ST. MARY’S COLLEGE of BORONGAN, INC.

(formerly St. Joseph’s College)

E. Cinco St. Brgy. A, Borongan City, Eastern Samar
School Year 2021-2022

A LEARNING MODULE FOR STUDENTS

GENERAL PHYSICS 2

Unit Topic : Electricity

Lesson Topic : Current, Resistance and Electromotive Force
Quarter : 3rd Quarter
Week :4
Duration : 4 hrs.

I. Opening Prayer

In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen.

Most powerful God, our daily strength and comfort, we humbly implore You grant us knowledge,
perseverance and determination in everything we do. Grant us also a focus mind and heart to
always be aware of your presence within us. We ask this through Christ our Lord with the Holy
Spirit, and the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, our Mother, and Venerable Ignacia Del
Espiritu Santo. Amen!

In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen.

II. Introduction

Have you seen the circuit board of a computer? It is composed of different components
such as semiconductors, capacitors, and resistors where electric current flow and make the
computers work. The computer is just one of the pieces of equipment students need these days
especially with the distance learning modalities being implemented. It is a fact that we need
various devices for a specific use or purpose to make our work easier, for our convenience,
safety, and even comfort. Most of the equipment we have requires electricity. The flow of
charges from one point to another has become too much involved in our practical lives.
Previously, we learned about the interaction of charges at rest and how these
interactions produce phenomena that have entirely become essential in our daily activities. This
time, we will be learning how these charges interact when they are in motion.
In the study of charges in motion, we will be dealing with circuits. Circuits are considered
as the core element in communication, household appliances, power distribution grids,
computers, and even in the nervous systems of living things. For this module, you will be able to
describe the characteristics of conductors in terms of their resistivity and resistance.

Competencies:

This module will help you in understanding the basic concepts of electric charges and fields.
The topics covered by this module are electric charges. At the end of this module, you should
be able to:

1. Distinguish between conventional current and electron flow STEM_GP12EM-IIId-32

2. Apply the relationship charge = current x time to new situations or to solve related
problems STEM_GP12EM-IIIe-33
3. Describe the effect of temperature increase on the resistance of a metallic conductor
STEM_GP12EM-IIIe-35
4. Describe the ability of a material to conduct current in terms of resistivity and
conductivity STEM_GP12EM-IIIe-36
5. Apply the relationship of the proportionality between resistance and the length and
cross-sectional area of a wire to solve problems STEM_GP12EM-IIIe-37

Page 1 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

 III. Self-Readiness Test

Activity 1. How Much Do I Pay?

Objective: In this activity, you will determine the electrical energy consumption consumed by
your household for the whole month.
Procedure:
1. Identify the appliances in your home and list them on the table.
2. Determine the power rating for each appliance. This is usually indicated in the seal at the
back of the appliances.
3. Estimate the number of hours you are using this appliance in a month.
4. Calculate the energy consumed in each appliance and write the values in the table.
5. Calculate the energy cost per appliance using the cost of 1 kWh in your locality. You
may ask your parent/guardian or check your electric bill.

Energy Cost
Number of
Electrical (pesos)
hours used for
Power Rating energy (Electrical
Appliances the whole
(W) consumed Energy
month
(P x h) consumed x
(h)
cost per kWh)

1. How much energy did you consume in a month? Is this consistent with the energy
reflected in your electric bill for the month? If not, what do you think is the reason/s for
the observed inconsistencies?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. What is the estimated cost of the use of this energy? Is this consistent with your electric
bill for the month? If not, what do you think is the reason/s for inconsistencies?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. What would be your plans to reduce the energy consumption for the whole month?
Complete the table below.
Expected Outcome
Action Plan to Reduce the
(expected energy
Current Situation Electrical Energy
consumption and cost
Consumption
reduction)

Page 2 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

Show this plan to your parents/guardian/household members and let them reflect on the next
actions to be taken.

IV. Lesson Proper (Discussion)

Current Current is the motion of charges from one point to another point in a conductor.
When charges are at rest, the electric field at any point is zero. In ensuring a steady movement
of electric charges, we need to have a constant force for these charges to move around the
conductors. Suppose an electric field is present within the conductor, charge q experiences a
force F=qE .

Let us consider a cross-sectional area of a conductor as shown in figure 1.

We will define the current as the net charge flowing through the chosen area. Current is
expressed as:

C
where I is current expressed as or Amperes (A), ΔQ is the net charge expressed as
s
Coulombs (C) and Δt is time expressed in seconds (s). The current flowing in radios and
televisions is expressed as milliamperes, microamperes, or picoamperes.
When charges move in the conductor, it accelerates due to the presence of an electric
field. It collides with other charges and transfers the kinetic energy to anything it collides with.
This produces back-and-forth motion which causes random motion. Hence, it increases the
temperature of the conductors.

