GRAVITATION

DONE BY
P.Elamaran
INDEX
➢ Universal Law of Gravitation
➢ Gravitational Field
➢ Gravitational Potential Energy
➢ Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
➢ Gravitational Acceleration
➢ Gravity and Satellites
➢ Applications of Gravitation
 Introduction
Early in our lives, we become aware of the tendency of all material objects to
be attracted towards the earth. Anything thrown up falls down towards the
earth, going uphill is lot more tiring than going downhill, raindrops from the
clouds above fall towards the earth and there are many other such
phenomena. Historically it was the Italian Physicist Galileo (1564-1642) who
recognised the fact that all bodies, irrespective of their masses, are
accelerated towards the earth with a constant acceleration. It is said that he
made a public demonstration of this fact. To find the truth, he certainly did
experiments with bodies rolling down inclined planes and arrived at a value
of the acceleration due to gravity which is close to the more accurate value
obtained later.

The planets were described as moving in circles with the centre of the circles
themselves moving in larger circles. Similar theories were also advanced by
Indian astronomers some 400 years later. However a more elegant model in
which the Sun was the centre around which the planets

revolved – the ‘heliocentric’ model – was already mentioned by Aryabhatta

(5th century A.D.) in his treatise
 overview
Gravitation, or gravity, is the force that attracts objects toward one another.
It is one of the four fundamental forces of nature, along with
electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force.
Gravity is responsible for a wide range of phenomena, from keeping planets
in orbit around stars to determining the behavior of galaxies.

Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces of nature, responsible for the
attraction between objects with mass. It is the force that causes objects to fall
towards the Earth, keeps planets in orbit around the Sun, and governs the
motion of celestial bodies across the universe Its role in holding planets in
orbit, forming stars, and determining the shape of the cosmos is crucial to
understanding the universe itself. Both Newton's and Einstein's contributions
to the theory of gravity have paved the way for modern physics, showing how
gravity governs both everyday experiences and extreme cosmic events.

It was around the same time as Galileo, a nobleman called Tycho Brahe
(1546-1601) hailing from Denmark, spent his entire lifetime recording
observations of the planets with the naked eye. His compiled data were
analysed later by his assistant Johannes Kepler (1571- 1640). He could
extract from the data three elegant laws that now go by the name of Kepler’s
laws. These laws were known to Newton and enabled him to make a great
scientific leap in proposing his universal law of gravitation.

UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION

The Universal Law of Gravitation was formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687
and describes the gravitational attraction between two objects with mass.
This law is one of the cornerstones of classical mechanics and provides a
mathematical framework for understanding how gravity works on both small
and large scales, from objects on Earth to celestial bodies like planets and
stars.

Statement of Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation:

Newton's law states that:

Every point mass attracts every other point mass with a force that is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Formula:

The law can be mathematically expressed as:

GRAVITATION FIELD
 A gravitational field is a concept used to describe the influence of gravity in a
region of space. It represents the force that a mass experiences due to the presence
of another mass (or masses) in that region. Essentially, a gravitational field is a way
of visualizing the effect of gravity at different points in space without needing to
directly measure the force between individual objects.

Gravitational Field Definition: A gravitational field is a vector field, meaning it has

both magnitude and direction. It describes how the force of gravity would act on a
test mass placed at any given point in space.

The direction of the gravitational field at a point is the direction that a small test
mass would experience a force (i.e., towards the mass creating the field).

• Gravitational Field Strength (or Intensity):

•
• The magnitude of the gravitational field at a point is the strength of the
gravitational force experienced by the test mass placed at that point.
• Gravitational Field Due to Multiple Masses: If there are multiple masses in
the vicinity, the total gravitational field at a point is the vector sum of the
individual fields due to each mass. This is similar to how electric fields work when
multiple charges are present.
• Gravitational Potential: The gravitational potential ϕ\phiϕ at a point in a
gravitational field is the potential energy per unit mass at that point. The
gravitational field is related to the gradient of the gravitational potential:
This means that the gravitational field is the rate of change of the potential in
space.

Field Lines: Gravitational field lines are used to represent the direction and
strength of the gravitational field visually:

• The density of field lines indicates the strength of the field. The
closer the lines are to each other, the stronger the gravitational field.
• The direction of the field lines points toward the source of the
gravitational field (since gravity is an attractive force).

