PERSONALITY –

The concept of personality arises from the fascinating spectrum of human individuality. People differ meaningfully in how
they typically think, feel, and behave, and these distinctive patterns of behavior help define a person’s identity. Personality
can be defined as the distinctive and relatively enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize an
individual’s responses to life situations (Robins et al., 2007). This definition emphasizes both personal characteristics and
situational influences, highlighting the importance of "person-by-situation" interactions.

Typically, thoughts, feelings, and actions reflecting personality have three characteristics:

They form behavioral components of identity that distinguish one person from another.

They are seen as arising primarily from internal rather than environmental factors.

They appear organized and structured, suggesting a coherent internal system guiding behavior.

The study of personality has been shaped by several major perspectives, including psychodynamic, humanistic, biological,
behavioral, cognitive, and sociocultural approaches, each offering unique insights into how personality develops and
functions.

Theories Of Personality

The Psychodynamic Perspective

The first formal theory of personality was proposed by Sigmund Freud in the early 20th century, forming the
foundation of the psychodynamic approach. Freud’s work evolved into (1) a theory of personality, (2) an approach to
studying the mind, and (3) a method of psychotherapy, known as psychoanalysis.

Psychic Energy and Mental Events:

Freud conceptualized personality as an energy system, where instinctual drives generate psychic energy that seeks
expression. He categorized mental activities into three levels:

The conscious mind (current awareness),

The preconscious mind (memories easily retrievable),

The unconscious mind (wishes, impulses, and memories beyond awareness but influential in behavior) (Freud,
1923/1961).

Structure of Personality:
Freud divided personality into three interacting systems:

The id, present at birth, operates on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification without regard for
reality.

The ego develops to mediate between the id’s demands, the realities of the external world, and the constraints of the
superego, functioning according to the reality principle.

The superego, emerging around ages 4–5, internalizes societal and parental values, striving for moral standards and
self-control (Freud, 1923/1961).

The ego thus acts as the "executive" of personality, balancing the often conflicting demands of the id, superego, and reality.

Conflict, Anxiety, and Defense Mechanisms:

Freud posited that personality dynamics are shaped by ongoing conflicts between id impulses, ego control, and superego
demands. When the ego faces overwhelming anxiety, it may employ defense mechanisms—unconscious strategies that
distort reality to protect the individual.
Key defense mechanisms include repression (blocking distressing thoughts from consciousness) and sublimation
(channeling unacceptable impulses into socially valued activities) (Freud, 1926/1959; A. Freud, 1936/1966).

Psychosexual Development:
Freud emphasized that early childhood experiences profoundly impact adult personality. He proposed a sequence of
psychosexual stages, each focusing on different erogenous zones:

Oral stage (infancy): Pleasure from oral activities; fixation may lead to dependency.
 Anal stage (2–3 years): Focus on bowel control; harsh training may cause compulsiveness, while lax training may result
in disorganization.

Phallic stage (4–5 years): Sexual feelings center on the opposite-sex parent, producing the Oedipus and Electra
complexes; resolution through identification with the same-sex parent contributes to gender identity and superego
development.

Latency stage (6–12 years): Sexual impulses are dormant.

Genital stage (adolescence onward): Mature sexual intimacy emerges (Freud, 1905/1953).

Fixation or regression at any stage may lead to specific adult personality traits, depending on the nature of early conflicts.

Neoanalytic and Object Relations Approaches

Neoanalytic theorists, including Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, and Carl Jung, modified Freud’s theories,
criticizing his overemphasis on infantile sexuality and neglect of social and cultural influences (Kurzweil, 1989). They
asserted that personality development continues throughout life, not just in childhood.

Alfred Adler (1870–1937) proposed that humans are driven by social interest—the desire to advance collective welfare—
and by a striving for superiority to overcome feelings of inferiority. In contrast, Carl Jung (1875–1961) introduced the
concept of a collective unconscious, containing universal archetypes reflected in myths and symbols across cultures.

Later, theorists like Melanie Klein, Otto Kernberg, Margaret Mahler, and Heinz Kohut developed object relations theories,
emphasizing how early caregiver relationships form internalized representations that shape future social interactions.
Negative early experiences can lead to maladaptive relationship patterns and self-fulfilling prophecies (Westen, 1998).

The Phenomenological-Humanistic Perspective

Unlike Freud, phenomenological theorists like George Kelly and Carl Rogers believed that behavior is driven by
immediate conscious experience, not unconscious drives (Kelly, 1955; Rogers, 1951). This focus on the present experience is
called phenomenology.

George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory George Kelly (1905–1967) proposed that people seek to make sense of
the world through personal constructs—individual cognitive categories used to interpret events. These constructs shape
how people perceive and react to their experiences, explaining personality differences.

When people face uncertainty, they experience anxiety. Like scientists, they test and revise their constructs. Kelly
emphasized that constructions are hypotheses, not facts, and psychotherapy can help individuals replace maladaptive
constructions with healthier ones.

To assess personal constructs, Kelly developed the Role Construct Repertory Test (Rep Test), where individuals categorize
important people by identifying similarities and differences. He also introduced fixed-role therapy, where clients practice
behaving according to a new, more adaptive role to encourage personal growth.

