Some journalists decide to become specialists in specific areas, such as health, crime, the

environment etc. These are known as ‘beats’ in some countries and ‘specialisms’ in
others.
Specialisation allows a journalist to develop expertise and provide in-depth rather than
superficial coverage.
Here we look at the concept of specialist reporting, its advantages and challenges, and
how to succeed in this role.
What is a ‘beat’?
A beat is when a journalist focus on a specialised area of news coverage, such as health,
education, or transport. In America the term ‘beat’ is often used. In other countries
‘specialism’ is preferred.
Today, specialist reporters are responsible for identifying and reporting newsworthy
events within their assigned area, providing context and analysis to help their audience
understand the issues being covered. Throughout this article we will use the term
‘specialist reporters’.
Benefits
Specialisms offers several advantages:
 News judgement: Specialist reporters develop a keen understanding of what
constitutes news within their area. They can discern what is truly new,
significant, and relevant, thanks to their continuous dealing with the topic.
 Source relationships: By building relationships with leading figures in their
specialism, reporters gain access to valuable information and insights. They can
also better assess the credibility and motivations of their sources.
 Contextual reporting: Specialist reporters can provide historical and
contextual depth to their stories, helping their audience understand the
significance of current events.
 Humanising news: Knowing the people behind the stories allows the specialist
reporter to tell more humanised stories, and to better understand the impact of
events on people.
Challenges
While specialist reporting offers numerous benefits, it also presents potential pitfalls:
 Objectivity: Close relationships with sources can compromise a reporter’s
objectivity. It’s crucial to remember that the reporter’s primary responsibility is
to the audience, not to their sources.
 Integrity: Sources may attempt to manipulate specialist reporters by
withholding information or offering favours. Reporters must remain vigilant
and prioritise their journalistic integrity.
 Stagnation: Familiarity can breed complacency. Specialist reporters must
continually strive to see their specialism with fresh eyes, recognising the
newsworthiness of events that may seem routine.
  Jargon: While expertise is valuable, specialist reporters must
translate jargon into clear, accessible language for their audience.
Excelling as a specialist reporter
To succeed as a specialist reporter, consider these strategies:
 Preparation: Thoroughly research your specialism, including its history,
leading players, and relevant laws and regulations.
 Contacts: Cultivate relationships with reliable sources in your specialism
establishing clear expectations and maintaining open communication.
 News sSense: Develop a strong news sense to identify newsworthy events and
angles, even those overlooked by others.
 Simplicity: Translate specialised jargon into clear, concise language that your
audience can understand.
 Relationships: Offer value to your sources by providing fair coverage and
opportunities to share their perspectives.
 Boundaries: Always remember your duty to the audience, and do not become
too close to your sources.
 Learning: Keep up to date with the latest developments in your field, and
always be open to learning new things.
Summary
Specialist reporting is a valuable asset to a newsroom because it allows journalists to
provide in-depth, informed coverage. By mastering the skills and strategies outlined
above, reporters can excel in their chosen area and serve their audience effectively.
Political reporting Political journalism is a broad branch
of journalism that includes coverage of all
aspects of politics and political science, although
the term usually refers specifically to coverage of
civil governments and political power.
Political journalism aims to provide voters with
the information to formulate their own opinion
 and participate in community, local or national
matters that will affect them. According to Ed
Morrissey in an opinion article from
theweek.com, political journalism frequently
includes opinion journalism, as current political
events can be biased in their reporting. The
information provided includes facts, its
perspective is subjective and leans towards one
viewpoint.

Entertainment reporting Political journalism is a broad branch

of journalism that includes coverage of all
aspects of politics and political science, although
the term usually refers specifically to coverage of
civil governments and political power.
Political journalism aims to provide voters with
the information to formulate their own opinion
and participate in community, local or national
matters that will affect them. According to Ed
Morrissey in an opinion article from
theweek.com, political journalism frequently
includes opinion journalism, as current political
events can be biased in their reporting. The
information provided includes facts, its
perspective is subjective and leans towards one
viewpoint.

Sport reporting Sports journalism is a form of writing that

reports on matters pertaining to sporting topics
 and competitions. Sports journalism has its roots
in coverage of horse racing and boxing in the
early 1800s, mainly targeted towards elites, and
into the 1900s transitioned into an integral part of
the news business with newspapers having
dedicated sports sections. The increased
popularity of sports amongst the middle and
lower class led to the more coverage of sports
content in publications. The appetite for sports
resulted in sports-only media such as Sports
Illustrated and ESPN. There are many different
forms of sports journalism, ranging from play-by-
play and game recaps to analysis and
investigative journalism on important
developments in the sport. Technology and the
internet age has massively changed the sports
journalism space as it is struggling with the same
problems that the broader category of print
journalism is struggling with, mainly not being
able to cover costs due to falling subscriptions.
