Actuators

Presented by:
Dr. Khandkar Aftab Hossain
Professor
M. E. Dept., KUET

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Linear & Rotary Actuators, Hydraulic motors; Types,

Vane, Gear piston, Radial piston. Methods of control of
Acceleration, Design Consideration for cylinders. Hoses &
Pipes; Types, Materials, Pressure drop in Hoses and Pipes.
Hydraulic Piping Connections and Branching.

Actuators

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1. Linear & Rotary Actuators
2. Hydraulic Motors
3. Types
4. Vane
5. Gear Piston
6. Radial Piston
7. Methods of Control of Acceleration
8. Design Consideration for Cylinders
9. Hoses & Pipes
10. Types
11. Materials
12. Pressure Drop in Hoses and Pipes
Actuators
13. Hydraulic Piping Connections and Branching

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Objectives 1. To study about actuators, its types,

functions and applications.
2. To study about hydraulic motors, its types,
functions and applications.
3. To study about selection of cylinders and
motors and its control procedure.
4. To study about hoses, pipes its materials
and fittings.

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After Completion of the course students will be able to

Learning 1. Understand the functions of cylinders and

Outcomes motors in fluid power system.

2. Understand the types of motors and

method of control of acceleration.

3. Understand the design consideration of

cylinders.

4. Understand the selection procedure and

choose of materials for hoses and pipe
fittings.

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Hydraulic systems are used to control and transmit power. A
pump driven by a prime mover such as an electric motor
creates a flow of fluid, in which the pressure, direction and
rate of flow are controlled by valves.

An actuator is used to convert the energy of fluid back into

the mechanical power. The amount of output power
developed depends upon the flow rate, the pressure drop
across the actuator and its overall efficiency.

Thus, hydraulic actuators are devices used to convert

pressure energy of the fluid into mechanical energy.

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Fluid power systems requires the force, generated by the power
supply, controlled and directed by suitable control valve, and
transported by lines, can be converted to any kind of mechanical
motion desired.

Terrain Forklift Driven by Hydraulic Cylinders

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Either linear (straight line) or rotary motion can be obtained by
using a suitable actuating device.
An actuator is a device that converts fluid power into mechanical
force and motion.
Cylinders, motors, and turbines are the most common types of
actuating devices used in fluid power systems.
The simplest type of hydraulic cylinder is the single-acting design,
which is shown below. It consists of a piston inside a cylindrical
housing called a barrel. Attached to one end of the piston is a rod,
which extends outside one end of the cylinder.

Single-acting
hydraulic cylinder.

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Linear Actuator
(Hydraulic Cylinder)

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Depending on the type of actuation, hydraulic actuators are
classified as follows:
1. Linear actuator: For linear actuation (Hydraulic Cylinders).
2. Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (Hydraulic Motor).
3. Semi-rotary actuator: For limited angle of actuation (Semi-
Rotary Actuator).

Hydraulic cylinders are of the following types:

1. Single-Acting Cylinders. 2. Double-Acting Cylinders.

3. Telescopic Cylinders. 4. Tandem Cylinders.

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Single-Acting Cylinders
A single-acting cylinder is simplest in design that shown in figure below.
It consists of a piston inside a cylindrical housing called barrel. On one
end of the piston there is a rod, which can reciprocate. At the opposite
end, there is a port for the entrance and exit of oil. Single-acting
cylinders produce force in one direction by hydraulic pressure acting on
the piston.

Symbolic View of Single

Schematic View of Single Acting Cylinder Acting Cylinder
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According to the type of return, single-acting cylinders are classified as
follows:

 Gravity Return Single Acting Cylinder.

 Spring Return Single Acting Cylinder.

Gravity Return Single Acting Cylinder

The gravity return single acting cylinder may also be classified

according to the orientation of the applied load as;

 Push type Gravity Return Single Acting Cylinder

 Pull type Gravity Return Single Acting Cylinder

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Push type Gravity Return Single Acting
Cylinder

In the Push type Gravity Return Single

Acting Cylinder, the cylinder extends to
lift a weight against the force of gravity
by applying oil pressure at the blank
end. The oil is passed through the
blank-end port or pressure port. The
rod-end port or vent port is open to
atmosphere so that air can flow freely in
and out of the rod end of the cylinder.
To retract the cylinder, the pressure is
simply removed from the piston by
connecting the pressure port to the tank. Push type Gravity Return
Single Acting Cylinder

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Pull type Gravity Return Single Acting

Cylinder

In the pull type gravity return type single

acting cylinder, the cylinder lifts the weight
by retracting. The blank-end port is the
pressure port and blind-end port is now
the vent port. This cylinder automatically
extends whenever the pressure port is
connected to the tank.

