Sure!

Here’s the *main, minimal code* for each sort with just the
core logic, easy to write and understand:

---

### 1. Bubble Sort

cpp
void bubbleSort(int arr[], int n) {
for(int i=0; i<n-1; i++)
for(int j=0; j<n-1-i; j++)
if(arr[j] > arr[j+1])
swap(arr[j], arr[j+1]);
}

---

### 2. Selection Sort

cpp
void selectionSort(int arr[], int n) {
for(int i=0; i<n-1; i++) {
int minIdx = i;
for(int j=i+1; j<n; j++)
if(arr[j] < arr[minIdx]) minIdx = j;
swap(arr[i], arr[minIdx]);
 }
}

---

### 3. Insertion Sort

cpp
void insertionSort(int arr[], int n) {
for(int i=1; i<n; i++) {
int key = arr[i], j = i-1;
while(j >= 0 && arr[j] > key) {
arr[j+1] = arr[j];
j--;
}
arr[j+1] = key;
}
}

---

### 4. Quick Sort

cpp
int partition(int arr[], int low, int high) {
 int pivot = arr[high], i = low-1;
for(int j=low; j<high; j++) {
if(arr[j] < pivot) {
i++;
swap(arr[i], arr[j]);
}
}
swap(arr[i+1], arr[high]);
return i+1;
}

void quickSort(int arr[], int low, int high) {

if(low < high) {
int pi = partition(arr, low, high);
quickSort(arr, low, pi-1);
quickSort(arr, pi+1, high);
}
}

---

### 5. Merge Sort

cpp
void merge(int arr[], int l, int m, int r) {
int n1 = m-l+1, n2 = r-m;
 int L[n1], R[n2];
for(int i=0; i<n1; i++) L[i] = arr[l+i];
for(int i=0; i<n2; i++) R[i] = arr[m+1+i];

int i=0, j=0, k=l;

while(i<n1 && j<n2)
arr[k++] = (L[i] <= R[j]) ? L[i++] : R[j++];
while(i<n1) arr[k++] = L[i++];
while(j<n2) arr[k++] = R[j++];
}

void mergeSort(int arr[], int l, int r) {

if(l < r) {
int m = l + (r-l)/2;
mergeSort(arr, l, m);
mergeSort(arr, m+1, r);
merge(arr, l, m, r);
}
}

---

If you want, I can also wrap each of these into a full working program
or explain any part!
Got it! Here’s the *main part* (core logic) of each program in concise
C++ snippets for quick reference:

---

### 1. Stack using Arrays (main operations)

cpp
const int MAX = 100;
int stack[MAX];
int top = -1;

void push(int x) {
if(top == MAX - 1) return; // overflow
stack[++top] = x;
}

int pop() {
if(top == -1) return -1; // underflow
return stack[top--];
}

---

### 2. Stack using Linked List (main operations)

cpp
struct Node {
int data;
Node* next;
};

Node* top = nullptr;

void push(int x) {
Node* temp = new Node{x, top};
top = temp;
}

int pop() {
if(!top) return -1;
int val = top->data;
Node* temp = top;
top = top->next;
delete temp;
return val;
}

---

### 3. Dynamic Stack (using vector)

cpp
#include <vector>
std::vector<int> stack;

void push(int x) {
stack.push_back(x);
}

int pop() {
if(stack.empty()) return -1;
int val = stack.back();
stack.pop_back();
return val;
}

---

### 4. Reverse String Using Stack

cpp
#include <stack>
#include <string>
std::string reverseString(const std::string& s) {
std::stack<char> st;
for(char c : s) st.push(c);
std::string rev;
 while(!st.empty()) {
rev += st.top();
st.pop();
}
return rev;
}

---

### 5. Different Queues Using STL

cpp
#include <queue>
#include <deque>

std::queue<int> q; // FIFO queue

std::priority_queue<int> pq; // Max priority queue
std::deque<int> dq; // Double-ended queue

// Example usage:
q.push(1);
pq.push(5);
dq.push_back(3);

---
### 6. Self-Adjusting Queue (move accessed node to front)

cpp
struct Node {
int data;
Node* next;
};