Figure 2. The random motion of electric charges as they collide with other particles
increases the random motion and the temperature of the conductor.

Page 3 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

 Image Source: https://www.saburchill.com/physics/chapters/0037.html

The current in the chosen cross-sectional area can also be expressed in terms of its drift
velocity v of moving charges. Based on figure 3, the electric field is from left to right, there are n
particles within the cross-sectional area, the charges are positive q and moving with drift
velocity v.

Figure 3. The drift velocity of the charges has a magnitude of distance/time. The volume
is given by the product of its cross-sectional area and the distance it traveled at some
time.
Image Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/20-1-current/

In every time Δt, particles move at some distance d=v ∆ t . The volume of the cylinder is
and the number of particles in the section is nAv ∆ t .
Thus,

We can also express the current density J in terms of current per unit area.

Does this hold true for negatively charged particles? As shown in figure 4, the direction
of the current is opposite to the direction of the charges. In this case, drift velocity is from right to
left which is also opposite to the electric field. Still, the current moves in the same direction
when positive charges travel in the conductor.
Moving charges of metals are always negative, both electrons and positively charged
particles for ionized gas and plasma and electrons with a motion of vacancies which act as

positive charges for semiconductors.

Figure 4. Direction of electric field and current when negatively charged particles are in
motion within the conductor.
Image Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/20-1- current/

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Example 1:
Find the current density and drift velocity of free electrons when the particles travel on a copper
conductor with a square cross-section of 1.0 mm on the side and carries a current of 20 A to a 3
hp electric meter and its density of 8.0 x 1028 electrons/m3.

Resistivity
Since current density relies on the electric field E and properties of a material,
sometimes J becomes directly proportional to the electric field. Thus, the ratio of E to J remains
constant. We define this ratio as the resistivity of the material. The greater the resistivity, the
greater the electric field needed to produce a current density. This is expressed as:

From the table, a perfect conductor has “zero” resistivity while a perfect insulator has an
“infinitive resistivity”. Metals and alloys have the lowest resistance and are considered as best
conductors while insulators have greater values by an enormous factor.
Good electrical conductors are usually good conductors of heat. On the other hand, poor
electrical conductors are poor thermal conductors. Semiconductors have resistivity’s that are in
the middle between metals and insulators. These components are very important since they are
affected by the temperature and by impurities.
The proportionality of density and electric field obeys Ohm’s law ( V =IR ) . There will be
an in-depth application for this law in the succeeding module. A material is said to be an ohmic

Page 5 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

or linear conductor. The resistivity of the conductors increases with the temperature. This is
represented approximately by:

where ρ0 is the resistivity at a reference temperature T0 (0°C or 20°C), ρr is the resistivity at

temperature T and is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. Table 2 shows the temperature

coefficients of resistivity near room temperature.

The negative value of carbon (nonmetal) shows that when the temperature increases,
the resistivity decreases.
Figure 5 shows the comparison of the resistivity of metals, superconductors, and
semiconductors. As shown in the graph, the resistivity of metals increases as temperature
increases. Metallic conductors would always decrease their resistivity when the temperature
decreases. For semiconductors, the resistivity decreases sharply with the increasing
temperature while superconductors have a decreasing resistivity when the temperature
decreases. However, at some transition temperatures known as Tc, the resistivity suddenly

drops to zero.

Figure 5. The variation of resistivity with respect to temperature for metals,

superconductors, and semiconductors.
Image source: https://pilgaard.info/Conductivity/ConductivityResistivity.htm

Resistance
Suppose our conductor is a wire with cross-sectional area A and length l as shown in
the figure below. The total current is I =JA and the potential difference is V =El (recall V = Ed
from the previous module). If J and E are uniform throughout the conductor, then

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 V
where R is the resistance expressed in Ohms (Ω) or . This should not be confused with
A
resistivity since its SI unit is Ω•m.

Since resistivity varies with temperature, the resistance of the material also varies with the
temperature. This is expressed as:

Where R0 is the resistance at a reference temperature T0 (0°C or 20°C), Rr is the resistance at

temperature T and a is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. Table 2 shows the temperature
coefficients of resistivity near room temperature.

Devices with a certain value of resistance are called a resistor. The resistors are usually
marked with standard codes using three- or four-color bands. The first two bands are two digits
and the third digit is a power of 10 multipliers. The fourth band is the precision value. If it has no
fourth band, then it means it has a precision value of ± 20%. If the fourth band is silver, its
precision is ± 10% and a gold band is ± 5%.