New forms of internet blogging and tweeting in
the current millennium have pushed the
boundaries of sports journalism.
Parliamentary reporting Parliamentary reporting in journalism involves
covering the activities of parliament, including
plenary sessions, committee meetings, and
oversight activities. It requires journalists to
understand parliamentary procedures, local laws,
and the importance of providing context and
 analysis beyond immediate news
events, according to Media Helping
Media. Effective parliamentary reporting aims to
inform citizens about the parliament and its
workings, fostering transparency and public
engagement.
Agricultural reporting Agricultural journalism is a field of
journalism that focuses on the various aspects of
agriculture, including agribusiness, best practices
and changing conditions for agriculture.
Agricultural journalism is part of agricultural
communication, an academic and professional
field focused on best practices for communicating
about agriculture. This kind of knowledge
transfer, both identify the perspectives of
agriculturalists in larger news stories, such as
weather or economics, and transfers knowledge
from knowledge holders, policy makers and
researchers, to agricultural producers and other
implementers involved in growing or processing
food.
Agricultural journalism has its roots in other
forms of rural journalism in the mid 19th
century. In the United States, journalism focused
on agriculture was an important part of rural
society, and has become an important source of
historical material for researchers of economics
and rural society. The late-20th century saw
increasing commercial pressure and retraction of
 the industry. However, recent studies of
Agricultural Journalism, suggest that farmers
adopt new technologies and methodologies
through journalism venues, especially in
communities in the Global South. Even with this
growth in attention, a study by the International
Federation of Agricultural Journalists, found that
the average agriculture journalism organization
employed less than 5 people.
There is a wide variety of agricultural
newspapers and magazines throughout the world.
Radio programmes are frequently used for
agricultural communication and Farm Radio
International is a leading organization in
providing programming to developing countries.
There are over 55 professional organizations,
such as the National American Agricultural
Journalists in the United States, and the majority
of these organizations are part of the federated
international organization: the International
Federation of Agricultural Journalists (initially
formed in 1933). These associations improve
standards, coordination and training across the
discipline.

Health reporting Health reporting in journalism covers the

dissemination of medical and health information
through various media. It encompasses reporting
on health news, medical research, and health
 policies. This field plays a crucial role in shaping
public health beliefs and influencing behaviors.
Science reporting Science journalism conveys reporting
about science to the public. The field typically
involves interactions
between scientists, journalists and the public.
The aim of a science journalist is to render very
detailed, specific, and often jargon-laden
information produced by scientists into a form
that non-scientists can understand and appreciate
while still communicating the information
accurately. One way science journalism can
achieve that is to avoid an information deficit
model of communication, which assumes a top-
down, one-way direction of communicating
information that limits an open dialogue between
knowledge holders and the public. One such way
of sparking an inclusive dialogue between
science and society that leads to a broader uptake
of post-high school science discoveries is science
blogs. Science journalists face an increasing need
to convey factually correct information through
storytelling techniques in order to tap into both
the rational and emotional side of their audiences,
the latter of which to some extent ensuring that
the information uptake persists.
Science journalists often have training in the
scientific disciplines that they cover. Some have
earned a degree in a scientific field before
 becoming journalists or exhibited talent in
writing about science subjects. However, good
preparation for interviews and even deceptively
simple questions such as "What does this mean to
the people on the street?" can often help a science
journalist develop material that is useful for the
intended audience.

Judicial/court reporting Judicial reporting, a specialized area of

journalism, involves covering court proceedings
and legal matters. It requires journalists to
navigate ethical, professional, and legal
complexities to ensure accurate and fair
reporting. This includes presenting both sides of a
case impartially, understanding local laws, and
adhering to principles like "innocence until
proven guilty".
Police reporting Police reporting in journalism involves news
organizations, including newspapers, wire
services, and freelance journalists, reporting on
crimes and the criminal justice system, including
investigative journalism, which delves deeply
into specific topics like serious crimes or
systemic issues. Crime reporting, a staple of news
coverage, provides explanations for crimes, helps
people understand laws and penalties, and can be
a source of fascination for those who obey the
law. Effective crime reporting requires accuracy,
 research skills, and strong interviewing skills.