Node* head = nullptr;

void access(int x) {
if(!head) return;
if(head->data == x) return; // already front

Node *prev = nullptr, *curr = head;

while(curr && curr->data != x) {
prev = curr;
curr = curr->next;
}
if(curr) {
if(prev) prev->next = curr->next;
curr->next = head;
head = curr;
}
}
---

### 7. Circular Queue Using Linked List (enqueue & dequeue)

cpp
struct Node {
int data;
Node* next;
};

Node* rear = nullptr;

void enqueue(int x) {
Node* temp = new Node{x, nullptr};
if(!rear) {
rear = temp;
rear->next = rear;
} else {
temp->next = rear->next;
rear->next = temp;
rear = temp;
}
}

int dequeue() {
if(!rear) return -1; // empty
 Node* front = rear->next;
int val = front->data;
if(rear == front) {
delete front;
rear = nullptr;
} else {
rear->next = front->next;
delete front;
}
return val;
}

---

If you want full programs or explanations on any one, just say!

Got it! Here's a simplified version using key terms clearly to help you
score well:

---

### 1. How is a heap used to implement the heap sort algorithm and
its time complexity?

Heap sort uses a *binary heap, usually a **max-heap, to sort

elements. First, the array is turned into a max-heap where the
largest value is at the root. Then, the root is swapped with the last
element, and the heap size is reduced by one. After that, the heap is
**heapified* to maintain the max-heap property. This process
repeats until all elements are sorted. Building the heap takes *O(n)*
time, and each of the *n* removals takes *O(log n)* time, so overall
heap sort runs in *O(n log n)* time.

---

### 2. Explain the difference between AVL trees and red-black trees.

*AVL trees* are *height-balanced binary search trees* where the

height difference between left and right subtrees (called *balance
factor) is at most 1. This makes AVL trees more strictly balanced,
which leads to faster **search* operations.
*Red-black trees* are also balanced BSTs but use a *coloring
property* (red or black) to keep the tree balanced more loosely. They
allow slightly taller trees but require fewer rotations during
*insertions* and *deletions*. So, AVL trees are faster for lookups,
while red-black trees are better for frequent updates.

---

### 3. How would you use a binary tree to implement a dictionary or

symbol table?

A *binary search tree (BST)* can store *key-value pairs* for a

dictionary or symbol table. Keys are stored in nodes such that all
keys in the left subtree are smaller and all keys in the right subtree
are larger. This property allows efficient *search, **insert, and
**delete* operations in *O(log n)* time if the tree is balanced. The
BST organizes the data so you can quickly find or update entries.
---

### 4. Discuss the process of deleting a node in a binary search tree

and how it affects the tree structure.

Deleting a node in a BST depends on the node’s children:

* If it has *no children* (leaf), just remove it.

* If it has *one child*, replace the node with its child.
* If it has *two children, replace the node with its **in-order
predecessor* (largest node in left subtree) or *in-order successor*
(smallest node in right subtree), then delete that predecessor or
successor.
This keeps the BST properties intact but can change the tree
structure and may affect balance.

---

### 5. What are the advantages of using threaded binary trees for
efficient traversal?

*Threaded binary trees* use empty (null) pointers to store *threads*

pointing to the node’s *in-order predecessor* or *successor. This
allows tree traversal without using recursion or a stack. The main
advantages are that it saves memory and makes **in-order
traversal* faster and easier, because you can follow threads instead
of extra data structures.

---
### 6. Discuss the significance of recursive tree traversal methods
(preorder, inorder, postorder).

Recursive traversal methods visit tree nodes in different orders:

* *Inorder traversal* visits left subtree, node, then right subtree,

giving sorted order in BSTs.
* *Preorder traversal* visits node before its children, useful for
copying trees or prefix expressions.
* *Postorder traversal* visits children before the node, used in
deleting trees or postfix expression evaluation.
These recursive methods are important because they help process
or access tree data efficiently.