Carl Rogers’s Theory of the Self Rogers, a humanist, believed people are naturally driven toward self-actualization
unless distorted by the environment.

The Self

The self is an organized, consistent set of beliefs and perceptions about oneself. It serves both as an object of perception
(self-concept) and as a guide for behavior. People strive for self-consistency (internal harmony) and congruence (alignment
between self-concept and experience). Incongruence leads to anxiety and maladjustment if experiences threaten the self-
concept.

Development of the Self

Children initially cannot distinguish between themselves and the environment but gradually form a self-concept.
Maintaining this self-concept becomes crucial for understanding their world. Well-adjusted individuals modify their self-
concepts when needed; others may distort reality to protect their self-image, leading to psychological problems.

The Need for Positive Regard

Humans have an innate need for positive regard (acceptance and love). Unconditional positive regard fosters healthy
development, while conditional positive regard (love based on behavior) creates conditions of worth—internal rules
dictating when we feel worthy. These conditions can cause incongruence and inner conflict.

Fully Functioning Persons

Fully functioning individuals are close to self-actualization. They live authentically, accept experiences without
defensiveness, and act freely and creatively without rigidly conforming to others' expectations. They show inner freedom
and self-determination.

The Trait Perspective in Personality Psychology

The trait perspective in psychology seeks to describe the basic classes of behavior that define personality, develop
methods to measure individual differences, and predict behavior based on these measures. Raymond B. Cattell, a
pioneering trait theorist, asked thousands of individuals to rate themselves and gathered additional ratings from those who
knew them. By applying factor analysis, Cattell identified 16 fundamental personality traits and created the 16 Personality
Factor Questionnaire (16PF), a tool widely used to assess personality and create comprehensive personality profiles for
individuals and groups.

The Five Factor Model (Big Five) Later researchers proposed that five broader factors, instead of sixteen, could
sufficiently capture the structure of personality. This theory led to the development of the Five Factor Model, commonly
known as the Big Five, which includes the traits: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness,
and Neuroticism (OCEAN). Studies have shown that these five traits are consistent across various cultures, indicating their
universality. While it may seem surprising that five dimensions can capture the complexity of human personality, it is similar
to how three types of cones in the eye allow us to perceive a vast array of colors. To increase accuracy in behavioral
predictions, each of the Big Five traits is further broken down into six subcategories or facets, as measured by tools like the
NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI). These facets allow for sharper, more specific predictions than the broader Big Five
traits alone.

Predicting Behavior with Personality Traits Trait theorists aim to not only describe but also predict behavior
based on personality traits. Although the Big Five traits can predict behavior to a certain extent, the correlation tends to be
moderate, typically around 0.20 to 0.30. To improve predictions, focusing on the specific facets of each Big Five trait, such
as the Positive Emotions facet within Extraversion, can provide a clearer link to outcomes like life satisfaction.

Stability and Change in Personality Traits Personality traits are generally considered stable over time but are not
entirely fixed. Certain traits, like introversion/extraversion, emotionality, and self-esteem, show strong stability across the
lifespan. However, some changes are evident: Neuroticism, Openness, and Extraversion tend to decrease from the late
teens to early thirties, while Agreeableness and Conscientiousness increase. Life experiences, including therapy or
significant life events, can also bring about changes in personality traits. Moreover, habitual thinking patterns, such as
optimism or pessimism, remain relatively stable, especially in response to negative life events. Studies suggest that a
pessimistic outlook can lead to long-term risks, including depression, lower achievement, and poor physical health.

Eysenck’s Extraversion-Stability Model

Among trait theorists, some, like Raymond Cattell, classify personality into a large number of basic traits, while
others, like the Big Five theorists, reduce the number to just five primary traits. Hans J. Eysenck, one of the most influential
psychologists from Britain, adopted the “lumper” approach, proposing that normal personality can be understood through
just two basic dimensions: Introversion-Extraversion and Stability-Instability (sometimes referred to as Neuroticism in the
Big Five model). These dimensions are seen as the foundation from which more specific personality traits emerge.

Eysenck’s two supertraits—Extraversion and Stability—form the core of his model. These two dimensions intersect at right
angles, which indicates that they are statistically independent (i.e., not correlated). The combination of these dimensions
leads to various secondary traits, such as emotionally stable extraverts, who are lively, carefree, and well-adjusted, or
unstable extraverts, who may be touchy, aggressive, and restless. In contrast, stable introverts are calm and reliable, while
unstable introverts tend to be rigid, anxious, and moody.

Eysenck also proposed a biological basis for these traits. He linked Introversion-Extraversion and Stability-Instability to
patterns of arousal in the brain. He believed that introverts are overaroused, needing less stimulation to reach an optimal
state, while extraverts are underaroused, seeking more stimulation to reach that state. He theorized that Stability-Instability
reflects the speed at which arousal shifts in the brain—unstable individuals experience sudden changes in arousal, leading
to emotional problems, while stable individuals show gradual shifts. This model suggests that genetic factors play a
significant role in shaping these traits, with research showing that identical twins share more similarities in these
dimensions than fraternal twins. Further studies, including brain imaging, support Eysenck’s biological theory, showing
specific brain activation patterns related to Extraversion and Stability.