Ecosystem

Concept of Ecosystem :

Concept of Ecosystem : In the term ecosystem ‘eco’ implies the

environment and ‘system’ implies an interacting and interdependent
complex. “Thus ecosystem becomes the basic functional unit of
ecology”

An ecosystem may be as small as a drop of water from a pond (Micro

ecosystems) or as large as an ocean (Mega ecosystem). The ecosystem
can be of temporary (eg. Crop ecosystem) or permanent (eg. Forests
and Oceans) in its nature. It may be of natural (e.g. forest, grassland,
desert, lake, ocean eco system etc.) or artificial (Man engineered
croplands of Soybean, Rice, Sorghum, Groundnut etc.) in its operation.
 पारिस्थितिकी औि पारिस्थितिकी िंत्र

• पारिस्थितिकी (इकोलॉजी) जीवववज्ञान की एक शाखा है स्जसमें जीव समद

ु ायों का
उसके वािाविण के साि पािथपरिक संबध
ं ों का अध्ययन कििें हैं। प्रत्येक जन्िु या
वनथपति एक तनस्चिि वािाविण में िहिा है। पारिस्थितिज्ञ इस िथ्य का पिा
लगािे हैं कक जीव आपस में औि पयााविण के साि ककस ििह किया कििे हैं औि
वह पथ्
ृ वी पि जीवन की जटिल संििना का पिा लगािे हैं।
• सन ् 1965 में ओड़म ने पारिस्थितिकी के ललए प्रकृति की संििना ििा कायों का
अध्ययन नाम नई परिभाषा दी। ववलभन्न वैज्ञातनकों ने पारिस्थितिकी िंत्र की
लभन्न-लभन्न परिभाषाएं दी हैं। सबसे सिल परिभाषा है, ‘प्राणणयों एवं वनथपतियों
के पिथपि संबध
ं ों औि इनके पयााविण से संबध
ं ों का अध्ययन।’

•
 Ecosystem
• इको-लसथिम या पारिस्थितिक िंत्र क्या है?

इसे समझने के ललए हम कल्पना किें एक िालाब की, जहां मछललयां, मेंढ़क, शैवाल,
जलीय पुष्प औि अन्य कई जलीय जीव िहिे हैं। ये सभी न केवल एक-दस
ू िे पि आश्रिि
हैं, अवपिु जल, वाय,ु भलू म जैसे अजैववक घिकों के साि भी पािथपरिक रूप से जुड़े हुए
हैं। समुदाय का यह पूणा िंत्र, स्जसमें अजैववक घिकों ििा जैववक घिकों का
पािथपरिक संबध
ं ही पारिस्थितिकी िंत्र का तनमााण कििा है।
Structure and function of an ecosystem -

Structure and function of an ecosystem : In general, any ecosystem

has two basic structure -

1) Abiotic or non-living component

2) Biotic or living component

(1)Abiotic or non-living component: It includes

(a) Inorganic substances such as N, P, K etc.

(b) Organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, etc.

(c) Climatic factors such as light, temperature, precipitation, wind etc.

2) Biotic or living component: The biotic components of the
ecosystem can be divided into 3 groups:

(a) Producers : Green plants and Photosynthetic bacteria (eg.

Chlorobium Chromatium, Rhodospirillum etc.) They convert light
energy of sun into potential chemical energy (in the form of organic
compounds). Thus, producers are autotrophs in any ecosystem.

(b) Consumers : These are heterotrophs, mainly animals including

human-beings, which are incapable of synthesizing food material
on their own and simply depend on green plants for food. Further
consumers may be classified into 3 types :
 1) Primary consumers: All the heterotrophs which live directly
upon plant food are called as primary consumers. These are
herbivores like, Grasshopper, Goat, Cow, Deer, Rabbit, Elephant
etc.
2) Secondary consumers :They are heterotrophs and derive their
food requirement from herbivores. These secondary consumers
are carnivores e.g. Frog, Tiger, Lion etc.
3) Tertiary consumers: These are carnivores which feed on other
carnivores (mostly Secondary consumers) e.g. snake.
c) Decomposers : They are also heterotrophic organisms which
break down complex organic compounds of dead plants and
animals and release inorganic substances which are made
available to autotrophs. Since they consume some chemical
substances for their own growth and reproduction they are also
called as micro consumers. These decomposers play a very
special and important role in the ecosystem e.g. Bacteria,
Actinomyces and Fungi.
 Function of an ecosystem :

➢ Production: Conservance of solar energy into bound chemical

or potential energy.