---

Let me know if you want me to make these even simpler or add

examples! Certainly! Here’s a more detailed explanation for each
question, expanding the answers into 2-3 paragraphs:

---

### 1. How is a heap used to implement the heap sort algorithm and
its time complexity?

Heap sort leverages a binary heap, a complete binary tree that

satisfies the heap property—specifically a max-heap for sorting in
ascending order. Initially, the input array is rearranged into a max-
heap, ensuring the largest element is at the root. This heap
construction can be done in O(n) time using a process called
“heapify,” which adjusts nodes from the bottom up to maintain the
heap property. Once the max-heap is built, the sorting phase begins.

In the sorting phase, the root (maximum element) is swapped with

the last element of the heap, effectively removing it from the heap.
The size of the heap is then reduced by one, and the heap property is
restored by heapifying the new root, which takes O(log n) time. This
process repeats until the heap size is reduced to one, resulting in a
sorted array. Since there are n elements and each removal involves a
heapify operation taking O(log n), the overall time complexity of
heap sort is O(n log n). It is also an in-place algorithm requiring no
extra memory beyond the input array.

---

### 2. Explain the difference between AVL trees and red-black trees.

AVL trees and red-black trees are both types of self-balancing binary
search trees designed to maintain balanced height and thus ensure
efficient operations such as search, insert, and delete. The AVL tree
maintains a stricter balance by ensuring that the height difference
(balance factor) between the left and right subtrees of any node is at
most one. This strict balancing ensures that the tree height is tightly
bound by O(log n), which generally leads to faster search times.

Red-black trees, on the other hand, use a coloring scheme (each

node is either red or black) and a set of properties to enforce a
weaker but easier-to-maintain balance. These properties guarantee
that the longest path from the root to a leaf is no more than twice as
long as the shortest path, resulting in a height bound of O(log n).
While red-black trees are not as strictly balanced as AVL trees, their
insertions and deletions typically require fewer rotations, making
them more efficient for scenarios with frequent updates.
---

### 3. How would you use a binary tree to implement a dictionary or

symbol table?

A dictionary or symbol table stores key-value pairs and supports

operations such as insertion, deletion, and lookup. A binary search
tree (BST) is a natural data structure for implementing these
operations efficiently because it maintains an ordered structure
based on keys. In a BST, each node contains a key and an associated
value, and for every node, keys in the left subtree are less than the
node's key, and keys in the right subtree are greater.

Using this property, searching for a key involves comparing it to the

current node and moving left or right accordingly, which ideally
takes O(log n) time in a balanced BST. Insertion and deletion are
similarly efficient, maintaining the tree’s ordered property after
each update. For larger datasets or frequent operations, balanced
BSTs such as AVL or red-black trees are preferred to ensure worst-
case logarithmic time complexity.

---

### 4. Discuss the process of deleting a node in a binary search tree

and how it affects the tree structure.

Deleting a node in a binary search tree (BST) involves three cases

based on the node’s children. If the node is a leaf (no children),
deletion is straightforward—the node is simply removed, and the
parent’s pointer is updated to null. If the node has one child, that
child replaces the node, maintaining the BST property by linking the
parent directly to the child.
The most complex case occurs when the node has two children.
Here, the node must be replaced with its in-order predecessor (the
maximum node in its left subtree) or in-order successor (the
minimum node in its right subtree). This replacement preserves the
BST’s ordering property. After replacing the node, the predecessor or
successor node is deleted from its original position, which will be
simpler since it has at most one child. This deletion process can
affect the tree’s balance, potentially increasing the height and
impacting performance unless self-balancing trees are used.

---

### 5. What are the advantages of using threaded binary trees for
efficient traversal?

Threaded binary trees improve traversal efficiency by replacing null

pointers in leaf nodes with “threads” that point to the node’s in-
order predecessor or successor. This threading eliminates the need
for a stack or recursion during in-order traversal, as the threads
provide a direct link to the next node in the sequence. As a result,
threaded trees reduce the overhead of maintaining auxiliary data
structures and simplify traversal code.

The major advantage of this approach is that it allows for efficient

in-order traversal with O(n) time complexity and O(1) space
complexity (no recursion stack or explicit stack needed). Threaded
binary trees are especially useful in systems with limited memory or
when traversals need to be performed repeatedly and quickly, such
as in real-time systems or embedded devices.