Medical reporting Medical journalism is news reporting (as
opposed to peer-review publication) of medical
news and features. Medical journalism is diverse
and reflects its audience. The main division is
into (1) medical journalism for the general public,
which includes medical coverage in general news
publications and in specialty medical
publications, and
(2) medical journalism for doctors and other
professionals, which often appears in peer-
reviewed journals.
The accuracy of medical journalism varies
widely. Reviews of mass media publications have
graded most stories unsatisfactory, although there
were examples of excellence. Other reviews have
found that most errors in mass media publications
were the result of repeating errors in the original
journal articles or their press releases. Some
websites, such as Columbia Journalism
Review and Hippocrates Med Review, publish
and review medical journalism.

Education reporting Education journalism focuses on reporting news

and information about schools, education
systems, and related topics, such as teachers'
strikes, the cost of higher education, and distance
learning. It's a specific type of journalism that
explores the world of education, from traditional
 classrooms to alternative learning models.
Business reporting Business journalism is the part
of journalism that tracks, records, analyzes, and
interprets
the business, economic and financial activities
and changes that take place in
societies. Topics widely cover the entire purview
of all commercial activities related to
the economy.
This area of journalism provides news and
feature articles about people, places, and issues
related to the business sector.
Most[quantify] newspapers, magazines, radio, and
television-news shows include a business
segment. Detailed and in-depth business
journalism may appear in publications, radio, and
television channels dedicated specifically to
business and financial journalism.

TYPES OF JOURNALISM
 Broadcast journalism is the field of news and journals which are broadcast by
electronic methods instead of the older methods, such as printed newspapers and
posters. It works on radio (via air, cable, and Internet), television (via air, cable, and
Internet) and the World Wide Web. Such media disperse pictures (static and moving),
visual text and sounds.
 Investigative journalism is a form of journalism in which reporters deeply
investigate a single topic of interest, such as serious crimes, racial injustice, political
corruption, or corporate wrongdoing. An investigative journalist may spend months or
 years researching and preparing a report. Practitioners sometimes use the terms
"watchdog reporting" or "accountability reporting".
Most investigative journalism has traditionally been conducted by newspapers, wire
services, and freelance journalists. With the decline in income through advertising, many
traditional news services have struggled to fund investigative journalism, due to it being
very time-consuming and expensive. Journalistic investigations are increasingly carried
out by news organizations working together, even internationally (as in the case of
the Panama Papers, Paradise Papers and Pandora Papers), or by nonprofit outlets such
as ProPublica, which rely on the support of the public and benefactors to fund their work.
Definitions
University of Missouri journalism professor Steve Weinberg defined investigative
journalism as: "Reporting, through one's own initiative and work product, matters of
importance to readers, viewers, or listeners." In many cases, the subjects of the reporting
wish the matters under scrutiny to remain undisclosed. There are currently university
departments for teaching investigative journalism. Conferences are conducted presenting
peer-reviewed research into investigative journalism.
British media theorist Hugo de Burgh (2000) states: "An investigative journalist is a man
or woman whose profession is to discover the truth and to identify lapses from it in
whatever media may be available. The act of doing this generally is called investigative
journalism and is distinct from apparently similar work done by police, lawyers, auditors,
and regulatory bodies in that it is not limited as to target, not legally founded and closely
connected to publicity."
 Sports journalism is a form of writing that reports on matters pertaining
to sporting topics and competitions. Sports journalism has its roots in coverage of
horse racing and boxing in the early 1800s, mainly targeted towards elites, and into
the 1900s transitioned into an integral part of the news business
with newspapers having dedicated sports sections. The increased popularity of
sports amongst the middle and lower class led to the more coverage of sports
content in publications. The appetite for sports resulted in sports-only media such
 as Sports Illustrated and ESPN. There are many different forms of sports
journalism, ranging from play-by-play and game recaps to analysis and investigative
journalism on important developments in the sport. Technology and the internet age
has massively changed the sports journalism space as it is struggling with the same
problems that the broader category of print journalism is struggling with, mainly not
being able to cover costs due to falling subscriptions. New forms of
internet blogging and tweeting in the current millennium have pushed the
boundaries of sports journalism.
 Photojournalism is journalism that uses images to tell a news story. It usually only
refers to still images, but can also refer to video used in broadcast journalism.
Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography (such
as documentary photography, social documentary photography, war
photography, street photography and celebrity photography) by having a rigid
ethical framework which demands an honest and impartial approach that tells a story
in strictly journalistic terms. Photojournalists contribute to the news media, and help
communities connect with one other. They must be well-informed and
knowledgeable, and are able to deliver news in a creative manner that is both
informative and entertaining.
Similar to a writer, a photojournalist is a reporter, but they must often make decisions
instantly and carry photographic equipment, often while exposed to significant obstacles,
among them immediate physical danger, bad weather, large crowds, and limited physical
access to their subjects.
 Business journalism is the part of journalism that tracks, records, analyzes, and
interprets the business, economic and financial activities and changes that take
place in societies. Topics widely cover the entire purview of
all commercial activities related to the economy.
This area of journalism provides news and feature articles about people, places, and
issues related to the business sector. Most[quantify] newspapers, magazines, radio, and
television-news shows include a business segment. Detailed and in-depth business
journalism may appear in publications, radio, and television channels dedicated
specifically to business and financial journalism.
 Digital journalism, also known as netizen journalism or online journalism, is a
contemporary form of journalism where editorial content is distributed via
the Internet, as opposed to publishing via print or broadcast. What constitutes
digital journalism is debated amongst scholars. However, the primary product of
journalism, which is news and features on current affairs, is presented solely or in
combination as text, audio, video, or some interactive forms
like storytelling stories or newsgames and disseminated through digital media
technology.
Fewer barriers to entry, lowered distribution costs and diverse computer
networking technologies have led to the widespread practice of digital journalism. It has
democratized the flow of information that was previously controlled by traditional media
including newspapers, magazines, radio and television. In the context of digital
journalism, online journalists are often expected to possess a wide range of skills, yet
there is a significant gap between the perceived and actual performance of these skills,
influenced by time pressures and resource allocation decisions.
Some have asserted that a greater degree of creativity can be exercised with digital
journalism when compared to traditional journalism and traditional media. [6] The digital
aspect may be central to the journalistic message and remains, to some extent, within the
creative control of the writer, editor and/or publisher. While technological innovation has
been a primary focus in online journalism research, particularly in interactivity,
multimedia, and hypertext; there is a growing need to explore other factors that influence
its evolution.
It has been acknowledged that reports of its growth have tended to be exaggerated. In
fact, a 2019 Pew survey showed a 16% decline in the time spent on online news sites
since 2016.
 Overview
Digital journalism flows as journalism flows and is difficult to pinpoint where it is
and where it is going. In partnership with digital media, digital journalism uses facets of
digital media to perform journalist tasks, for example, using the internet as a tool rather
than a singular form of digital media. There is no absolute agreement as to what
constitutes digital journalism. Mu Lin argues that, “Web and mobile platforms demand us
to adopt a platform-free mindset for an all-inclusive production approach – create the
[digital] contents first, then distribute via appropriate platforms." The repurposing of print
content for an online audience is sufficient for some, while others require content created
with the digital medium's unique features like hypertextuality. Fondevila Gascón adds
multimedia and interactivity to complete the digital journalism essence. For Deuze,
online journalism can be functionally differentiated from other kinds of journalism by its
technological component which journalists have to consider when creating or displaying
content.
Digital journalistic work may range from purely editorial content like CNN
(produced by professional journalists) online to public-connectivity websites like
Slashdot (communication lacking formal barriers of entry). The difference of digital
journalism from traditional journalism may be in its re-conceptualised role of the reporter
in relation to audiences and news organizations. The expectations of society for instant
information was important for the evolution of digital journalism. However, it is likely
that the exact nature and roles of digital journalism will not be fully known for some
time. Some researchers even argue that the free distribution of online content, online
advertisement and the new way recipients use news could undermine the traditional
business model of mass media distributors that is based on single-copy sales,
subscriptions and the selling of advertisement space.
 A feature story is a piece of non-fiction writing about news covering a single
topic in detail. A feature story is a type of soft news, primarily focused on
entertainment rather than a higher level of professionalism. The main subtypes are
the news feature and the human-interest story.
A feature story is distinguished from other types of non-news stories by the quality of the
writing. They should be memorable for their reporting, crafting, creativity, and economy
of expression. Unlike news reports that mainly focus on factual evidence, feature stories
tend to be subjective. Features vary in style, focus, and structure but overall, maintain an
entertaining tone rather than a strictly informative one.