Figure 6. The four bands of a resistor representing its standard code.

Image Source: https://www.circuitbasics.com/what-is-a-resistor/

Table 3 shows the resistor codes.

You may also use this mnemonic to recall the sequence of colors:

Big Boys Run Over Young Girls But Violeta Gave Way

The significant role of a resistor is the highest power it can dissipate without damaging
the other components or devices. Figure 6 shows an example of a resistor.

Page 7 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

 Figure 7. Resistors
Image Source: https://components101.com/articles/resistor-basics-types-and-uses

The graph of (a) resistor following Ohm’s law is shown in the diagram below. The figure
also compares the behavior of (b) vacuum diode and (c) semiconductor diode.

Figure 6. Current-Voltage Relationship in Resistor, Vacuum Diode and Superconductor

Diodes

Example 2:
Suppose the resistance is 1.72 Ω at a temperature of 20°. Find the resistance at 0 and 100
degrees Celsius.

Page 8 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

Electromotive Force and Circuits
To have a steady current in a circuit, the path should form a closed path or loop called a
complete circuit. However, to complete the path we need the presence of decreasing potential
energy since charges move towards this direction. Aside from decreasing potential energy,
there should also be increasing potential energy.
This is similar to water fountains. When the fountain releases the water at the top, the
water goes down the terraces and is collected at the bottom. Using a pump, the water is lifted
back to the top for another cycle. The absence of a pump would make it difficult for the water to
complete the cycle.
In a circuit, the electromotive force (emf) influences the “pushing” of charges from lower
to a higher potential. This influence is called electromotive force abbreviated as emf is denoted
as ε. The sources of emf are batteries, generators, solar cells, and fuel cells. The ideal source
of emf could maintain the difference of electric potential in opposite terminals.

The schematic diagram shows the source of emf with a potential difference in points a
and b. We call these points terminals. Terminal a has a plus sign which implies higher potential
compared to potential in terminal b. An electric field is produced inside the source. A force is
produced in pushing charges from points b to a and points a to b.
The potential difference is equal to the electromotive force:

J
The SI unit of emf and the potential difference is Volts (V) or .
C

When a resistor is connected to the circuit, the terminals of the source produce an
electric field causing the current to flow from points a to b. This is expressed as:

Real sources have different behavior from ideal sources. They encounter internal
resistance within the source denoted by r. If this behaves according to Ohm’s law, then we can
express it under complete circuit conditions:

Page 9 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

 The current is equal to the source emf divided by the total circuit resistance (from the
resistor and the real source).
Example 3:
A D cell of emf 1.5 V and internal resistance of 0.3 Ω is connected to a flashlight which
resistance is 3.0 Ω Find the current in the circuit and the terminal voltage of the cell.

Circuit Diagrams
In studying circuits, we use symbols and diagrams to represent the components.

Energy and Power in a Circuit

The work done on the charge passing through the conductor is expressed as:

The time rate of energy transfer is known as power, denoted by P.

Page 10 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

 J
Power is expressed as or Watt (W). Determining power includes (1) pure resistance
s
and (2) Power output of the source and (3) power input to a source.
2 2
V V
1. For pure resistance, P=V ab I =I R= ab → P= ab
2
R R
2 2
2. For power outputs of a source, P=V ab I =( ε−Ir ) I =εI −I r → P=εI −I r
2 2
3. For power input to a source, P=V ab I =εI+ I r → P=εI + I r

Example 4:
What is the rate of energy conversion and dissipation in the battery, net power output if the
battery has an emf of 12 V, a current of 2 A, resistance of 4Ω and internal resistance of 2Ω?

Physiological Effects of Currents

Table 4 below shows the effects of current to our body. Table 4: Effects of current to our
body

Activity 2: Qualitative Problems

Direction: Answer the following questions.
1. Good thermal conductors are said to be good electrical conductors. If so, why is it that
cords used to connect toasters, irons, and heat-producing appliances get hot by the
conduction of heat from the heating element?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. How would you expect the resistivity of a good insulator such as glass or polystyrene to
vary with temperature?
______________________________________________________________________

Page 11 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

 ______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. A fuse is a device that is designed to break the circuit. It melts when the current exceeds
its value. What characteristics should the material have?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Activity 3: Quantitative Problem

Direction: Solve the problem as directed. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
You may also consult your Physics teacher.

1. A silver wire 1.00 mm in diameter transfers a charge of 65.0 C in 1 hr. 15.0 min. Silver
contains 5.0 x 1028 electrons per cubic meter. What is the current in the wire? What is
the magnitude of the drift velocity of the electrons in the wire?