---
### 6. Discuss the significance of recursive tree traversal methods
(preorder, inorder, postorder).

Recursive tree traversal methods are essential for systematically

visiting all nodes in a tree and form the foundation for many tree-
related algorithms. Inorder traversal visits the left subtree, then the
root, then the right subtree. For binary search trees, this yields
nodes in ascending order, making it critical for operations like
printing sorted data or checking BST validity.

Preorder traversal visits the root before its children, which is useful
for copying trees, prefix expression evaluation, or generating a
prefix notation of an expression tree. Postorder traversal visits
children before the root, ideal for tasks like deleting all nodes or
evaluating postfix expressions, where you need results from
subtrees before processing the parent. These recursive patterns
align naturally with the hierarchical tree structure and simplify
complex tree manipulations.

---

If you want, I can also provide diagrams or code snippets for any of
these concepts!
Got it! Here's the explanation without code:

---

### *1. Structure and Operations of a Graph Class in C++*

A *Graph* consists of two main components:

* *Vertices (Nodes):* These are the individual points or locations in
the graph.
* *Edges (Links):* These are the connections between the vertices.

#### *Representation Methods:*

1. *Adjacency Matrix:*

* A 2D array where each cell (i, j) is 1 if there is an edge from vertex i

to vertex j, otherwise it's 0.
* It is simple and allows quick edge look-up, but uses a lot of
memory for large graphs.

2. *Adjacency List:*

* An array of lists where each index represents a vertex, and its list
contains all the vertices it's connected to.
* It is memory efficient and ideal for sparse graphs.

---

### *2. Time Complexity of Different Graph Traversal Algorithms*

Traversal algorithms are used to visit all nodes in the graph

systematically. The main ones are:

1. *Breadth-First Search (BFS):*

 * This algorithm explores the graph level by level, starting from a
specified node and visiting all its neighbors before moving to the
next level.
* It uses a *queue* to keep track of the next vertex to visit.
* *Time Complexity:* $O(V + E)$, where $V$ is the number of
vertices and $E$ is the number of edges.
* *Use Cases:* Shortest path in unweighted graphs, peer-to-peer
networks, GPS navigation.

2. *Depth-First Search (DFS):*

* This algorithm explores as far as possible along each branch

before backtracking.
* It uses a *stack*, either explicitly or through recursive function
calls.
* *Time Complexity:* $O(V + E)$, similar to BFS.
* *Use Cases:* Topological sorting, cycle detection, solving puzzles
like mazes.

---

### *3. Significance of Queue in BFS and Stack in DFS*

1. *Queue in BFS:*

* BFS uses a *First-In, First-Out (FIFO)* structure because it

explores nodes in layers.
* This means you visit all immediate neighbors before moving
deeper into the graph.
 * It guarantees the shortest path (in terms of edge count) for
unweighted graphs.

2. *Stack in DFS:*

* DFS uses a *Last-In, First-Out (LIFO)* structure, diving deep into

one path before backtracking.
* This is ideal for exploring long paths quickly and finding
connected components.

#### *Effect on Performance:*

* BFS is optimal for finding the shortest path in unweighted graphs

due to its level-wise exploration.
* DFS is optimal for tasks that require full exploration of paths, like
cycle detection or maze solving.

---

Would you like me to explain how cycle detection and pathfinding

work in graphs?

Here are the detailed explanations for each of the topics you've
mentioned:

---

### *1. What is the time complexity of DFS?*

The time complexity of *Depth-First Search (DFS)* is *O(V + E), where
**V* is the number of vertices (nodes) and *E* is the number of
edges in the graph. This is because, in DFS, each vertex is visited
once, and every edge is explored once. The space complexity is
*O(V)* due to the recursive call stack or an explicit stack used for
traversal.

---

### *2. Implement DFS using recursion in C++ (Logic Only)*

The logic for *DFS using recursion* is straightforward:

1. Start from a source node, mark it as visited.

2. Recursively visit all its *unvisited neighbors*.
3. Continue this process for each neighbor, going as deep as possible
before backtracking.

The steps are:

* Use a *visited array* to keep track of visited nodes.