Pull type Gravity Return

Single Acting Cylinder

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Spring Return Single Acting Cylinder

The spring return single acting cylinder may also be classified

according to the direction of the movement of the piston as;

 Push type Spring Return Single Acting Cylinder

 Pull type Spring Return Single Acting Cylinder

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Push type Spring Return Single
Acting Cylinder

In the Push type Spring Return

Single Acting Cylinder, the pressure
is sent through the pressure port
situated at the blank end of the
cylinder. When the pressure is
released, the spring automatically
returns the cylinder to the fully
retracted position. The vent port is
Push type Spring Return Single
open to atmosphere so that air can Acting Cylinder
flow freely in and out of the rod end
of the cylinder.

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Pull type Spring Return Single Acting

Cylinder

In the Pull type Spring Return Single

Acting Cylinder, a spring return single
acting cylinder. In this design, the
cylinder retracts when the pressure
port is connected to the pump flow and
extends whenever the pressure port is
connected to the tank. Here the
pressure port is situated at the rod end
of the cylinder. Pull type Spring Return Single
Acting Cylinder

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Double Acting Cylinders

There are two types of double acting cylinders:

 Double acting cylinder with a piston rod on one side.

 Double acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides.

Double Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on One Side

Figure below shows the operation of a double acting cylinder with a piston
rod on one side. To extend the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the blank-
end port. The fluid from the rod-end port returns to the reservoir. To retract
the cylinder, the pump flow is sent to the rod-end port and the fluid from the
blank-end port returns to the tank.

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Double Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on One Side

Double Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on One Sides

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Double Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on Both Sides

A double acting cylinder with a piston rod on both sides is a cylinder with
a rod extending from both ends. This cylinder can be used in an
application where work can be done by both ends of the cylinder, thereby
making the cylinder more productive. Double-rod cylinders can withstand
higher side loads because they have an extra bearing, one on each rod, to
withstand the loading.

Double Acting Cylinder with a Piston Rod on Both Sides

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Telescopic Cylinder
A telescopic cylinder shown below is used when a
long stroke length and a short retracted length are
required. The telescopic cylinder extends in stages,
each stage consisting of a sleeve that fits inside the
previous stage. The front bearing assembly on each
section includes seals and wiper rings. Stop rings
limit the movement of each section, thus preventing
separation. When the cylinder extends, all the
sections move together until the outer section is
prevented from further extension by its stop ring.
The remaining sections continue out-stroking until
the second outermost section reaches the limit of its
stroke; this process continues until all sections are Telescopic Cylinder
extended, the innermost one being the last of all.

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Tandem Cylinder
A tandem cylinder shown below, is used in applications where a large
amount of force is required from a small diameter cylinder. Pressure is
applied to both pistons, resulting in increased force because of the
larger area. The drawback is that these cylinders must be longer than
a standard cylinder to achieve an equal speed because flow must go to
both pistons

Tandem Cylinder

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Cylinder Force, Velocity and Power
Power = Force × Velocity

For Extension Stroke: 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝑬𝒙𝒕 𝑵 = 𝑷 𝒑𝒂 × 𝑨𝑷 (𝒎𝟐 ) (1)

𝑸𝒊𝒏
𝒗𝑬𝒙𝒕 𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄 = 𝑨 𝟐 (2)
𝑷 (𝒎 )

𝒎 𝑸𝒊𝒏
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝑬𝒙𝒕 𝒌𝑾 = 𝑭𝑬𝒙𝒕 𝒌𝑵 × 𝒗𝑬𝒙𝒕 = 𝑷 𝒑𝒂 × 𝑨𝑷 𝒎𝟐 × 𝑨 𝟐
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑷 𝒎

= 𝑷 𝒑𝒂 × 𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝟑 /𝑺𝒆𝒄 (3)