2. An aluminum wire carrying a current has a diameter of 0.600 mm. The electric field in
the wire is 0.640 V/m. What is the current carried by the wire? What is the potential
difference between two points if the wires are 12.0 m apart? What is the resistance of a
12.0 m length of wire?

3. The following measurements were made on a Thyrite resistor:

Make a graph of Vab as a function of current. Does it obey Ohm’s law?

Page 12 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

Activity 4. Building Concept Map
Direction: Create a concept map out to demonstrate what you have learned from this module.
You can use words, terms, phrases, or formulas in connecting the concepts. Refer to the
scoring guide below:

V. Assessment

Direction: Write the letter of your choice in the space provided.

____ 1. The resistance of a conductors is not dependent with

a. mass c. length
b. area d. resistivity
____ 2. A certain wire has a resistance R. The resistance of the other wire having twice its
diameter is
1 b. 2R 1 d. 4R
a. R c. R
4 2
____ 3. Which of the combinations of length and area will cause the volume of copper to have
the least resistance?
a. L and A 1
b. 2 L and c. L and 2 A
2
d. volume remains the same
____ 4. The temperature of wire made from copper is increased. The resistance
a. remains the same d. depends on the temperature
b. decreases involved
c. increases
____ 5. Which of the following units is not equivalent to watt?
J c. AV
a. 2
s Ω
d.
b. A2 Ω V
____ 6.A 200 mm length of copper wire has a resistanc of 2.0 Ω. The cross-sectional area is
a. 0.0017 m2 c. 1.7 mm2
b. 3.4 mm2 d. 5.3 mm2
____ 7. An electric heater draws a current of 20 A when connected to a 120 V power source.
The resistance is
a. 0.17 Ω c. 8 Ω
b. 6 Ω d. 2400 Ω
____ 8. The 8.0 Ω coil of a loudspeaker carries a current of 0.80 A. The potential difference
across the terminals is
a. 5.2 V c. 6.4 V
b. 2.3V d. 11 V
____ 9. When a 100 W, 240 V light bulb was operated at 200 V, the current flowing is
a. 0.35 A b. 0.75 A

Page 13 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

 c. 0.90 A d. 0.10 A
____ 10. The energy content of a fully charged 12 V battery of capacity 50 A-h is
a. 100 J c. 0.78 J
b. 3600 J d. 2.2 MJ
____ 11. A battery of emf and internal resistance is connected to the resistance R. If R = r.,
a. there is a low current c. the power dissipated is lower
b. there is a higher current d. the power dissipated is higher
____ 12. A battery is connected to the external circuit. The potential drop within the battery is
directly proportional with
a. emf of the battery c. current in circuit
b. equivalent resistance of circuit d. power distributed in circuit
____ 13. What is the effect on the current in a simple circuit if both voltage and resistance are
reduced by half?
a. halved c. doubles
b. stays the same d. quadruples
____ 14. If the switch in the figure below is open, the reading of
voltmeter is ___.
a. terminal voltage
b. EMF
c. current
d. power
____ 15. Which of the following represents the current-voltage
relation of a solid conductor at room temperature?

VI. Closing Prayer

In the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Amen.

Lord God, we praise and thank You for the gift of understanding, thank you for giving us
a helpful technology that help us to make our dream becomes reality, may we inspire others by
sharing our talents and understanding to them.
Your Son shared our weakness, may we share His glory,
For lives and reigns with You and the Holy Spirit, one God, forever and ever. Amen.
Venerable Ignacia Del Espiritu Santo, pray for us.

In the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Amen

VII. References:

Printed Resources

Sears, F., Zemansky, M. and Young, H. (1992). College Physics 7th Edition. Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company
Zitzewits, Haase and Harper (2013). PHYSICS Principles and Problems. The MAcGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.

Online References

Braza, J. (n.d.). What is a Resistor. Circuit Basics. Retrieved on March 2, 2021 from
https://www.circuitbasics.com/what-is-a-resistor/
Components 101. (2020). Introduction to resistors. Retrieved on March 1, 2021 from
https://components101.com/articles/resistor-basics-types-and-uses

Page 14 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

Department of Energy (2020). Energy Label Guides. Retrieved on March 4, 2021 from
https://www.doe.gov.ph/consumer-connect/lighting-and-appliancelabellingstandard?
ckattempt=1
Hoult, D. (2020). Electricity and Magnetism. Retrieved on March 4, 2021 from
https://www.saburchill.com/physics/chapters/0037.html
OpenStax College. (n.d). College Physics. http://cnx.org/contents/031da8d3- b525-429c-80cf-
6c8ed997733a/College_Physics.
Pilgaard, M. (2019). Electrical resistivity and conductivity. Michael Pilgaard’s Web Chemistry.
Retrieved on March 3, 2021 from
https://pilgaard.info/Conductivity/ConductivityResistivity.htm

Page 15 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

 ST. MARY’S COLLEGE of BORONGAN, INC.
(formerly St. Joseph’s College)
E. Cinco St. Brgy. A, Borongan City, Eastern Samar
School Year 2021-2022

A LEARNING MODULE FOR STUDENTS

GENERAL PHYSICS 2

Unit Topic : Electricity

Lesson Topic : Direct Current Circuits
Quarter : 3rd Quarter
Week :5
Duration : 4 hrs.