* Call the DFS function recursively for each unvisited adjacent node.
* This continues until all nodes connected to the starting node are
visited.

---

### *3. Implement BFS using a queue in C++ (Logic Only)*

The logic for *Breadth-First Search (BFS)* involves using a *queue*
to explore the graph level by level:

1. Start from the source node, mark it as visited, and push it into the
queue.
2. While the queue is not empty, pop a node, visit it, and enqueue all
its *unvisited neighbors*.
3. Mark all enqueued nodes as visited to avoid revisiting.
4. Repeat the process until the queue is empty.

This approach ensures that all nodes are visited layer by layer, which
is different from DFS's depth-first approach.

---

### *4. Write a program in C++ to traverse a graph using BFS (Logic
Only)*

The logic for *BFS traversal* is:

1. Initialize a *visited array* to keep track of visited nodes.

2. Use a *queue* to manage the nodes to be visited.
3. Start from a given node, mark it as visited, and enqueue it.
4. Loop until the queue is empty:

* Dequeue the front node.

* Visit its neighbors that haven’t been visited.
* Mark each neighbor as visited and enqueue it.
This continues until every connected node has been visited.

---

### *5. Write a C++ program to implement DFS and BFS on an

undirected graph using an adjacency matrix (Logic Only)*

For an *undirected graph with an adjacency matrix*, the logic is as

follows:

*DFS Logic:*

1. Use a *recursive DFS* function that starts from a given node.

2. Mark the node as visited.
3. Traverse all adjacent nodes that are connected (value 1 in the
matrix) and not yet visited.
4. Call DFS recursively for each of these nodes.

*BFS Logic:*

1. Use a *queue* to manage the traversal order.

2. Start from a given node, mark it as visited, and enqueue it.
3. For each node dequeued, visit all its neighbors represented as 1 in
the matrix.
4. Mark each neighbor as visited and enqueue it.
The adjacency matrix allows constant-time edge checks but uses
*O(V^2)* space complexity.

---

### *6. Explain how DFS and BFS can be used for searching a graph.*

*DFS (Depth-First Search):*

* DFS is useful for searching *deep paths* in a graph, exploring one

branch entirely before moving to another.
* It's ideal for *pathfinding, **detecting cycles, **solving mazes, and
**topological sorting*.
* DFS explores as far as possible along each branch before
backtracking, making it suitable for applications where deep
exploration is important.

*BFS (Breadth-First Search):*

* BFS is used for searching *level by level* in a graph, making it ideal

for finding the *shortest path* in an unweighted graph.
* It’s particularly effective for *minimum distance calculations,
**finding connected components, and **solving shortest-path
problems*.
* BFS explores all neighbors of a node before moving to the next
level, which guarantees the shortest path if one exists.

---
### *7. Describe the time complexity for both DFS and BFS.*

Both *DFS* and *BFS* have a time complexity of *O(V + E)*, where:

* *V* = Number of vertices (nodes) in the graph.

* *E* = Number of edges in the graph.

This is because each node and each edge is visited exactly once
during the traversal.

* In DFS, the space complexity is *O(V)* due to the recursive call

stack.
* In BFS, the space complexity is *O(V)* because of the queue that
holds the vertices during traversal.

For dense graphs, the complexity is near *O(V^2), while for sparse
graphs, it's closer to **O(V)*.

---

### *8. Discuss how to implement graph algorithms using C++ STL.*

The *C++ Standard Template Library (STL)* provides efficient ways to

implement graph algorithms:

1. *Adjacency List Representation:*

* Use vector<vector<int>> or unordered_map<int, vector<int>> to

represent the graph.
 * This is memory-efficient and allows quick access to adjacent
nodes.

2. *DFS and BFS Implementations:*

* For DFS, use stack<int> from STL or recursion to explore nodes.

* For BFS, use queue<int> to maintain the order of node traversal.

3. *Visited Tracking:*

* Use vector<bool> or unordered_set<int> to track visited nodes

efficiently.

4. *Priority Queues for Shortest Path:*

* priority_queue<pair<int, int>> is useful for Dijkstra’s algorithm to

find the shortest path.