For a point mass, the field lines are straight and radially inward. For extended
masses, such as planets or stars, the field lines may be more complex but will
always point toward the center of mass.

Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) is the energy stored in an object due to
its position in a gravitational field. It is a form of potential energy, which is
energy an object has because of its position relative to other objects. In the
case of gravitational potential energy, the energy is related to the object's
height above a reference point (usually Earth's surface or the center of a
massive body like a planet or star).

Energy and Gravity:

• Gravitational potential energy is the energy an object possesses

because of its position within a gravitational field. The higher an object
is, the more gravitational potential energy it has, because the force of
gravity will do more work to bring it down to a lower height.
• The work done against gravity to raise an object increases its
gravitational potential energy. When the object falls, its gravitational
 potential energy is converted into kinetic energy (the energy of
motion).

Work-Energy Principle: The work done to lift an object in a gravitational

field (against gravity) increases its gravitational potential energy. The
gravitational potential energy is negative when an object is within a
gravitational field because the object is bound to the planet or body creating
the field.

Conversion Between Kinetic and Potential Energy: In many physical

systems (such as free-falling objects), gravitational potential energy can be
converted into kinetic energy. For example, when an object falls freely, its
gravitational potential energy decreases, and its kinetic energy increases by
an equal amount (ignoring air resistance).

Height Dependence: The higher an object is above the Earth (or another
massive body), the greater its gravitational potential energy. For example, a
ball held at a higher height has more gravitational potential energy than the
same ball held close to the ground.

Negative Potential Energy: When an object is at the surface of the Earth

or at a lower position, its potential energy is taken as negative in the formula
U=−GmMrU = -G \frac{mM}{r}U=−GrmM. This reflects that energy must be
supplied to the object to move it further away from the Earth (or another
body), and the reference point is typically chosen to be at infinity, where
gravitational potential energy is defined as zero.

Kepler’s laws of planetary Motion

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion are three fundamental principles that
describe the motion of planets around the Sun. These laws were formulated
by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, based
on the precise observational data collected by Tycho Brahe. Kepler’s laws laid
the groundwork for Isaac Newton's theory of gravitation and revolutionized
our understanding of planetary motion.

Kepler's Three Laws of Planetary Motion:

1. Kepler’s First Law (Law of Ellipses):

"The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci."

• Elliptical Orbits: Kepler discovered that planets do not orbit the Sun in
perfect circles, as was previously believed, but rather in ellipses (oval-
shaped orbits).
• Foci of the Ellipse: An ellipse has two focal points (foci), and in the case
of planetary orbits, the Sun is located at one of these foci. The other
focus is empty.
• Major and Minor Axes: The longest diameter of an ellipse is called the
major axis, and the shortest diameter is the minor axis.
This law fundamentally changed the way people viewed planetary motion, as
it replaced the long-standing idea of circular orbits with elliptical ones.

2. Kepler’s Second Law (Law of Equal Areas):

"A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during
equal intervals of time."

• Area Sweep: As a planet moves along its elliptical orbit, the line
connecting the planet to the Sun (called the radius vector) sweeps out
an area.
• Speed Variation: This law implies that a planet moves faster when it is
closer to the Sun (at perihelion) and slower when it is farther from the
Sun (at aphelion). Despite this change in speed, the area swept out by
the radius vector is the same over equal time intervals.
• Conservation of Angular Momentum: This law is a direct consequence
of the conservation of angular momentum, meaning the planet’s
motion adjusts in such a way that the area swept out is constant.
 •

3. Kepler’s Third Law (Harmonic Law):

"The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the

cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit."

• Orbital Period (T): This is the time it takes for a planet to complete one
full orbit around the Sun.
• Semi-Major Axis (a): This is the average distance from the planet to the
Sun, calculated as half of the longest diameter of the elliptical orbit (the
major axis).
• Mathematical Expression: Kepler’s third law can be written as:
T2∝a3T^2 \propto a^3T2∝a3 Where:
o TTT is the orbital period of the planet (in years, for example),
o aaa is the semi-major axis of the planet’s orbit (in astronomical
units, AU, where 1 AU is the average distance from Earth to the
Sun).