I. Opening Prayer

In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen.

Most powerful God, our daily strength and comfort, we humbly implore You grant us knowledge,
perseverance and determination in everything we do. Grant us also a focus mind and heart to
always be aware of your presence within us. We ask this through Christ our Lord with the Holy
Spirit, and the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, our Mother, and Venerable Ignacia Del
Espiritu Santo. Amen!

In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen.

II. Introduction

In the previous module, we have studied the principles of electric currents within a
simple circuit. However, if you take a closer look at a computer, TV, radio, or any appliance, you
will discover that these devices have a complicated network of circuits. These circuits contain
resistors, capacitors, sources, transformers, motors, etc.
For this module, you will be studying the methods in analyzing networks from computing
the unknown values of resistors, voltages, currents, and capacitors. Series and parallel
connections can be represented by equivalent resistance. However, general networks can also
be solved using Kirchhoff’s two rules based on energy conservation and charge moving around
the loop.
You will also deal with circuits that combine capacitors and resistors where the current
varies with time.
These principles are needed to understand electrical wiring systems in our homes.

Competencies:

This module will help you in understanding the basic concepts of current, resistance, and
electromotive. At the end of this module, you should be able to:

(1) Evaluate the equivalent resistance, current, and voltage in a given network of
resistors connected in series and/or parallel STEM_GP12EM-IIIg-48;
(2) Calculate the current and voltage through and across circuit elements using
Kirchhoff’s loop and junction rules (at most two loops only) STEM_GP12EM-IIIg-49;
and
(3) Solve problems involving the calculation of currents and potential differences in
circuits consisting of batteries, resistors, and capacitors. STEM_GP12EM-IIIg-51.

Page 16 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

III. Review

Critical Reading

Transmission lines and power plants were built to provide every home and business
establishment with electrical energy. There was a hesitation when it was first introduced. Today,
the country is very dependent on electrical energy in every industry. However, the energy crisis
is currently a problem in the Philippines. This pressing public concern leads to power
interruption and causes commerce and industry to stop. Hence, there is a need to upgrade the
electric grid to meet the recent demands on energy. The plan for SMART GRID is being pushed
to achieve sustainable development. The figure below shows the difference between a smart
grid and a standard grid.

Image Source: https://thoughtsprudencestrategy.blogspot.com/2020/03/smart-grid-vs-

traditional-grid.html

Activity 1. Towards A Smart City

Direction: Answer the following questions based on the material read and the illustration given
1. What are the three (3) features of a smart grid?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. How will you define a smart city? Is the characteristic of a smart city similar to smartphones?
In what way(s)?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. The following characteristics of a smart grid are necessary to build a smart city. Provide
reason/s why these characteristics must be present in every smart grid and how they will
help sustain development?
Why is this important in How will it help create a
Characteristics
building a smart grid? smart city?

Efficiency

Page 17 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

 Reliability

Affordability

Security

Green Friendly

4. Is it possible to build a smart grid in the Philippines? What necessary actions are needed to
fulfill this goal? (You may answer from the perspective of a government leader or as an
ordinary citizen.)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

IV. Lesson Proper

Resistors in Series

The figure above shows the series combination of three resistors with resistance R1, R2,
and R3. In a series connection, the path between points a and b is considered a single path. In
this case, the current across the circuit is always the same. Since the current is the same
throughout the resistors and by applying Ohm’s law to each resistor, the potential difference for
each resistor is:

You can always check if the source of potential difference was distributed throughout the
components by getting the sum of V1, V2, and V3.