Style
A feature story differs from straight news reporting. It normally presents newsworthy
events and information through a narrative story, complete with a plot and story
characters. It differs from a short story primarily in that the content is not fictional. Like
literature, the feature story relies upon creativity and subjectivity to make an emotional
connection with the readers. It may also highlight some universal aspects of human
nature. Unlike straight news, the feature story serves the purpose of entertaining the
readers, in addition to informing them. Although truthful and based on good facts, they
are less objective than straight news.
Unlike straight news, the subject of a feature story is usually not time sensitive. It
generally features good news.
Feature stories are usually written in an active style, with an emphasis on lively,
entertaining prose. Some forms, such as a color story, uses description as the main mode.
 Political journalism is a broad branch of journalism that includes coverage of all
aspects of politics and political science, although the term usually refers
specifically to coverage of civil governments and political power.
Political journalism aims to provide voters with the information to formulate their own
opinion and participate in community, local or national matters that will affect them.
According to Ed Morrissey in an opinion article from theweek.com, political journalism
frequently includes opinion journalism, as current political events can be biased in their
reporting. The information provided includes facts, its perspective is subjective and leans
towards one viewpoint.
Brendan Nyhan and John M. Sides argue that "Journalists who report on politics are
frequently unfamiliar with political science research or question its relevance to their
work". Journalists covering politics who are unfamiliar with information that would
provide context to their stories can enable the story to take a different spin on what is
being reported.
Political journalism is provided through different mediums, in print, broadcast, or online
reporting. Digital media use has increased and it provides instant coverage of campaigns,
politics, event news, and an accessible platform for the candidate. Media outlets known
for their political journalism like The New York Times and the Washington Post, have
increased their use of this medium as well. Printed, online, and broadcast political humor
presented as entertainment has been used to provide updates on aspects of government
status, political news, campaign, and election updates. According to Geoffrey Baym, the
information provided may not be considered "fake news" but the lines between
entertainment and factual news may seem blurred or biased while providing political
updates. This type of journalism is analyzed, interpreted, and discussed by news
media pundits and editorialists. It can lack objectivity which can prevent the accuracy of
the presented information. The reporting of news with a bias viewpoint can also take
away the audience's ability to form their own opinion or beliefs of what has been
reported. This type of reporting is subjective with a possible social or political purpose.
Overview
Civic journalism has begun to develop a strong following again after first
emerging as a philosophy in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Those who find civic
journalism to be a new, progressive, and profound method for the media to engage with
the public see it as an opportunity to revitalize democracy as we know it. As
technological advances overtake the modern world, it is becoming less common for the
general public to buy newspapers or watch TV news to inform themselves on the events
in the political sphere. Including this, younger generations, such as, Generation Y
(Millennials) and Generation Z, are not coming out to the polls due to a variety of
reasons. Overall, democracy is beginning to fail as there is a lack of civic
engagement and even interference with democratic processes, such as Russia's
involvement with the 2016 United States election, and even electronic voting (e-voting)
machines that are being hacked and altering results. All in all, proponents of civic
journalism believe that for democracy to regain its traction and glory in the modern
world, the media must be more receptive to feedback from the public and take initiative
to engage the public as well.
According to Oxford Research Encyclopedias, the popularity of political
journalism is rising, and the area is becoming one of the more dominant domains of
journalism. Political journalism is meant to be more of an overseer of the democratic
process as they relate to civic engagement rather than a scapegoat for the issues with
democracy. Including this, there are four key concepts that political journalism can be
boiled down to. These concepts are the framing of politics as a strategic game,
interpretive versus straight news, conflict framing and media negativity, and finally,
political or partisan bias. In essence, these can be viewed as the four quintessential pillars
of civic journalism.
 Watchdog journalism is a form of investigative journalism where journalists,
authors or publishers of a news publication fact-
check and interview political and public figures to increase accountability in
democratic governance systems.
Role
Watchdog journalists gather information about the actions of people in power and inform
the public in order to hold elected officials to account. This requires maintaining a certain
professional distance from people in power. Watchdog journalists are different
from propagandist journalists in that they report from an independent, nongovernmental
perspective. Due to watchdog journalism's unique features, it also often works as
the fourth estate. The general issues, topics, or scandals that watchdog journalists cover
are political corruption and any wrongdoing of people in power such as government
officials or corporation executives.
 Data journalism or data-driven journalism (DDJ) is journalism based on the
filtering and analysis of large data sets for the purpose of creating or elevating a
news story.