This law means that planets farther from the Sun have longer orbital
periods. For example, Jupiter, which is farther from the Sun than Earth,
takes much longer to complete one orbit.
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion were groundbreaking discoveries that
provided an accurate description of the motion of planets around the Sun.
They laid the foundation for modern astronomy and were later incorporated
into Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation. Understanding these laws
helped shift the scientific perspective from the geocentric (Earth-centered)
model to the heliocentric (Sun-centered) model, forever altering our
understanding of the solar system.

Gravitational Acceleration
Gravitational acceleration is the acceleration experienced by an object due
to the force of gravity. Near the Earth's surface, this acceleration is
commonly denoted by the symbol ggg and is approximately 9.8 meters per
second squared (m/s²). This means that, in the absence of air resistance, an
object falling freely near Earth’s surface will increase its velocity by about 9.8
m/s every second.
 Gravitational acceleration is the rate at which an object’s velocity changes
as it is pulled towards a massive body (such as the Earth) due to the
gravitational force. It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both a magnitude
and a direction. The direction of gravitational acceleration is always
downward, toward the center of the planet or object causing the
gravitational pull.

Gravitational Acceleration Near Earth: Near the Earth's surface, the value
of gravitational acceleration is roughly constant at 9.8 m/s². This means that
if an object is in free fall, its velocity increases by 9.8 meters per second
every second.

• ggg ≈ 9.8 m/s² on Earth’s surface (though it slightly varies depending on

altitude and latitude).
• The value of ggg can be measured using objects in free fall or by using a
pendulum, where the period of the pendulum’s swing is related to ggg.

Gravitational Acceleration Formula (General): The value of gravitational

acceleration is not constant everywhere. It depends on the mass of the
object causing the gravitational field and the distance from the center of
the mass. The formula for gravitational acceleration at a distance rrr from
the center of a planet or any massive object is.
 Variation of Gravitational Acceleration:

• Altitude: The value of ggg decreases with increasing altitude because

the distance from the center of the Earth increases, reducing the
gravitational force exerted on an object.
• Latitude: The value of ggg is slightly stronger at the poles and weaker at
the equator. This is due to the Earth's rotation and its oblate shape
(slightly flattened at the poles), which causes a slight decrease in ggg at
the equator.

At sea level, the gravitational acceleration is approximately:

• 9.83 m/s² at the poles.

• 9.78 m/s² at the equator.

Gravitational Acceleration in Space: In space, far from any massive

objects, the gravitational acceleration approaches zero. However, near other
celestial bodies like the Moon, planets, or stars, gravitational acceleration is
still present and affects their motion.

Free Fall and Gravitational Acceleration: When an object is in free fall, it

accelerates toward the center of the Earth (or another massive body) due to
gravitational attraction. The acceleration is ggg, and it is the same for all
objects, regardless of their mass (assuming air resistance is negligible). This is
why a feather and a rock, in the absence of air resistance, fall at the same
rate.

Gravity and Satellites

Gravity and Satellites are closely related, as gravity is the force that keeps
satellites in orbit around celestial bodies such as Earth. Understanding how
gravity interacts with satellites is crucial for understanding orbital mechanics,
space travel, and satellite technology. Below is a detailed explanation of the
relationship between gravity and satellites.

1. The Role of Gravity in Satellite Orbits

Gravity is the force that governs the motion of satellites. Satellites remain in
orbit around planets (like Earth) due to the balance between two forces:

• Gravitational Force: The attractive force between the planet (such as

Earth) and the satellite.
• Centripetal Force: The force that keeps an object moving in a circular
path, which in the case of a satellite, is provided by its velocity.

2. How Satellites Stay in Orbit

A satellite orbits because of the balance between its velocity (speed and
direction) and the gravitational pull from the planet. If the satellite's velocity
is fast enough, it "falls" toward the planet but keeps missing it as it travels in
a curved path. This causes the satellite to follow a circular or elliptical orbit
around the planet.

• Gravitational Force pulls the satellite toward the planet’s center.

• Centripetal Force arises from the satellite’s motion and prevents it
from falling into the planet.