From the expression, we can say that

Page 18 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

 In accordance with Ohm’s law, R = V/I. Thus, the equivalent resistance is just the sum of
the resistance of every resistor expressed as:

Resistors in Parallel

The figure above shows the parallel combination of three resistors with resistance R1,
R2, and R3. In a parallel connection, alternative paths are given between points a and b. In this
case, the potential difference across the circuit is always the same. Since the potential
difference is the same throughout the resistors and by applying Ohm’s law to each resistor, the
current for each resistor is:

The total current I must be equal to the sum of the three currents. Thus,

I 1
In accordance with Ohm’s law, R = V/I. In this case, = . Thus, the equivalent
V R
resistance is just the sum of the resistance of every resistor expressed as:

Example 1: Compute the equivalent resistance for the network below:

Page 19 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

Kirchoff’s Rules
Sometimes networks can’t be simplified using series-parallel combinations. The figure
below shows an example of a complicated network

Figure 1. An example of a network that could not be reduced by simple series-parallel

connection. Image Source: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_4.html

In solving complicated networks, we will be using Kirchhoff’s rules. However, be familiar

with the following terms: junction and loop. A junction is a point where three or more conductors
meet. A loop is the closed conducting path.
There are two (2) statements (points) under Kirchhoff’s rules.
1. Point Rule: The sum of the currents in the branch is always equal to zero. This is based
on the conservation of charges. Junctions should not accumulate charges. Hence, the
total current entering the junction must be equal to the total current leaving the junction.
Figure 1 shows the 11 A current entering the junction. When it leaves the junction, the
11 A current splits into 7A and 4A currents.

The junction rule is expressed as the sum of current, which is equal to zero

2. Loop Rule: The sum of the potential differences in any loop must equal to zero. This is
an expression of the energy relationship. As a charge goes around the loop and returns
to its starting point, the sum of the changes of its potential energy is equal to zero.
Figure 3 shows the loop rule.

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 Figure 3. Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule Image Source: https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book
%3A_University_Physics _(OpenStax)/Book%3A_University_Physics_II__Thermodynamics%2C_Electricity
%2C_and_Magnetism_(OpenStax)/10%3A_Dire ct-Current_Circuits/10.04%3A_Kirchhoff%27s_Rules

This is expressed as:

It will not matter which direction or loop you would like to assume. If we have wrong
guess of its direction, we will get a negative value for the current. If we have the correct guess of
its direction, we will get a positive value for the current. Let us be reminded with the following
sign conventions:

Figure 4. Sign conventions for the loop rule. (a) Negative potential if the assumed direction of
loop is the same with the direction of current; (b) Positive potential if the assumed direction of
loop is opposite with the direction of current; (c) Positive potential if the direction of the assumed
direction of loop is from negative terminal to positive terminal; and (d) Negative potential if the
assumed direction of loop is from positive to negative terminal. Image Source:
https://cnx.org/contents/7DqkHtKM@2/Kirchhoff-s-Rules

The most difficult part in dealing with Kirchhoff’s rules is keeping track with signs. The
rules and principles are easy to understand.

Example 2:

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In the circuit shown below, find the unknown current I, the resistance R, and the emf ε.

We assign junction a as an application for junction rule.

We obtain

Next, we assume the directions of the loop 1, 2 and 3.

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Solution:

Page 23 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

We solve for the unknown values using equations 1,2,3 and 4 Solve for I using equation 1:

Hence, we have the correct assumption of the direction of current. The unknown current is 5A.
Substitute this value in equation 2:

The unknown resistance is 4Ω. Solve for ε using equation 3

Therefore, the unknown emf is -14 V

The negative value obtained implies that the actual polarity of the emf is opposite from our
assumption. The positive terminal should lie on the right life side.

Measuring Devices

The measuring devices are used to measure the quantities involved in studying circuits.
1. Galvanometer is a device used in detecting the presence and direction of electric
current in the device.
2. Multimeter is also a measuring device that could measure current, resistance, and
voltage.
3. Ammeter is used to measure the magnitude of current passing through the device.
4. Voltmeter is used to measure the voltage or potential difference.

Both ammeter and voltmeter are used to measure the resistance or power. Figure 4 shows the
method for measuring the current and voltage of the circuit.

Resistance-Capacitance Circuits

The figure below shows a simple circuit diagram of capacitor, voltage source and
resistor. At some time t, we close the switch to allow the capacitor to charge. As the capacitor
charges, the voltage increases and the potential difference across the resistor decreases.
However, the sum of the voltage drops is equal to V.

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When the capacitor is fully charged, the potential difference across the resistor becomes zero,
the current becomes zero and the voltage appears now at the capacitor. This is expressed as:

As shown in Kirchhoff’s rule:

Solving for current i

As the charge increases, q/RC becomes larger and the capacitors reaches final value denoted
as Qf. The current i becomes zero.

It was also found out that when capacitor reaches the final value CV =Q f , the time it takes is
equal to RC. The product RC is then the measure of how quick the capacitor charges also
known as time constant or relaxation time:
τ =RC

Example 3:
A resistor with resistance R = 10 MΩ is connected in series with a capacitor with capacitance 1
μF. What is the time constant?

Activity 2: Qualitative Problems

Direction: Answer the following questions.

