Unit 8: States and Thermo

I. States of Matter
Solid Liquid Gas

Molecules are really close Molecules are pretty Molecules are not very
together close together close together

Has a definite volume Has a definite volume Does NOT have a definite
volume

Does NOT take the shape Takes the shape of its Takes the shape of its
of its container container container

Cannot be compressed Cannot be compressed CAN be compressed

Cannot flow Can flow and move Can flow and move
readily readily
Lowest energy of the
three states we discuss Middle energy of the Highest energy of the
three states we discuss three states we discuss

II. Phase Changes

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III. How Temperature and Pressure Changes Affect State of Matter

a. Based on observations and our knowledge of ionic and molecular compounds,

we can determine what state of matter something is in at room temperature.

b. However, changes in temperature and pressure can change the state a

substance is in

IV. Changes in Temperature- Heating Curve

Heating curves show a substance changes as heat is added over time
Remember, this is a physical change, NOT a chemical reaction
*Notice that the temperature does NOT change during the phase changes*

V. First Law of Thermodynamics

Law of Conservation of Energy- Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but
can be converted from one form to another

a. Energy of the universe is constant

b. If the temperature does not increase during a phase change, where does it
go?

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VI. Types of Energy

a. Kinetic Energy

Due to the motion and depends on the mass of the object m and its velocity v

KE= ½ mv2

Temperature is the average kinetic energy

b. Potential Energy
Due to position or composition
Can be converted to work
More bonds = bigger source of energy
VII. Heating Curve and Energy

a. When the phase is changing, the potential energy is increasing

b. When the temperature is increasing, the kinetic energy is increasing.

Remember: Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a substance.

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VIII. Intermolecular Forces

Solids > Liquids > Gases

When you change from solid to liquid, you have to overcome, or “break,” these
intermolecular forces.

THAT’s why the temperature doesn’t change during a phase change. The energy
from the heat is going toward breaking apart intermolecular forces!

IX. Vapor Pressure

In a closed container, as a liquid evaporates the gas collects above it. This vapor
exerts a pressure, called vapor pressure.

a. When vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure the liquid boils.

b. Liquids with weak intermolecular forces have low boiling points, high vapor
pressures and are called volatile liquids.
c. Liquids with strong intermolecular forces have high boiling points, low vapor
pressures and are called nonvolatile.

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X. Phase Change Diagram
Notice that sublimation and deposition weren’t on the heating curve. This is because
for most substances at standard pressure, this won’t happen.
In order to see where all six phase changes occur, we need to see a diagram that
shows changes in temperature AND pressure. This is called a phase change diagram.

i.

a. Triple Point – temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid and gas
phases of a substance exist together at equilibrium (Example –
Cyclohexane)

b. Critical Point – temperature and pressure at which two phases become

indistinguishable from one another (Example – Carbon Dioxide)

XI. Phase Diagram – CO2 vs H2O

CO2 H2O

Phase Diagrams
Heat Exchange
Thermo Calculations
Entropy and Gibb’s Free Energy

a. CO2 sublimes at 1 atm (dry ice)

b. Notice that the slope of the line between solid and liquid water is negative
c. Ice is less dense than water
d. As you increase pressure, the melting point of water decrease

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XII. Temperature vs Heat

a. Temperature reflects random motion of particles

b. Heat involves a transfer of energy between two objects due to a temperature

difference

c. At constant pressure, the change in enthalpy ΔH is equal to the energy flow as

heat ΔH= Hproducts - Hreactants

XIII. Systems and Surroundings

a. System – that on which we focus attention (reactants and products of a reaction)

b. Surroundings – Everything else in the universe

c. Universe = System + Surroundings

XIV. Heat Exchange Vocabulary

a. Endothermic Reaction
i. Heat is absorbed (P𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 ∆𝐇 at constant pressure)
ii. Heat flows into the system from the surroundings
iii. Feels cold
b. Exothermic Reaction

i. Heat is produced (N𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 ∆𝐇 at constant pressure)

ii. Heat flows out of the system to the surroundings

iii. Feels hot

ii.
c. Energy gained by the surroundings is equal to the energy lost by the system

XV. Thermo Calculations

a. Looking at a heating curve, there are two types of energy-dependent physical

changes for a substance:
1. Phase Changes
2. Temperature Changes
We’ll look at how to calculate energy changes for both scenarios.

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XVI. Phase Changes

a. Heat of Fusion – the energy that must be put into a solid in order to melt it
(breaking up those IMF!)

b. Heat of Vaporization – the energy that must be put into a liquid in order to
vaporize it into a gas

c. Energy is reported in kilojoules (kJ), joules (J) or calories (cal).

d. Units for ΔHfus and ΔHvap: kJ/mol, J/mol, cal/mol, kJ/g, J/g, cal/g

XVII. Practice #1: If the heat of fusion of iron (II) oxide is 33.2 kJ/mol, the amount of
energy required to melt 5.6 grams of it is…

XVIII. Practice #2: If the heat of vaporization of water is 2.22 kJ/g, the amount of energy
required to vaporize 10. moles of it is…

XIX. Specific Heat Capacity- the energy required to raise one gram of a substance one
degree Celsius (°C). Units are J/°C*g or J/K*g

a. Easier to heat up a substance with a LOWER specific heat capacity

b. Formula: Q=mcΔT
Q = heat/energy gained or lost
m = mass of substance (grams)
c = Specific Heat of substance
ΔT = Change in Temperature (Final Temp – Initial Temp)
c. Specific Heat Capacity of Water = 4.184 J/g°C
4.184 J of energy is required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C

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XX. Practice#3: Solid magnesium has a specific heat of 1.01 J/g°C. How much heat is
given off by a 20 gram sample when It cools from 70°C to 50°C?

XXI. Practice #4: The specific heat of aluminum is 0.900 J/g°C. How much heat is required
to raise the temperature of 55 g by 10°C?

XXII. Calorimetry

a. Calorimetry is the science of measuring heat

b. Constant-Pressure Calorimetry is used to determine the changes in enthalpy for

reactions occurring in solution

c. ”Coffee-Cup Calorimeter”- Two nested Styrofoam cups with a cover through

which a stirrer and thermometer can be inserted

d. Energy released by the reaction = Energy absorbed by the solution

e. -qsystem= qsurroundings

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XXIII. Practice #5: A 46.2 g sample of copper is heated to 95.4°C and then placed in a
calorimeter containing 75.0 g of water at 19.6°C. The final temperature of both the
water and the copper is 21.8°C. What is the specific heat of copper?

XXIV. Practice #6: Brass has a density of 8.40 g/cm3 and a specific heat of 0.385 J/g°C. A
14.5 cm3 piece of brass at an initial temperature of 152°C is dropped into an
insulated container with 138 g water initially at 23.7°C. What will be the final
temperature of the brass-water mixture?

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XXV. Combined Phase Change and Temperature Change Calculations

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