This balance results in a stable orbit. If the satellite moves too slowly, it will
fall toward the planet; if it moves too fast, it will escape the planet's
gravitational pull.

3. The Orbiting of Satellites

Satellites can have different kinds of orbits depending on their speed and
altitude. The three primary types of satellite orbits are:

1. Low Earth Orbit (LEO):

o Altitude: Between 160 km and 2,000 km above Earth’s surface.
o These satellites orbit quickly (about 28,000 km/h) and have an
orbital period of around 90 minutes.
o Examples: International Space Station (ISS), weather satellites,
and Earth observation satellites.
2. Geostationary Orbit (GEO):
o Altitude: Approximately 35,786 km above the Earth's equator.
o These satellites orbit in the plane of the Earth’s equator and move
at the same rotational speed as the Earth. This allows them to
stay in the same position relative to the surface of Earth (i.e., they
appear stationary over a fixed point).
o Examples: Communication satellites, weather satellites.
3. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO):
o Altitude: Between 2,000 km and 35,786 km above Earth’s surface.
o These satellites are typically used for navigation systems, like the
GPS satellites.
o Their orbital period is longer than LEO but shorter than GEO.
. Orbital Mechanics: The Relationship Between Gravity and Satellite Motion

The motion of satellites can be described using Kepler's Laws of Planetary

Motion and Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation. These laws explain how
gravity governs the motion of satellites in orbit.

Applications of Gravitation
Gravitation plays a crucial role in many aspects of everyday life, science, and
technology. It influences everything from the motion of planets in the solar
system to the functioning of satellites and other modern technologies. Below
are some key applications of gravitation:

1. Satellite Orbits and Space Exploration

Gravitation is fundamental to the functioning of satellites and the space

missions. The ability to send spacecraft into orbit and beyond relies on
understanding how gravity governs their motion.

• Satellite Orbits: Satellites are placed into specific orbits around Earth
using gravitational forces. By balancing their orbital velocity with the
pull of gravity, satellites can remain in a stable orbit, enabling
telecommunications, weather forecasting, GPS, and scientific
observations.
• Space Travel: When sending spacecraft to other planets or celestial
bodies, scientists use gravitational calculations to determine the
required launch velocities and trajectories. This includes using gravity
assists (or gravitational slingshots) from planets to increase the speed
of spacecraft, helping them conserve fuel and reach distant locations
(such as missions to Jupiter or Mars).

2. Tides
Tidal forces are a direct consequence of the gravitational interaction
between the Earth, the Moon, and the Sun. The Moon's gravity creates
bulges in Earth's oceans, causing high and low tides.

• Ocean Tides: The gravitational pull of the Moon on Earth causes water
to bulge outward toward the Moon, creating a high tide. As the Earth
rotates, the location of the high tide changes. The Sun also contributes
to tides, although its effect is weaker than that of the Moon.
• Tidal Energy: Tidal forces can be harnessed to generate tidal energy.
This is a renewable energy source where the rise and fall of tides are
used to generate electricity using turbines. It's most commonly used in
coastal areas with large tidal ranges.

3. Weight and Mass Measurement

Gravitation is the force that gives objects weight. Understanding the

relationship between mass and weight is essential for various practical
applications:

• Weighing Objects: The weight of an object is the force of gravity acting

on it. It is proportional to its mass, and the value of the gravitational
force depends on the local gravitational field strength (which varies
with location, e.g., at different altitudes or latitudes).
• Mass vs. Weight: In everyday life, mass is often confused with weight.
However, mass is constant and does not change with location, while
weight depends on the gravitational pull at a specific location (for
example, an astronaut weighs less on the Moon than on Earth due to
the Moon's weaker gravity).

4. Gravitational Lensing (Astronomy)

Gravitational lensing is an effect predicted by Einstein’s theory of General

Relativity. When light from a distant object passes near a massive body (like
a galaxy or black hole), the gravitational field of that body bends the path of
the light. This can magnify and distort the image of the distant object.

• Observing Distant Objects: Gravitational lensing is used by astronomers

to observe distant stars, galaxies, and other cosmic objects. It allows
them to study objects that might otherwise be too far away or faint to
see.
• Dark Matter: Gravitational lensing is also used to study dark matter,
which cannot be seen directly. By observing how light is bent around
invisible mass, scientists can infer the presence and distribution of dark
matter.