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1. Some Christmas tree lights have a characteristic that when one light (filament) burns out,
the lights throughout go out too. However, burned-out lights go out in other series lights.
Discuss the difference between these two sets of lights.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
2. Why do lights on a car become dimmer when you start a car?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
3. What similarities and differences do you see from the equivalent resistance and capacitance
formula?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Activity 3: Quantitative Problem

Direction: Solve as directed. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper. You may also
consult your Physics teacher.

Find the unknown values of voltage and current in each resistor as shown in the given circuit
diagram.

Activity 4. Building Concept Map.

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Direction: Create a concept map to show what you have learned from this module. You can
use words, terms, phrases, or formulas in connecting these concepts. Refer to the scoring guide
below:

V. Assessment

Directions: Write the letter of your choice in the space provided.

____ 1. In a parallel combination of resistors, the current is

A. varying B. same C. greater in value D. lesser in value
____ 2. In a series combination of resistors, the voltage drop is
A. varying B. same C. greater value D. lesser value
____ 3. What happens to the energy when the electron goes into the 2nd bulb after passing
through the 1st bulb?
A. greater energy C. increasing power
B. lesser energy D. decreasing power
____ 4. When resistors are connected in parallel, what happens to their resistance?
A. more than the smallest resistance
B. within the values of larges and smallest resistance
C. less than the smallest resistance
D. depends on the voltage drop
____ 5. The Kirchhoff’s rule on voltage drops is consistent with
A. energy conservation C. conservation of charge
B. impulse and momentum D. angular momentum conservation
____ 6. A 20 V potential difference is applied in a series combination of a 10 Ω and a 30 Ω
resistors. The current in the 10 Ω resistor is
A. 0.5 A B. 0.3 A C. 0.67 A D. 0.2 A
____ 7. The potential difference across the 10 Ω resistor in No. 6 is
A. 5 V B. 10 V C. 15 V D. 20 V
____ 8. The equivalent resistance in No. 6 when connected in parallel is
A. 0.54 Ω B. 0.25 Ω C. 7.5 Ω D. 24 Ω
____ 9. Which of the following statements is true for the junction below?

A. I1 + I2 = I3 B. I3 + I2 = I1 C. I1 – I2 = I3 D. I3 – I2 = I1

For No. 10, please refer to the figure below:

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____ 10. Applying voltage rule of Kirchhoff, the loop gives:
A. E1 − E2 = I1r1 + I2r2 C. E1 + E2 = I1r1 + I2r2
B. E2 = E1 + I1r1 + I2r2 D. E1 + I1r1 = E2 + I2r2

For Nos. 11 to 12, refer to the figure below:

____ 11. The smallest current that passes through is __________?

A. 10 Ω resistor C. 60 Ω resistor
B. 20 Ω resistor D. 30 Ω resistor
____ 12. The largest potential difference is dropped at?
A. 10 Ω resistor C. 60 Ω resistor
B. 20 Ω resistor D. 30 Ω resistor
____ 13. How long would it take for the capacitor to reach 4.1 V if it has a 1 μF and connected
with 2800 Ω resistor.
A. 0.0003 s B. 3 s C. 0.000000003 s D. 0.003s
____ 14. What is the initial current of the circuit?
A. 2.21 x 10-3 A C. 0.17 x 10-3 A
B. 3.14 x 10-3 A D. 1.46 x 10-3 A
____ 15. The current flowing in the branches can be determined through
A. Lenz laws B. Coulomb’s laws C. Kirchhoff’s rule D. Gauss’s laws

VI. Assignment

Activity 5. Social Context

Direction: The community is a rich source of learning opportunities of sources of direct current
circuits. Choose one from the following suggested activities in understanding the importance
and utilization of electric potential in our daily lives:

1. Conduct simulations on direct current circuits. From this, write a short reflection. Scan
the QR code to gain access to the simulations.
2. Demonstrate the series and parallel connections using batteries, bulbs, wires, and
multimeter. Compare how series and parallel connections are different from each other.
Design a data collection sheet where you can record the quantities.
3. Suppose you have an 1800 W toaster, 1400 W electric frying pan, and a 75 W lamp
plugged in a 20A, 120 V circuit. The devices are in parallel connection with the voltage
source. What is the current drawn in each device? Will this combination blow a fuse (20
A)?

Page 28 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO

 VII. Closing Prayer

In the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Amen.

Lord God, we praise and thank You for the gift of understanding, thank you for giving us
a helpful technology that help us to make our dream becomes reality, may we inspire others by
sharing our talents and understanding to them.
Your Son shared our weakness, may we share His glory,
For lives and reigns with You and the Holy Spirit, one God, forever and ever. Amen.
Venerable Ignacia Del Espiritu Santo, pray for us.