➢ Consumption : Transfer of bound energy and material through the

process of eating and being eaten.

➢ Decomposition: Degrading dying organic matter to recycle the

material with the escape of energy as heat.
 Energy flow in an ecosystem :
✓ The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels makes
decomposers generally more important than producers in terms of
energy flow.
✓ Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients
obtained from external sources. At the first trophic level, primary
producers (plants, algae, and some bacteria) use solar energy to
produce organic plant material through photosynthesis.
✓ Herbivores—animals that feed solely on plants—make up the
second trophic level.
✓ Predators that eat herbivores comprise the third trophic level; if
larger predators are present, they represent still higher trophic
levels.
✓ Decomposers, which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and
insects, break down wastes and dead organisms and return nutrients
to the soil.
✓ On average about 10 percent of net energy production at one
trophic level is passed on to the next level. Processes that reduce
the energy transferred between trophic levels include respiration,
growth and reproduction.
✓ Decomposers process large amounts of organic material and
return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic form, which are then
taken up again by primary producers. Energy is not recycled
during decomposition, but rather is released, mostly as heat.

Flow of energy in ecosystem

Ecological Succession:
Definition of Ecological Succession -
Changes which increase the community complexity over time.
Or
Development processes of plant community is known as plant
Succession.
Or
A series of changes in a community in which new populations of
organisms gradually replace existing ones
Types of Succession-
i. Primary succession- succession which takes place when bare, lifeless
substrate becomes available for colonization. (very slow process) due
to retreating glaciers, emerging islands, formation of new lake
Ecological Succession:
ii. Secondary Succession- Re-colonization following disturbance
(much faster than primary succession) fire, floods, bulldozers, etc
sequence of community changes that takes place when a
community is disrupted by natural disaster or human actions –
takes place on existing soil.

Ex: A farmer plows his field

Ex: A fire levels portions of a Ex: A farmer plough or

forest tillage his field
 Causes of Succession- :
➢ Changes of habitat
➢ Due to soil development
➢ Development of hard layer of soil
➢ Changes of habitat by biotic factors
➢ Alteration of soil nutrients, or change in the pH of soil due to the
plants growing there.
➢ Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns will promote
changes in communities.
➢ changes due to erosion
➢ They can also increase nutrient content of the soil in certain
areas, or shift soil about (as termites, ants, and moles do)
creating patches in the habitat. This may create regeneration
sites that favor certain species.
Food chain
• A food chain is the simplest path that energy takes through an
ecosystem. The transfer of food energy from the source in plant
through a series of organisms by repeated eating and being
eaten up called food chain.

• A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food. Some
animals eat plants and some animals eat other animals. For
example, a simple food chain links the trees & shrubs, the
giraffes (that eat trees & shrubs), and the lions (that eat the
giraffes). Each link in this chain is food for the next link. A food
chain always starts with plant life and ends with an animal.
Food chain
• A food chain is the simplest path that energy takes through an
ecosystem. The transfer of food energy from the source in plant
through a series of organisms by repeated eating and being
eaten up called food chain.
• Energy enters from the sun.
• Each level in the transfer of energy is a trophic level.
• Food chain is a unidirectional process.
• Food chain consists of producers, consumers and decomposers.
• The first link in any food chain is green plants.
• Food chain is always straight and proceed in a progressing
straight line.
Food chain
1. Plants are called producers because they are able to use light energy
from the Sun to produce food (sugar) from carbon dioxide and water.
2. Animals cannot make their own food so they must eat plants and/or
other animals.
a. Animals that eat ONLY PLANTS are called herbivores (or primary
consumers).
b. Animals that eat OTHER ANIMALS are called carnivores.
carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.
carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.
e.g., killer whales in an ocean food web ... phytoplankton → small
fishes → seals → killer whales
3. Animals and people who eat BOTH animals and plants are called
omnivores.