Data journalism reflects the increased role of numerical data in the production and
distribution of information in the digital era. It involves a blending of journalism with
other fields such as data visualization, computer science, and statistics, "an overlapping
set of competencies drawn from disparate fields".
Data journalism has been widely used to unite several concepts and link them to
journalism. Some see these as levels or stages leading from the simpler to the more
complex uses of new technologies in the journalistic process.
Many data-driven stories begin with newly available resources such as open source
software, open access publishing and open data, while others are products of public
records requests or leaked materials. This approach to journalism builds on older
practices, most notably on computer-assisted reporting (CAR), a label used mainly in the
US for decades. Other labels for partially similar approaches are "precision journalism",
based on a book by Philipp Meyer, published in 1972, where he advocated the use of
techniques from social sciences in researching stories. Data-driven journalism has a wider
approach. At the core the process builds on the growing availability of open data that is
freely available online and analyzed with open source tools. Data-driven journalism
strives to reach new levels of service for the public, helping the general public or specific
groups or individuals to understand patterns and make decisions based on the findings.
As such, data-driven journalism might help to put journalists into a role relevant for
society in a new way.
Telling stories based on the data is the primary goal. The findings from data can be
transformed into any form of journalistic writing. Visualizations can be used to create a
clear understanding of a complex situation. Furthermore, elements of storytelling can be
used to illustrate what the findings actually mean, from the perspective of someone who
is affected by a development. This connection between data and story can be viewed as a
"new arc" trying to span the gap between developments that are relevant, but poorly
understood, to a story that is verifiable, trustworthy, relevant and easy to remember.
 Definitions

The data-driven journalism process.

Veglis and Bratsas defined data journalism as "the process of extracting useful
information from data, writing articles based on the information, and embedding
visualizations (interacting in some cases) in the articles that help readers understand the
significance of the story or allow them to pinpoint data that relate to them"
Antonopoulos and Karyotakis define the practice of data journalism as "a way of
enhancing reporting and news writing with the use and examination of statistics in order
to provide a deeper insight into a news story and to highlight relevant data. One trend in
the digital era of journalism has been to disseminate information to the public via
interactive online content through data visualization tools such as tables, graphs, maps,
infographics, microsites, and visual worlds. The in-depth examination of such data sets
can lead to more concrete results and observations regarding timely topics of interest. In
addition, data journalism may reveal hidden issues that seemingly were not a priority in
the news coverage".
According to architect and multimedia journalist Mirko Lorenz, data-driven
journalism is primarily a workflow that consists of the following elements: digging
deep into data by scraping, cleansing and structuring it, filtering by mining for specific
information, visualizing and making a story. This process can be extended to provide
results that cater to individual interests and the broader public.
Data journalism trainer and writer Paul Bradshaw describes the process of data-
driven journalism in a similar manner: data must be found, which may require specialized
skills like MySQL or Python, then interrogated, for which understanding of jargon and
statistics is necessary, and finally visualized and mashed with the aid of open-source
tools.
A more results-driven definition comes from data reporter and web strategist Henk
van Ess (2012). "Data-driven journalism enables reporters to tell untold stories, find new
angles or complete stories via a workflow of finding, processing and presenting
significant amounts of data (in any given form) with or without open tools." Van Ess
claims that some of the data-driven workflow leads to products that "are not in orbit with
the laws of good story telling" because the result emphases on showing the problem, not
explaining the problem. "A good data driven production has different layers. It allows
you to find personalized that are only important for you, by drilling down to relevant but
also enables you to zoom out to get the big picture."
In 2013, Van Ess came with a shorter definition in that doesn't involve visualisation per
se:"Data journalism can be based on any data that has to be processed first with tools
before a relevant story is possible. It doesn't include visualization per se."
However, one of the problems for defining data journalism is that many definitions are
not clear enough and focus on describing the computational methods of optimization,
analysis, and visualization of information.
 Investigative journalism is a form of journalism in which reporters deeply
investigate a single topic of interest, such as serious crimes, racial
injustice, political corruption, or corporate wrongdoing. An investigative journalist
may spend months or years researching and preparing a report. Practitioners
sometimes use the terms "watchdog reporting" or "accountability reporting".
Most investigative journalism has traditionally been conducted by newspapers, wire
services, and freelance journalists. With the decline in income through advertising, many
 traditional news services have struggled to fund investigative journalism, due to it being
very time-consuming and expensive. Journalistic investigations are increasingly carried
out by news organizations working together, even internationally (as in the case of
the Panama Papers, Paradise Papers and Pandora Papers), or by nonprofit outlets such
as ProPublica, which rely on the support of the public and benefactors to fund their work.