In the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Amen

VIII. References:

_____________. (n.d.). Kitchen play centre for kids. All About Circuits. Retrieved on March 2,
2021 from https://forum.allaboutcircuits.com/threads/kitchen-play-centre-forkids.
129179/page-2 0 Conservation of charges 2 Loop Rule The sum of the ....
https://www.coursehero.com/file/p2fb6nn/0-Conservation-of-charges-2-Loop-Rule- The-
sum-of-the-potential-differences/
5.3: Simplifying Series-Parallel Components - Engineering ....
https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Electrical_Engineering/Electronics/Book%3A_
DC_Electrical_Circuit_Analysis_-_A_Practical_Approach_(Fiore)/05%3A_Series-
Parallel_Resistive_Circuits/5.3%3A_Simplifying_Series-Parallel_Components
A negative bpositive cneutral ddepends on number of charges ....
https://www.coursehero.com/file /p62d2gb/anegative-bpositive-cneutral-ddepends-on-
number-of-charges-10Theelectricflux/
Answered: Which of the following statements is… | bartleby.
https://www.bartleby.com/questions-and-answers/which-of-the-followingstatementsis-
true-for-real-gases-choose-all-that-apply.-a.-the-volumeoccupi/ 44aa73b4-7d91-49b7-
8e8f-cd2b20310c4f
CHAPTER IV - LEARNING TASK - LITERATURE IN ILOCOS AND ....
https://www.coursehero.com/file/80549900/CHAPTER-IV-LEARNING-
TASKLITERATUREIN-ILOCOS-AND-CAGAYAN-REGIONpdf/
Connections between relevant concepts Little or none 0 1 .... https://www.coursehero.com
/file/p33627de/connections-between-relevant-concepts-Little-or-none-0-1-Fewmeaningful/
Creating Sparks with e-learning - Kangan.
http://lrd.kangan.edu.au/elec/content/practices/measuring-electricity.htm
David Quinn's defensive shakeup worked in Rangers' bounce ....
https://nypost.com/2021/01/17/david-quinns-defensive-shakeup-worked-
inrangersbounce-back-win/
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION GRADE 11 CHEMISTRY.
http://fode.education.gov.pg/courses
/Science/Grade%2011/chemistry/Gr11.Chemistry.M1.pdf
DepEd Learning Portal. https://lrmds.deped.gov.ph/detail/14426
errors Most of the parts of the diagrams and symbols are .... https://www.coursehero.com/file
/p42jvr6h/errors-Most-of-the-parts-of-the-diagrams-and-symbols-are-not-useful -The-
entire/
How to Create Circuit Diagram Online? | by Ralph Garcia .... https://ralphagarcia.
medium.com/how-to-create-circuit-diagram-online-c2df71f49e73
In addition to the material in the main text Notes to the .... https://www.coursehero.com/file
/p76bqhur/In-addition-to-the-material-in-the-main-text-Notes-to-the-Teacher-arealso/

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Ling, S., Sanny, J. and Moebs, B. (n.d.). Kirchoff’s Rules. LibreTexts for General Physics.
Retrieved on March 2, 2021 from Image Source
:https://cnx.org/contents/7DqkHtKM@2/Kirchhoff-s-Rules
Linus and his blanket: would you be worried? | Yahoo Answers.
https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20060803150053AAXHp6g
Online References
OpenStax University. (2018). University Physics Volume 2. Retrieved on March 5, 2021 from
Image Source: https://cnx.org/contents/7DqkHtKM@2/Kirchhoff-s-Rules
Physics 2B. https://courses.physics.ucsd.edu/2010/Spring/physics2ba/Lectures/JosePhys2BCa
pLec.pdf
Physics Exp 3 - PHY 2049L EXPERIMENT 3 ... - Course Hero.
https://www.coursehero.com/file/15017758/Physics-Exp-3/
Printed Resources
Sears, F., Zemansky, M. and Young, H. (1992). College Physics 7th Edition. Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company
What is the potential difference across the 10 resistor in ....
https://www.transtutors.com/questions/what-is-the-potential-difference-across-the- 10-
resistor-in-the-figure-what-is-the-po-2799733.htm
Zitzewits, Haase and Harper (2013). PHYSICS Principles and Problems. The MAcGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.

Prepared by:

MR. ERNAND P. BAJADO, LPT

Subject Teacher

Checked and Verified by:

MR. LEONARD MONTEZA, LPT

Internal Quality Assurance In-charge

Approved:

S. MARYLOU R. DACILLO, RVM

VP-Academics/Principal

Page 30 of 30 General Physics 2 MR. BAJADO