in which r = |z| and θ = arg(z),

so
z = reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

0.3.3 Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions

Recall that
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
xxvi

and
e−iθ = cos θ − i sin θ
Now, if we add and subtract these two relations, we respectively obtain
eiθ + e−iθ
cos θ =
2
and
eiθ − e−iθ
sin θ = .
2i
In terms of the exponential function, cosh x and sinh x can also be defined as
ex + e−x ex − e−x
cosh x = , sinh x = .
2 2
If we replace x by iθ in these two equations, we obtain
eiθ + e−iθ eiθ − e−iθ
cosh(iθ) = ≡ cos θ, sinh x = ≡ i sin θ.
2 2
Note: If z is a complex number, then
cosh(iz) ≡ cos z and sinh(iz) ≡ i sin z.
Equivalently, replacing z by iz :
cosh z ≡ cos(iz) and i sinh z ≡ sin(iz).
Example 17. Raising a Complex Number to an Integer Power
√
Find (−1 + 3i)12 and write the result in standard form.
√
Solution: First convert to polar form. For −1 + 3i
√
q √ 3 √
2 2
r = (−1) + ( 3) = 2 and tan θ = =− 3
−1
which implies that θ = 2π/3. So,
√
  2π   2π 
−1 + 3i = 2 cos + i sin
3 3
By DeMoivre’s Theorem,
12
√
    
12 12(2π) 12(2π)
(−1 + 3i) = 2 cos + i sin
3 3
0.3. DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM xxvii
    
12 12(2π) 12(2π)
=2 cos + i sin
3 3
= 4096(cos 8π + i sin 8π)
= 4096(1 + i(0)) = 4096.
Definition 3. nth Root of a Complex Number
The complex number w = a + bi is an nth root of the complex number z if

z = wn = (a + bi)n .

DeMoivres Theorem is useful in determining roots of complex numbers. Let w be

an nth root of z, where

w = s(cos β + i sin β) z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

Then, by DeMoivre’s Theorem, we have wn = sn (cos nβ + i sin nβ) and because

wn = z, it follows that

sn (cos nβ + i sin nβ) = r(cos θ + i sin θ).

Now, because the right and left sides of this equation represent equal√
complex num-
n
bers, we can equate moduli to obtain s = r, which implies that s = r and equate
n

principal arguments to conclude that θ and nβ √ must differ by a multiple of 2π.

Note that r is a positive real number and so s = n r is also a positive real number.
Consequently, for some integer k, nβ = θ + 2πk, which implies that
θ + 2πk
β= .
n
Finally, substituting this value of β into the polar form of w produces the result
stated in the next theorem.

0.3.4 Fractional Powers of a Complex Number

Let
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ),
then p p p
z q = r q (cos θ + i sin θ) q = w,
xxviii

where p and q are integers. Thus

wq = z p = rp (cos θ + i sin θ)p = rp (cos pθ + i sin pθ).

So we have
"    #
wkq = rp cos pθ + 2kπ + i sin pθ + 2kπ , k = 0, 1, · · · , (q − 1).

Hence
"    #
p pθ + 2kπ pθ + 2kπ
wk = r q cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, · · · , (q − 1).
q q

Example 18. Find the nth root of √1 + √i if n = 35 .

2 2

Solution:
1 i π π
√ + √ = cos + i sin
2 2 4 4
and that
1 i
√ + √ = 1.
2 2
Thus !3  3
1 i π π
√ +√ = cos + i sin
2 2 4 4
3π 3π
+ i sin
= cos by Demoivre0 s theorem
4 4
3  3 
4
π + 2kπ 4
π + 2kπ
= cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · .
5 5
Hence
! 53
3  3 
1 i π + 2kπ π + 2kπ
√ +√ = cos 4 + i sin 4
2 2 5 5
   
3π + 8kπ 3π + 8kπ
= cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
20 20
0.3. DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM xxix

Theorem 4. The nth Root of a Complex Number:

For any positive integer n, the complex number z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) has exactly n
distinct roots. These n roots are given by
√
    
n
θ + 2πk θ + 2πk
r cos + i sin ,
n n
where k = 0, 1, 2 . . . , n − 1.
Remark: Note that when k exceeds n − 1, the roots begin to repeat. For instance,
if k = n, the angle is
θ + 2πn θ
= + 2π
n n
which yields the same values for the sine and cosine as k = 0.
Note: When Theorem 3 is applied to the real number 1, the nth roots have a special
name- the nth roots of unity.