4. Then there are decomposers (bacteria and fungi) which feed on

decaying matter. These decomposers speed up the decaying process
that releases mineral salts back into the food chain for absorption by
plants as nutrients.
The 1st Trophic Level
• Consists of primary producers (autotrophs).
• Primary producers include land plants and phytoplankton in
aquatic environments.
2nd Trophic Level
• Consists of primary consumers (heterotrophs)
• Primary consumers that eat green plants are herbivores.
• Examples: grasshoppers, rabbits, zooplankton
The 3rd and Any Higher Trophic Level
• Consists of consumers.
• Carnivores and omnivores
• Examples: Humans, wolves, frogs, and minnows
• The 3rd and Any Higher Trophic Level
Green Plant → Rate → snake → Eagle

Grass → Insect → Frog → Snake → Eagle

Food Chains

• Arrows
represent
the flow of
energy
Food Web -
• It is network of food chains which become interconnected at
various trophic levels to form a number of feeding connection
among different organisms of biotic community.

• Food web is meant for increasing the stability of an ecosystem

by providing alternate source of food and allowing the
endangered population to grow in size.

• Food web is a Multidirectional process.

• Most animals are part of more than one food chain and eat more
than one kind of food in order to meet their food and energy
requirements. These interconnected food chains form a food
web ie. Interlocking pattern of food chain is called food web.
 Food Web

• A food web represents

may interconnected food
chains describing various
paths that energy takes
through an ecosystem.
 Ecological Pyramids
• An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of an
ecological parameter like number, biomass or accumulation
energy at different trophic level in a food chain in an ecosystem.
• Models that show how energy flows through ecosystems.
• Pyramids can show the relative amounts of energy, biomass, or
numbers of organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem.
• The base of the pyramid represents producers.
• Each step up represents a different level of consumer.
• The number of trophic levels in the pyramid is determined by the
number of organisms in the chain or web.
 Types of ecological Pyramids
I. Pyramid of Number – This pyramid shows the number
of organism at different trophic level. For examples
Grass land ecosystem, crop land ecosystem and pond
ecosystem.

A pyramid of numbers shows the numbers of individual

organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem.

These pyramid always upright but forest ecosystem always

Inverted.
 Pyramid of Number

5
tertiary
consumers

secondary 5000
consumers

primary
500,000
consumers

producers
producers 5,000,000
I. Pyramid of biomass – This pyramid shows the total dry
weight and total amount of living mater. It indicates a
decrease in the biomass at each trophic level.

Biomass is a measure of the total dry mass of

organisms in a given area.

Pyramid of biomass of grass land ecosystem and forest

ecosystem always upright. but ponds ecosystem of
biomass always inverted
 Pyramid of Biomass

• Ecologist also study how biomass is effect at

each trophic level using a Pyramid of Biomass
– Biomass – the total mass of living matter at each
trophic level

– As you move up the pyramid, there is less biomass

because there is less energy available at that
trophic level
Pyramid of Biomass

10kg
Owls

Tertiary Consumer
50kg Snakes

Secondary Consumer
100kg Mice

Primary Consumer

900kg Grasses
Producer
 Pyramid of Biomass

tertiary 75 g/m2
consumers

150g/m2
secondary
consumers

primary
consumers 675g/m2

producers 2000g/m2
2000g/m2
producers
III. Pyramid of energy – This pyramid shows the rate of
energy flows at different trophic level.

Pyramid of energy of grass land ecosystem and aquatic

always always upright.

Or

All pyramid of ecosystem are upright.