Definitions
University of Missouri journalism professor Steve Weinberg defined investigative
journalism as: "Reporting, through one's own initiative and work product, matters of
importance to readers, viewers, or listeners." In many cases, the subjects of the reporting
wish the matters under scrutiny to remain undisclosed. There are currently university
departments for teaching investigative journalism. Conferences are conducted presenting
peer-reviewed research into investigative journalism.
British media theorist Hugo de Burgh (2000) states: "An investigative journalist is a man
or woman whose profession is to discover the truth and to identify lapses from it in
whatever media may be available. The act of doing this generally is called investigative
journalism and is distinct from apparently similar work done by police, lawyers, auditors,
and regulatory bodies in that it is not limited as to target, not legally founded and closely
connected to publicity."
History
Early newspapers in British colonial America were often suppressed by the authorities for
their investigative journalism. Examples include Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and
Domestick and Benjamin Franklin's New England Courant. Journalists who reported on
the doings of the British authorities would later contribute to revolutionary sentiment in
the run-up to the American Revolution; one prominent example was the Boston Gazette,
contributed to by Samuel Adams among others.
American journalism textbooks point out that muckraking standards promoted
by McClure's Magazine around 1902, "Have become integral to the character of modern
investigative journalism." Furthermore, the successes of the early muckrakers continued
to inspire journalists.
The outlook for investigative journalism in the United States was improved by the 1960s
with the Freedom of Information Act and New York Times Co. v. Sullivan. The invention
of the photocopier also offered an assistive tool to whistleblowers.
The growth of media conglomerates in the U.S. since the 1980s has been accompanied by
massive cuts in the budgets for investigative journalism. A 2002 study concluded "that
investigative journalism has all but disappeared from the nation's commercial
airwaves." Non-commercial journalism has increasingly stepped up to work on this
growing need for in-depth investigations and reporting. One of the largest teams of
investigative journalists is the Washington-based International Consortium of
Investigative Journalists (ICIJ) launched in 1997 by the Center for Public Integrity which
includes 165 investigative reporters in over 65 countries working collaboratively on
crime, corruption, and abuse of power at a global level, under Gerard Ryle as
Director. Working with major media outlets globally, they have exposed organised crime,
international tobacco companies, private military cartels, asbestos companies, climate
change lobbyists, details of Iraq and Afghanistan war contracts, and most recently
the Panama Papers[10] and Paradise Papers. The investigative Commons center opened
in Berlin, Germany in 2021 and houses the European Center for Constitutional and
Human Rights, Forensic Architecture, and Bellingcat.
 Citizen journalism, also known as collaborative media, participatory
journalism, democratic journalism, guerrilla journalism, grassroots
journalism, or street journalism, is based upon members of the community
playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and
disseminating news and information. Courtney C. Radsch defines citizen
journalism "as an alternative and activist form of news gathering and reporting that
functions outside mainstream media institutions, often as a response to
shortcomings in the professional journalistic field, that uses similar journalistic
practices but is driven by different objectives and ideals and relies on alternative
sources of legitimacy than traditional or mainstream journalism". Jay Rosen offers
a simpler definition: "When the people formerly known as the audience employ
 the press tools they have in their possession to inform one another." The
underlying principle of citizen journalism is that ordinary people, not professional
journalists, can be the main creators and distributors of news. Citizen journalism
should not be confused with community journalism or civic journalism, both of
which are practiced by professional journalists; collaborative journalism, which is
the practice of professional and non-professional journalists working
together; and social journalism, which denotes a digital publication with a hybrid
of professional and non-professional journalism. Seungahn Nah and Deborah S.
Chung say in their book "Understanding Citizen Journalism as Civic
Participation" that citizen journalism is "highly embedded in local communities
where community residents engage in day-to-day routines of community
storytelling about local politics, public affairs, community events,
neighborhood issues, schools, public transportation, land uses and environments,
and much more."
Citizen journalism is a specific form of both citizen media and user-generated
content (UGC). By juxtaposing the term "citizen", with its attendant qualities of civic-
mindedness and social responsibility, with that of "journalism", which refers to a
particular profession, Courtney C. Radsch argues that this term best describes this
particular form of online and digital journalism conducted by amateurs because it
underscores the link between the practice of journalism and its relation to the political
and public sphere.