STL structures make graph operations faster and easier to

implement with minimal boilerplate code.

---

Would you like me to solve example questions for DFS and BFS to
show these concepts in action?

### *1. Describe Binary Search with a step-by-step example.*

*Binary Search* is an efficient algorithm for finding an element in a
*sorted array*. It works by repeatedly dividing the search interval in
half. If the target value is less than the middle element, it searches
the left half; if it’s more, it searches the right half. This continues
until the value is found or the interval is empty.

*Example:*
Array: [2, 5, 8, 12, 16, 23, 38, 56, 72, 91]
Target: *23*

*Steps:*
1. Start with low = 0, high = 9 (array length - 1).
2. Find the middle index: mid = (0 + 9) / 2 = 4.
3. Element at index 4 is *16, which is less than **23*.
4. Move to the right half: low = mid + 1 = 5, high = 9.
5. Find new middle: mid = (5 + 9) / 2 = 7.
6. Element at index 7 is *56, which is greater than **23*.
7. Move to the left half: low = 5, high = 6.
8. Find new middle: mid = (5 + 6) / 2 = 5.
9. Element at index 5 is *23*, which is the target.

*Result:* Element *23* is found at index *5*.

*Time Complexity:* *O(log n)* due to halving the search space each
step.

---

### *2. Compare Linear Search and Binary Search in terms of

efficiency.*
| *Criteria* | *Linear Search* | *Binary Search* |
|----------------------|------------------------------|-----------------------
--------------|
| *Data Requirement* | Can work on *unsorted data* | Requires data
to be *sorted* |
| *Time Complexity* | *O(n)* | *O(log n)* |
| *Space Complexity* | *O(1)* | *O(1)* (Iterative), *O(log n)*
(Recursive) |
| *Best Case* | Element at the first position (*O(1)) | Middle
element (O(1)*) |
| *Worst Case* | Element at the last position (*O(n)) | Multiple
halving (O(log n)*) |
| *Use Case* | Small datasets or unsorted data | Large, sorted
datasets |

*Summary:* Binary Search is much faster (*logarithmic time

complexity) but requires sorted data, while Linear Search is slower
(linear time complexity*) but works on any dataset.

---

### *3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Binary

Search?*

*Advantages:*
1. *Efficient Time Complexity:* Operates in *O(log n)* time, making it
much faster than linear search for large datasets.
2. *Low Memory Usage:* Only needs a few variables, typically *O(1)*
space complexity if implemented iteratively.
3. *Predictable Search Time:* Since it always halves the search
space, it performs predictably in terms of steps.

*Disadvantages:*
1. *Requires Sorted Data:* Cannot work on unsorted arrays without
sorting first, which adds time complexity (*O(n log n)*).
2. *Static Structure:* It’s not efficient for *dynamic data* where
frequent insertions and deletions are needed.
3. *Recursive Implementation:* If implemented recursively, it
consumes additional space *O(log n)*.

---

### *4. Explain Bubble Sort with an example.*

*Bubble Sort* is a simple sorting algorithm that repeatedly steps
through the list, compares adjacent items, and *swaps* them if they
are in the wrong order. The largest elements *bubble up* to the end
of the list with each pass.

*Example:*
Unsorted Array: [5, 3, 8, 4, 2]

*Steps:*
1. *First Pass:* (5, 3) → swap → [3, 5, 8, 4, 2] → (5, 8) → no swap → (8,
4) → swap → [3, 5, 4, 8, 2] → (8, 2) → swap → [3, 5, 4, 2, 8]
2. *Second Pass:* [3, 5, 4, 2, 8] → (5, 4) → swap → [3, 4, 5, 2, 8] → (5, 2)
→ swap → [3, 4, 2, 5, 8]
3. *Third Pass:* [3, 4, 2, 5, 8] → (4, 2) → swap → [3, 2, 4, 5, 8]
4. *Fourth Pass:* [3, 2, 4, 5, 8] → (3, 2) → swap → [2, 3, 4, 5, 8]
*Sorted Array:* [2, 3, 4, 5, 8]

*Time Complexity:* *O(n²)* in the worst and average case.