Example 19. Finding the nth Roots of a Complex Number:

Determine the fourth roots of i.
Solution: In polar form, we can write i as
 
π π
i = 1 cos + i sin
2 2
so that r = 1 and θ = π/2. Then, by applying Theorem 5, we have
√
  π/2 2kπ   π/2 2kπ 
1/4 4
i = 1 cos + + i sin +
4 4 4 4
 π kπ   π kπ 
= cos + + i sin + .
8 2 8 2
Setting k = 0, 1, 2, and 3, we obtain the four roots
π π
z1 = cos + i sin ,
8 8
5π 5π
z2 = cos + i sin ,
8 8
9π 9π
z3 = cos + i sin ,
8 8
13π 13π
z4 = cos + i sin .
8 8
xxx

0.3.5 Loci in the Complex Plane

Suppose z is allowed to vary in such a way that |z − 1| = 2. z could be written as

z = x + iy and obtain

p
(x − 1)2 + y 2 = 2 =⇒ (x − 1)2 + y 2 = 4.
We can immediately identify this as the cartesian equation of a circle centre (1, 0)
and radius 2. In terms of the complex plane, the centre is 1 + 0i.
If ω is a complex number, we can identify |z − ω| as the distance of z from the point
represented by ω on the complex plane. The locus |z − 1| = 2 can be interpreted as
the set of points that are 2 units from the point 1 + 0i; in other words, a circle centre
1 + 0i and radius 2.
Example 20. The point P represents the complex plane z on an Argand diagram.
Describe the locus geometrically and obtain the cartesian equation for the locus in
the case |z| = |z − 4|.
Solution: (i.) This is a straight line. In fact, it is the perpendicular bisector of the
line segment joining the origin to the point 4 + 0i.
Let z = x + iy,
|z| = |x + iy| = |x − 4 + iy|
Squaring both sides, we have

x2 + y 2 = (x − 4)2 + y 2 =⇒ 0 = −8x + 16 =⇒ x = 2.

Example 21. The pointP represent z in the complex plane. Find the locus of P
z−1
when z satisfies arg z+1 = π4 .
 
Solution: arg z−1z+1
= arg(z − 1) − arg(z + 1). Let z = x + iy

z − 1  x − 1 + iy 
arg = arg
z+1 x + 1 + iy
 
{(x − 1) + iy}{(x + 1) − iy}
= arg
(x + 1)2 + y 2
 2
(x − 1 + y 2 ) + 2iy

π
= arg = .
(x + 1)2 + y 2 4
0.3. DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM xxxi

Taking tangents of both sides, we have

2y
= 1 =⇒ x2 + y 2 − 2y = 1
x2 − 1 + y 2
x2 + (y − 1)2 = 2
√
from which the centre is 0 + i and the radius is 2.
EXERCISES

1. Compute √
(1 − i)10 ( 3 + i)5
(i.) z = √ , (ii.) (1 + i)1000 .
(−1 − i 3) 10

2. Use DeMoivre’s theorem to show that

3 tan θ − tan3 θ
(i.) tan 3θ = ,
1 − 3 tan2 θ
(ii.) cos 3θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ.

3. Find the polar representations for the following complex numbers:

√ √
√ √ 1 3 1 3
(i.) z1 = 6+6i 3 (ii.) z2 = 9−9i 3; (iii) z3 = − +i ; z4 = − −i .
4 4 2 2

4. Given that z is a complex number such that z + 1

z
= 2 cos 3◦ , find the least
1
integer that is greater than z 2000 + z2000 .
5. Find the square roots of the following complex numbers:
√ 1 i
(i.) z = 1 + i; (ii.) z = 7 − 24i; (iii) z = −2(1 + i 3); (iv) z = √ + √ .
2 2

6. Find the cube roots of the following complex numbers:

√
1 3
(i.) z = −i; (ii.) z = 18 + 26i; (iii) z = −27; (iv) z = − i .
2 2

7. Find the fourth roots of the following complex numbers:

√ √
(i.) z = 2 − i 12; (ii.) z = 3 + i; (iii) z = −7 + 24i; (iv) z = −2i.
xxxii

8. If z = cos θ + i sin θ, prove that

1−z θ 1+z θ
(i.) = −i tan , (ii.) = i cot .
1+z 2 1−z 2

9. Let z ∈ C, the set of complex numbers. Then what does the equation

2|z + 3i| − |z − i| = 0

represent?
10. The point P represents the complex plane z on an Argand diagram. Describe
the locus geometrically and obtain a cartesian equation for the locus of in the
cases
i. |z| + |z − 4| = 6.
ii. |z| = 2|z − 4|.
(z+1)
11. (i.) If the argument of (z+1)
is equal to 1, show that the point z describes a
(z−1)
straight line. (ii) If the argument of (z+1) is equal to π4 , show that the point z
√
lies on a fixed circle of radius 2 and centre 0 + i. (ii) If the argument
12. If z1 , z2 and z3 , z4 are two pairs of complex conjugate numbers, then find the
value of    
z1 z2
arg + arg .
z4 z3