Citizen journalism was made more feasible by the development of various online internet
platforms. New media technology, such as social networking and media-sharing
websites, in addition to the increasing prevalence of cellular telephones, have made
citizen journalism more accessible to people worldwide. Recent advances in new media
have started to have a profound political impact. Due to the availability of technology,
citizens often can report breaking news more quickly than traditional media reporters.
Notable examples of citizen journalism reporting from major world events are, the 2010
Haiti earthquake, the Arab Spring, the Occupy Wall Street movement, the 2013 protests
in Turkey, the Euromaidan events in Ukraine, and Syrian Civil War, the 2014 Ferguson
unrest, the Black Lives Matter movement, and the Russian Invasion of Ukraine.
Being that citizen journalism is yet to develop a conceptual framework and guiding
principles, it can be heavily opinionated and subjective, making it more supplemental
than primary in terms of forming public opinion. Critics of the phenomenon, including
professional journalists and news organizations, claim that citizen journalism is
unregulated, amateur, and haphazard in quality and coverage. Furthermore, citizen
journalists, due to their lack of professional affiliation, are thought to lack resources as
well as focus on how best to serve the public. A research team of citizen journalists
created an OER library that contains video interviews to provide access to reliable source
 Lifestyle journalism is the field of journalism that provides news and opinion,
often in an entertaining tone, regarding goods and services used by consumers in
their everyday life. Lifestyle journalism covers travel, fashion, fitness, leisure,
food, and arts, among other topics.
 Food journalism is a field of journalism that focuses on news and current events
related to food, its production, and the cultures of producing and consuming that
food. Typically, food journalism includes a scope broader than the work of food
critics, who analyze restaurants and their products, and is similar to a sub-genre of
"food writing", which documents the experience and history of food.[1]
Food journalism often explores the impact of current events on food, such as how
the Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food industry, or larger issues, such
as impacts of climate change on food production.[2] Increasingly, these themes overlap
with public health journalism, political journalism, and economic journalism.[3] This
expands on themes traditional to food criticism, which has tended to focus on fine
dining and other kinds of food writing, like cookbook writing.[4] These themes are similar
to the themes covered in agricultural journalism, which focuses on the agriculture
industry for agricultural audiences.
The contemporary field of food journalism grew in the mid-20th century,
especially as issues like food rationing during and after World War II. [5] In the United
States, the Association of Food Journalists provides professional standards and a code of
ethics.
 Opinion journalism is journalism that makes no claim of objectivity. Although
distinguished from advocacy journalism in several ways, both forms feature a
subjective viewpoint, usually with some social or political purpose. Common
examples include newspaper columns, editorials, op-eds, editorial
cartoons and punditry. In addition to investigative journalism and explanatory
journalism, opinion journalism is part of public journalism.
Purpose
Though research on opinion journalism is limited, scholars have suggested that opinion
journalists help to evaluate, contextualize and explain the news in ways traditional news
reporters may not have the capacity to do. Opinion journalists are a resource for their
audience that helps them make sense of what is happening in the world, their country and
their community.
Key Features.
1. Subjectivity and personal voice:
Opinion writing displays a personal tone, while more traditional journalism is written in
more of a neutral tone. Unlike traditional journalism, opinion journalism allows the
author to express their own personal beliefs about a topic. The opinion of the author is
central to the piece, and it comes from personal experience, research and insight .
2. Persuasion:
One of opinion writings’ main goals is to persuade the reader. They are to sway the
reader to stand how they stand on a certain topic, and this is a big reason why opinion
pieces can feel more engaging than traditional journalism. Opinion journalism wants to
persuade instead of simply informing.
3. Engagement with current issues:
Opinion writing is frequently placed with current events. Authors write about current
events that allows the writing to be more relevant and timely.
 4. Subjective analysis backed by facts:
Although it has opinion, opinion writing still needs to have factual support. A strong
opinion piece provides evidence to back up what is being said in the writing. This can
include quotes, data, or historical context.
5. Clear stance and strong argument:
Opinion writing is all about being clear and defending a point-of-view. A writer’s
position is often stated at the beginning of the piece and then is supported with factual
evidence. Opinion writing demands that the writer is confident and can be able to defend
against counter arguments (Journalism University).
Controversy
Opinion Journalism can cause a lot of controversy due to not everyone agreeing with the
opinion that is being discussed. Politics is a very common place where this controversy
takes place. News outlets like "ABC News", "CNN" and "NBC News" lean left but
outlets like "Fox News", "The Epoch Times" and "The Washington Post" lean right.