MACLP

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that

mastering a language would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of
us trying to learn a second language as adults, this might seem to be true.
However, young children master language very quickly with relative ease. B. F.
Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam
Chomsky (1965) criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the
mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined. The
use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction and appears to
follow a very similar pattern in children from vastly different cultures and
backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that we are born with a biological
predisposition to acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns,
2011). Moreover, it appears that there is a critical period for language
acquisition, such that this proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in
life; generally, as people age, the ease with which they acquire and master new
languages diminishes (Johnson & Newport, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton,
1995).
Children begin to learn about language from a very early age (Table 1). In fact, it
appears that this is occurring even before we are born. Newborns show a
preference for their mother’s voice and appear to be able to discriminate
between the language spoken by their mother and other languages. Babies are
also attuned to the languages being used around them and show preferences for
videos of faces that are moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken language
versus videos that do not synchronize with the audio (Blossom & Morgan, 2006;
Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).

Stage Age Developmental Language and Communicati

1 0–3 months Reflexive communication

2 3–8 months Reflexive communication; interest in others

3 8–12 months Intentional communication; sociability

 Stage Age Developmental Language and Communicati

4 12–18 months First words

5 18–24 months Simple sentences of two words

6 2–3 years Sentences of three or more words

7 3–5 years Complex sentences; has conversations

Table 1. Stages of Language and Communication Development

Each language has its own set of phonemes that are used to
generate morphemes, words, and so on. Babies can discriminate among the
sounds that make up a language (for example, they can tell the difference
between the “s” in vision and the “ss” in fission); early on, they can differentiate
between the sounds of all human languages, even those that do not occur in the
languages that are used in their environments. However, by the time that they
are about 1 year old, they can only discriminate among those phonemes that are
used in the language or languages in their environments (Jensen, 2011; Werker &
Lalonde, 1988; Werker & Tees, 1984).

NEWBORN COMMUNICATION

Do newborns communicate? Certainly, they do. They do not, however,

communicate with the use of language. Instead, they communicate their
thoughts and needs with body posture (being relaxed or still), gestures, cries,
and facial expressions. A person who spends adequate time with an infant can
learn which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate hunger, discomfort, or
frustration.
Intentional Vocalizations
Infants begin to vocalize and repeat vocalizations within the first couple of
months of life. That gurgling, musical vocalization called cooing can serve as a
source of entertainment to an infant who has been laid down for a nap or seated
in a carrier on a car ride. Cooing serves as practice for vocalization. It also allows
the infant to hear the sound of their own voice and try to repeat sounds that are
entertaining. Infants also begin to learn the pace and pause of conversation as
they alternate their vocalization with that of someone else and then take their
turn again when the other person’s vocalization has stopped. Cooing initially
involves making vowel sounds like “oooo.” Later, as the baby moves into
babbling (see below), consonants are added to vocalizations such as
“nananananana.”
Babbling and Gesturing
Between 6 and 9 months, infants begin making even more elaborate
vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language. Guttural sounds,
clicks, consonants, and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the
ability to repeat whatever sounds are characteristic of the language heard. These
babies repeat certain syllables (ma-ma-ma, da-da-da, ba-ba-ba), a vocalization
called babbling because of the way it sounds. Eventually, these sounds will no
longer be used as the infant grows more accustomed to a particular
language. Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate wants, reactions, and
feelings. Because gesturing seems to be easier than vocalization for some
toddlers, sign language is sometimes taught to enhance one’s ability to
communicate by making use of the ease of gesturing. The rhythm and pattern of
language are used when deaf babies sign just as when hearing babies babble.
At around ten months of age, infants can understand more than they can
say. You may have experienced this phenomenon as well if you have ever tried to
learn a second language. You may have been able to follow a conversation more
easily than to contribute to it.