---

### *5. Describe the working of Insertion Sort with an example.*

*Insertion Sort* builds a sorted array one item at a time. It
repeatedly takes the next element and *inserts* it into its correct
position in the already sorted part of the array.

*Example:*
Unsorted Array: [5, 3, 8, 4, 2]

*Steps:*
1. Start with the second element (3). Compare with 5, *insert* before
5 → [3, 5, 8, 4, 2]
2. Next element (8), already in order → [3, 5, 8, 4, 2]
3. Next (4), compare with 8, then 5 → insert before 5 → [3, 4, 5, 8, 2]
4. Next (2), compare with all and insert at the beginning → [2, 3, 4, 5,
8]

*Sorted Array:* [2, 3, 4, 5, 8]

*Time Complexity:* *O(n²)* for worst and average case.

---
### *6. Explain Selection Sort with an example.*
*Selection Sort* sorts by *repeatedly finding the minimum element*
from the unsorted part and moving it to the beginning.

*Example:*
Unsorted Array: [5, 3, 8, 4, 2]

*Steps:*
1. Find the minimum (2), swap with the first element → [2, 3, 8, 4, 5]
2. Find the next minimum (3), already in position → [2, 3, 8, 4, 5]
3. Find the next minimum (4), swap with 8 → [2, 3, 4, 8, 5]
4. Find the next minimum (5), swap with 8 → [2, 3, 4, 5, 8]

*Sorted Array:* [2, 3, 4, 5, 8]

*Time Complexity:* *O(n²)* for all cases.

---

### *7. Compare Bubble Sort, Insertion Sort, and Selection Sort.*

| *Criteria* | *Bubble Sort* | *Insertion Sort* | *Selection

Sort* |
|------------------------|------------------------|------------------------|---
---------------------|
| *Time Complexity* | O(n²) | O(n²) | O(n²) |
| *Space Complexity* | O(1) | O(1) | O(1) |
| *Stability* | Yes | Yes | No |
| *Best Case* | O(n) (Already Sorted) | O(n) (Already Sorted) |
O(n²) |
| *Use Case* | Small datasets | Small datasets, partially
sorted | Small datasets |
| *Number of Swaps* | High | Low | Minimal
|

---

### *8. Analyze and compare the time complexity of sorting

algorithms like Bubble Sort and Merge Sort.*
- *Bubble Sort:* Time Complexity is *O(n²)* in the average and worst
cases. It’s simple but inefficient for large datasets.
- *Merge Sort:* Time Complexity is *O(n log n)* for all cases. It uses a
*divide and conquer* approach, splitting the array into halves,
sorting each, and merging.
- *Comparison:* Merge Sort is much faster than Bubble Sort for large
datasets due to its logarithmic reduction in operations.

---

Would you like me to cover DFS, BFS, and their implementations

next?
### *1. Explain all types of loops in C++ with syntax and examples.*

In C++, loops are used to *repeat a block of code* multiple times until
a specified condition is met. The main types of loops are:

#### *a) For Loop*

The for loop is used when the number of iterations is known.
*Syntax:*

cpp
for (initialization; condition; update) {
// Code to execute
}

*Example:*

cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
cout << "Value of i: " << i << endl;
}
return 0;
}

*Output:*
Value of i: 0
Value of i: 1
Value of i: 2
Value of i: 3
Value of i: 4

---

#### *b) While Loop*

The while loop repeats a block of code as long as the condition is

true.
*Syntax:*

cpp
while (condition) {
// Code to execute
}

*Example:*

cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int count = 0;
while (count < 5) {
cout << "Count is: " << count << endl;
count++;
}
return 0;
}

*Output:*

Count is: 0
Count is: 1
Count is: 2
Count is: 3
Count is: 4

---

#### *c) Do-While Loop*

The do-while loop is similar to the while loop, but it *executes at

least once* even if the condition is false.
*Syntax:*
cpp
do {
// Code to execute
} while (condition);

*Example:*

cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
int count = 0;
do {
cout << "Count is: " << count << endl;
count++;
} while (count < 5);

return 0;
}

*Output:*
Count is: 0
Count is: 1
Count is: 2
Count is: 3
Count is: 4

---

### *2. Discuss different ways to pass arguments to a function in

C++ (Call by Value, Call by Reference).*

#### *a) Call by Value:*

In *Call by Value*, the actual value is passed to the function.