 Pyramid of Energy

• In an ecosystem, only 10% of the energy from each

organism in a food chain is actually passed on when
consumed for food

– 90% of the energy is lost through cell processes

and as heat

– Pyramids of Energy model this effect on an

ecosystem
 Pyramid of Energy

• In a Pyramid of Energy,
each level represents the
amount of energy that is
available to that trophic
level.
– With each step up the
pyramid, energy decreases
Classification of Ecosystem
 Maize crop land ecosystem
The various living organism in the food chain occurs as fallow-
(I) Biotic component-
(A) Producers - Crop (Maize) weed (Cynodon dactylon,
Euphorbia hirta, Digeteria etc)
(B) Consumers-
(i) Primary consumers- animal, rate, Birds, Thrips, aphids,
rabbit, monkey etc.
(ii) Secondary consumers- Fox, Frog, Birds
(iii) Tertiary consumers- Snake, Hocks . Man
(C) Decomposer – Bacteria, fungi etc.
 (II) Abiotic factors -

(A) Climatic factors – Water, gasses, sunlight

(B) Edaphic factors – soil, soil water

 Structure of Forest ecosystem
(I) Biotic component- Mainly of three types Producers,
Consumers, and Decomposers and transformers.
(A) Producers - Producers are the green plants of the
forest. They are the main sources of food for all the
animals.There are several layers or strata of vegetation in the
forest. Namely
1. Upper tree stratum,

2. Middle tree stratum,

3. Lower tree stratum,

4. Shrub stratum, and

5. Herb and ground stratum.

 Trees of upper most stratum receive and utilize greater amount
of radiant energy of the sun that those of lower strata. The
lower stratum consisting of herbs, lichens and grasses also
manufacture food receiving least amount of light.
(B) Consumers -
Primary Consumers : Consumer of first order in the forest are
grasshoppers, rabbits, deer, monkeys, birds and many other wild
herbivores which take their food directly from plants.

Secondary Consumer: Secondary Consumer of 2nd order are

wolves, jackals etc. which consume the flesh of herbivores.

Tertiary consumers: Lions, tigers, hawks are the consumer of top

level.
(C) Decomposer and transformer: They are the micro-organisms
living in the forest floor such as fungi and bacteria which attack
the dead bodies of producers and consumers. The decomposers
convert the complex organic materials into simple organic
compounds. The transformers convert the simple organic
compounds to simple inorganic forms. Thus, these free
elements again return to the abiotic component and are reutilized
by producers.

(II) Abiotic components: Soil, moisture, air and sunlight.

 Structure of Pond ecosystem
(I) Abiotic component- The pond is a small body of standing
water and the pond ecosystem is complex interactions
between its biotic and abiotic components. Abiotic
component of pond ecosystem are:
• Environmental factors: light, temperature, water
• The edaphic factors: Soil
• Inorganic Components are: O2, CO2, N2, nitrates, phosphates,
carbonates etc.
• Organic components are: carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids,
fats, nucleic acids
 Structure of Pond ecosystem
(II)Biotic components are:
(A) Producers : The producers are the aquatic green plants, which
may be divided into two groups.
• Microphytes (phytoplanktons) : They are microscopic
autotrophs, which fix solar energy. eg. Spirogyra, Zygnema,
Volvox, Oedogonium.
• Macrophytes : They are large plants, which manufacture complex
food. They are of following types
• Submerged plants: Those, which are submerged in water, are
submerged plants eg. Hydrilla and Utricularia
• Floating plants: those, which float freely in water surface, are
called floating plants eg. Pistia, Nymphea and Azolla.
• Immerged plants: those, which are rooted but emergent, are
called immerged plants eg Ranunculus, Sagittaria and Typha .
(B) Consumers - The consumers are those heterotrophic organisms,
which consume producers as food. They are also following types
• Primary consumers: These herbivorous animals depend upon
autotrophic organisms such as microscopic plant eaters or
zooplanktons, Mollusks, Beetles, Cyclops, and Daphnia etc.
• Secondary consumers: These are primary carnivores, which
depend upon herbivorous animals for food eg. Insects, fishes,
frogs, crab etc.
• Tertiary consumers: These are second grade of carnivores. They
feed upon plants or animals (secondary consumer) therefore are
called omnivores. for eg. Large fishes and frogs.
• Top consumers: These are third grade of carnivores, which feed
upon primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers eg. Water snake,
water birds etc.
(C) Decomposers- These include heterotrophic microorganisms such
as bacteria fungi, which break down the organic complex food
from dead producers and consumers into simple inorganic
compounds made available to the producers.
 Structure of Grassland Ecosystem
Grasslands (also called Greenswards) are areas where the
vegetation is dominated by grasses and other herbaceous (non-
woody) plants. Grasslands occupy about 24% of the earth’s
surface. They occur in regions too dry for forests and too moist for
deserts.
(II)Biotic components are:
(A) Producers : In grassland, producers are mainly grasses; though, a
few herbs and shrubs also contribute to primary production of
biomass. Some of the most common species of grasses are:
Brachiaria sp., Cynodon sp., Desmodium sp., Digitaria sp.
(B) Consumers :
✓ Primary consumers :The primary consumers are herbivores
feeding directly on grasses. These are grazing animals such as
Cows, Buffaloes, Sheep, Goats, Deer, and Rabbits etc. Besides
them, numerous species of insects, termites, etc. are also present.
(B) Consumers – In a grassland, consumers are of three main
types
(a)Primary consumers: The primary consumers are herbivores
feeding directly on grasses. These are grazing animals such as
Cows, Buffaloes, Sheep, Goats, Deer, Rabbits etc.
Besides them, numerous species of insects, termites, etc are
also present.
(b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivores that feed on
primary consumers (Herbivores). These include;-Frogs,
Snakes, Lizards, Birds, Foxes, Jackals etc.
(c)Tertiary consumers: These include hawks etc. which feed on
secondary consumers.
(C) Decomposers: These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro-
organism like: Bacteria; Fungi; Actinomycetes
They attract the dead or decayed bodies of organisms & thus
decomposition takes place. Therefore, nutrients are released for
reuse by producers.