Holophrasic Speech
Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may
use partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages. These one-word
expressions are referred to as holophrasic speech (holophrase). For example,
the child may say “ju” for the word “juice” and use this sound when referring to a
bottle. The listener must interpret the meaning of the holophrase. When this is
someone who has spent time with the child, interpretation is not too
difficult. They know that “ju” means “juice” which means the baby wants some
milk! But, someone who has not been around the child will have trouble knowing
what is meant. Imagine the parent who exclaims to a friend, “Ezra’s talking all
the time now!” The friend hears only “ju da ga” which, the parent explains,
means “I want some milk when I go with Daddy.”
Underextension
A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the
word can be used for only that particular object. Only the family’s Irish Setter is a
“doggie.” This is referred to as underextension. More often, however, a child may
think that a label applies to all objects that are similar to the original object. In
overextension, all animals become “doggies,” for example.
First words and cultural influences
First words for English-speaking children tend to be nouns. The child labels
objects such as a cup or a ball. In a verb-friendly language such as Chinese,
however, children may learn more verbs. This may also be due to the different
emphasis given to objects based on culture. Chinese children may be taught to
notice action and relationship between objects while children from the United
States may be taught to name an object and its qualities (color, texture, size,
etc.). These differences can be seen when comparing interpretations of art by
older students from China and the United States.
Vocabulary growth spurt
One-year-olds typically have a vocabulary of about 50 words. But by the time
they become toddlers, they have a vocabulary of about 200 words and begin
putting those words together in telegraphic speech (short phrases). This
language growth spurt is called the naming explosion because many early
words are nouns (persons, places, or things).
Two-word sentences and telegraphic speech
Words are soon combined and 18-month-old toddlers can express themselves
further by using phrases such as “baby bye-bye” or “doggie pretty.” Words
needed to convey messages are used, but the articles and other parts of speech
necessary for grammatical correctness are not yet included. These expressions
sound like a telegraph (or perhaps a better analogy today would be that they
read like a text message) where unnecessary words are not used. “Give baby
ball” is used rather than “Give the baby the ball.” Or a text message of “Send
money now!” rather than “Dear Mother. I really need some money to take care of
my expenses.” You get the idea.
Child-directed speech
Why is a horse a “horsie”? Have you ever wondered why adults tend to use
“baby talk” or that sing-song type of intonation and exaggeration used when
talking to children? This represents a universal tendency and is known as child-
directed speech or motherese or parentese. It involves exaggerating the vowel
and consonant sounds, using a high-pitched voice, and delivering the phrase
with great facial expression. Why is this done? It may be in order to clearly
articulate the sounds of a word so that the child can hear the sounds involved. Or
it may be because when this type of speech is used, the infant pays more
attention to the speaker and this sets up a pattern of interaction in which the
speaker and listener are in tune with one another. When I demonstrate this in
class, the students certainly pay attention and look my way. Amazing! It also
works in the college classroom!

Theories of Language Development

How is language learned? Each major theory of language development
emphasizes different aspects of language learning: that infants’ brains are
genetically attuned to language, that infants must be taught, and that infants’
social impulses foster language learning. The first two theories of language
development represent two extremes in the level of interaction required for
language to occur (Berk, 2007).
Chomsky and the language acquisition device
This theory posits that infants teach themselves and that language learning is
genetically programmed. The view is known as nativism and was advocated by
Noam Chomsky, who suggested that infants are equipped with a neurological
construct referred to as the language acquisition device (LAD), which makes
infants ready for language. The LAD allows children, as their brains develop, to
derive the rules of grammar quickly and effectively from the speech they hear
every day. Therefore, language develops as long as the infant is exposed to it. No
teaching, training, or reinforcement is required for language to develop. Instead,
language learning comes from a particular gene, brain maturation, and the
overall human impulse to imitate.
Skinner and reinforcement
This theory is the opposite of Chomsky’s theory because it suggests that infants
need to be taught language. This idea arises from behaviorism. Learning theorist,
B. F. Skinner, suggested that language develops through the use of
reinforcement. Sounds, words, gestures, and phrases are encouraged by
following the behavior with attention, words of praise, treats, or anything that
increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. This repetition
strengthens associations, so infants learn the language faster as parents speak
to them often. For example, when a baby says “ma-ma,” the mother smiles and
repeats the sound while showing the baby attention. So, “ma-ma” is repeated
due to this reinforcement.
Social pragmatics
Another language theory emphasizes the child’s active engagement in learning
the language out of a need to communicate. Social impulses foster infant
language because humans are social beings and we must communicate because
we are dependent on each other for survival. The child seeks information,
memorizes terms, imitates the speech heard from others, and learns to
conceptualize using words as language is acquired. Tomasello & Herrmann
(2010) argue that all human infants, as opposed to chimpanzees, seek to master
words and grammar in order to join the social world [1] Many would argue that all
three of these theories (Chomsky’s argument for nativism, conditioning, and
social pragmatics) are important for fostering the acquisition of language
(Berger, 2004).