5. GPS Systems

Global Positioning System (GPS) technology depends heavily on the

understanding of gravitational forces and how they affect the passage of
time.

• Time Dilation: Due to gravitational time dilation, clocks on GPS

satellites (which are farther from Earth and experience weaker
gravitational forces) run faster than clocks on Earth's surface. This
difference must be accounted for in order for GPS systems to work
accurately. Without adjusting for gravitational effects, GPS systems
would become inaccurate by several kilometers per day.
• Satellite Navigation: The position of a GPS receiver is determined by
measuring the time it takes for signals from multiple satellites to reach
the receiver. The precise timing is adjusted for gravitational effects to
ensure accurate navigation.

6. Geophysical Applications (Gravity Surveys)

Gravitational measurements are used in geophysical surveys to explore and

understand the Earth's structure.
 • Gravity Surveys: Scientists measure the strength of the gravitational
field at different points on the Earth’s surface to detect variations in the
density of underlying rock structures. This information is useful for
discovering natural resources such as oil, gas, and minerals, as well as
for studying geological features like faults or tectonic plate boundaries.
• Oil and Gas Exploration: Gravitational data is used to help identify
regions where oil and gas reserves might be located. By mapping
variations in gravity, geologists can infer the presence of underground
structures that might hold valuable resources.

7. Black Holes and Astrophysical Phenomena

Gravitational forces are key in understanding extreme cosmic phenomena

such as black holes, neutron stars, and gravitational waves.

• Black Holes: A black hole is an object with such strong gravitational pull
that not even light can escape. Studying these regions allows scientists
to test theories of general relativity and understand extreme physics.
• Gravitational Waves: The detection of gravitational waves (ripples in
spacetime caused by accelerating masses like colliding black holes) has
opened a new field of astronomy. These waves, first detected in 2015
by the LIGO experiment, provide insights into the most violent and
energetic processes in the universe.

8. Artificial Gravity in Space

In long-term space missions, especially on spacecraft like the International

Space Station (ISS), scientists simulate artificial gravity to help astronauts
maintain health during extended stays in microgravity environments.

• Rotating Spacecraft: Some spacecraft designs include rotating sections

that simulate gravity through centrifugal force. By rotating a part of the
spacecraft, astronauts experience a force similar to gravity, which helps
 them avoid problems like muscle atrophy and bone loss that occur in
microgravity.

9. Gravitational Potential Energy and Mechanical Systems

Gravitation is central to understanding potential energy in various

mechanical systems, such as water dams, roller coasters, and pendulums.

• Water Dams: The potential energy stored in a reservoir (due to the

height of the water) can be converted into kinetic energy, which is then
used to generate electricity in hydroelectric power plants.
• Roller Coasters: Roller coasters use gravitational potential energy at
the top of the track (e.g., at the highest point) and convert it into
kinetic energy as the coaster moves down. This conversion provides the
necessary speed for the coaster to complete the ride.

10. Gravitational Forces in Astronomy and Cosmology

Gravitation is responsible for the structure and evolution of the universe. It

governs the behavior of celestial bodies such as stars, planets, and galaxies,
as well as the overall shape and fate of the universe.

• Formation of Stars and Planets: Gravity causes gas and dust in space to
collapse together to form stars and planetary systems. Over time,
gravity continues to shape and influence the motions of these bodies.
• Galaxy and Cluster Dynamics: Gravity governs the motion of galaxies
and their interactions. It is responsible for the formation of galaxy
clusters, superclusters, and the large-scale structure of the universe.

Conclusion

Gravitation is one of the fundamental forces in the universe, and its effects
are visible in a wide range of applications, from satellite technology to
understanding the cosmos. The study and application of gravity have enabled
advancements in space exploration, communications, energy production,
and scientific discovery. By understanding and harnessing gravitational
forces, we continue to make important strides in technology, science, and
our understanding of the universe.

BIBLOGRAPHY
>https://chatgpt.com
>https://www.wikipedia.org/
>https://in.pinterest.com/
>https://ncert.nic.in/
THANK YOU