(II) Abiotic components : High Na, Ca, Mg and K salt

concentration, variable dissolved oxygen content, light and
temperature make a unique physiochemical conditions in marine
water.
 Structure of Desert Ecosystem
• A desert is a landscape or region that receives almost
no precipitation.
• Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation
of less than 250 millimeters per year.
• It occupies about 17% of the earth’s surface.
• Deserts are characterized by hot days & cold nights.

(II)Biotic components are:

(A) Producers In a desert, producers are mainly shrubs/bushes;
some grasses & a few trees.Dominant plant species include:
Succulents (water - retaining plants adapted to arid climate or soil
conditions) & hardy grasses. Besides some lower plants such as
lichens & xerophytic mosses are also present.
(B) Consumers : These include animals such as insects, reptiles
which are capable of living in xeric conditions.
Besides some nocturnal rodents, birds & some mammalians like
camel etc are also found.
(C) Decomposers: Due to poor vegetation with very low amount of
dead organic matter, decomposers are poor in desert ecosystem.
The common decomposers are some bacteria & fungi, most of
which are thermo phillic.
(II) Abiotic components : Due to high temperature & very low
rainfall, the organic substances are poorly present in the soil.
Desert Ecosystem
 Structure of Marine Ecosystem
Marine ecosystems are among the Earth’s aquatic ecosystems.
These are the gigantic reservoirs of water covering approximately
71% of the Earth’s surface. These ecosystems are different from
freshwater ecosystem mainly because of its salty water. The salt
concentration in an open sea is usually 3.5% Dominant ions are
sodium and chloride. Average temperature of Marine ecosystem is
2-3 degree centigrade
(II)Biotic components are:
(A) Producers : It includes phytoplanktons (diatoms,dinoflagillates),
large seaweeds (mainly algae like chlorophyceae, phaeophyceae
and rhodophyceae; angiosperms like Ruppia, Zostera, posidonia),
and mangrove vegetation (like Rhizophora, Carapa etc.)
(B) Consumers –
(a)Primary consumers: These are herbivores and feed directly on
producers (Crustaceans, Mollusks, fish etc.)
(b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivorous fishes (Herring,
Sahd and Mackerel)
(c)Tertiary consumers: These are top carnivorous fishes (Cod,
Haddock, etc.)
(C) Decomposers: These are micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi.
(II) Abiotic components : High Na, Ca, Mg and K salt concentration,
variable dissolved oxygen content, light and temperature make a
unique physiochemical conditions in marine water.
Marine Ecosystem