Modifying the parameter inside the function does not affect the
original variable.
*Example:*

cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

void changeValue(int x) {
x = 20; // This change will not reflect outside
}

int main() {
 int a = 10;
changeValue(a);
cout << "Value of a: " << a << endl; // Output: 10
return 0;
}

#### *b) Call by Reference:*

In *Call by Reference*, the address of the variable is passed.

Changes made inside the function affect the original variable.
*Example:*

cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

void changeValue(int &x) {

x = 20; // This change will reflect outside
}

int main() {
int a = 10;
changeValue(a);
cout << "Value of a: " << a << endl; // Output: 20
return 0;
}
*Summary:*

* Call by Value: *Copy* of the value is passed. No modification to the

original.
* Call by Reference: *Reference (address)* is passed. Original value
is modified.

---

### *3. How does dynamic memory allocation work in C++? Explain
new and delete operators with examples.*

Dynamic memory allocation allows memory to be allocated at

*runtime* using the new keyword and deallocated using the delete
keyword.

#### *a) new Operator:*

* Allocates memory on the *heap*.

* Returns a *pointer* to the allocated memory.

*Example:*

cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int *ptr = new int; // Allocate memory for an integer
*ptr = 50; // Assign value
cout << "Value: " << *ptr << endl;
delete ptr; // Free the allocated memory
return 0;
}

#### *b) delete Operator:*

* Frees the dynamically allocated memory.

* Prevents *memory leaks*.

*Example for Array:*

cpp
int *arr = new int[5]; // Allocate array
// Use array...
delete[] arr; // Free the memory

---

### *4. Discuss the importance of constructors and destructors in

C++ with examples.*
* *Constructor:* A special function that is automatically called when
an object is created. It is used to *initialize objects*.
* *Destructor:* A special function called when an object goes out of
scope or is deleted. It is used to *free resources*.

*Constructor Example:*

cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class MyClass {
public:
MyClass() {
cout << "Constructor called!" << endl;
}
};

int main() {
MyClass obj; // Constructor is called
return 0;
}

*Destructor Example:*
cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class MyClass {
public:
~MyClass() {
cout << "Destructor called!" << endl;
}
};

int main() {
MyClass obj; // Destructor is called automatically when program
ends
return 0;
}

---

### *5. Explain how to use vectors in C++ STL. Provide an example of
inserting and accessing elements.*

*Vectors* are part of the C++ Standard Template Library (STL). They
are *dynamic arrays* that can change size automatically.

*Syntax:*
cpp
vector<int> vec;

*Example:*

cpp
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;

int main() {
vector<int> vec;
vec.push_back(10); // Inserting elements
vec.push_back(20);
vec.push_back(30);

// Accessing elements
cout << "First element: " << vec[0] << endl;
cout << "Second element: " << vec[1] << endl;

return 0;
}

---
### *6. How is time complexity calculated for an algorithm? Explain
with an example.*

*Time Complexity* measures the *time taken* by an algorithm as a

function of the input size. It is represented using *Big O Notation*:

* *O(1):* Constant time

* *O(n):* Linear time
* *O(log n):* Logarithmic time
* *O(n²):* Quadratic time

*Example:*
A simple loop:

cpp
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
cout << i << endl;
}

*Time Complexity:* *O(n)* because it iterates n times.

---

### *7. What is inheritance? Explain different types of inheritance in

C++.*
*Inheritance* allows a class to *inherit properties and methods*
from another class.

* *Single Inheritance:* One class inherits from one base class.

* *Multiple Inheritance:* One class inherits from multiple base
classes.
* *Multilevel Inheritance:* A class inherits from another derived
class.
* *Hierarchical Inheritance:* Multiple classes inherit from one base
class.
* *Hybrid Inheritance:* Combination of more than one type of
inheritance.

---

Would you like me to continue with *Time Complexity analysis for

algorithms* in detail?