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Cylinder Force, Velocity and Power
Power = Force × Velocity

For Retraction Stroke: 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝑹𝒆𝒕 𝑵 = 𝑷 𝒑𝒂 × 𝑨𝑷 − 𝑨𝒓 (𝒎𝟐 ) (4)

𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝟑 /𝑺𝒆𝒄
𝒗𝑹𝒆𝒕 𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄 = (5)
𝑨𝑷 −𝑨𝒓 (𝒎𝟐 )

𝒎
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝑹𝒆𝒕 𝒌𝑾 = 𝑭𝑹𝒆𝒕 𝒌𝑵 × 𝒗𝑬𝒙𝒕 = 𝑷 𝒑𝒂 × 𝑨𝑷 − 𝑨𝒓 𝒎𝟐 ×
𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑸𝒊𝒏
= 𝑷 𝒑𝒂 × 𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝟑 /𝑺𝒆𝒄 (6)
𝑨𝑷 −𝑨𝒓 𝒎𝟐

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Graphical Symbols of Different Linear Actuators

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Graphical Symbols of Different Linear Actuators

8.

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Rotary Actuator
(Hydraulic Motor)

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Hydraulic Motor
Hydraulic motors are rotary actuators. A
hydraulic motor is a device which converts
fluid pressure into torque. The function of a
motor is opposite that of a pump. Hydraulic
motors can be of the limited rotation or the
continuous rotation type.

A limited rotation motor, which is also called

a rotary actuator or an oscillating motor, can
rotate clockwise and counterclockwise, but
through less than 3600.
A continuous rotation hydraulic motor, which is simply
called a hydraulic motor, can rotate continuously at an rpm
that is determined by the motor’s input flow rate.

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Applications of Hydraulic Motor
Applications include material-handling equipment, farm
tractors, railway locomotives, buses, lawn mowers and
machine tools.
Hydraulic motors are commonly used to operate the wing
flaps, radomes, and radar equipment in aircraft. Air motors
are used to drive pneumatic tools. Air motors are also used
in missiles to convert the kinetic energy of compressed gas
into electrical power,
Farm implements, road machinery, material-handling equipment,
Numerical Control(NC) machines, high performance aircrafts, military
uses and special machinery are only a few of new fields expanding
through the use of fluid power transmission. Many automobiles, railway
locomotives and buses use a hydrostatic transmission.

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Comparison between Hydraulic Motor and Hydraulic Pump
Hydraulic Motor Hydraulic Pump
It is a device for delivering torque at a given It is a device for delivering flow at a given
pressure. The main emphasis is on pressure. The main emphasis is on volumetric
mechanical efficiency and torque that can efficiency and flow.
be transmitted.
Motors usually operate over a wide range of Pumps usually operate at high RPM.
speed, from a low RPM to high RPM.

Most motors are designed for bidirectional In most situations, pumps usually operate in one
applications such as braking loads, rotary direction.
tables.
Motors may be idle for long time (as in Pumps usually operate continuously.
index table).
Motors are subjected to high side loads Majority of pumps are not subjected to side
(from gears, chains, belt-driven pulleys). loads. Usually pumps are pad mounted on power
pack top and shaft is connected to the prime
mover directly.

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Classification of Hydraulic Motors

Hydraulic motors are typically of the gear, vane, or piston

configuration. There are two types of hydraulic motors:

 High-speed low-torque motors and

 Low–speed high-torque motors.

In high-speed low-torque motors, the shaft is driven directly from

either the barrel or the cam plate, whereas in low-speed high-torque
motors, the shaft is driven through a differential gear arrangement
that reduces the speed and increases the torque. Depending upon the
mechanism employed to provide shaft rotation, hydraulic motors can
be classified as follows:

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 1. Gear motors.
 2. Vane motors.
 3. Piston motors;

 Axial piston-type motors.

 Radial piston-type motors.
Gear motors are the least efficient, most dirt-tolerant and
have the lowest pressure rating. Piston motors are the most
efficient, least dirt-tolerant and have high pressure ratings.

According to the basis of displacement, piston motors

are classified as follows:

 Fixed-displacement piston motors.

 Variable-displacement piston motors.

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Fixed-displacement motors provide constant torque

and variable speed.

The majority of the motors used in fluid power

systems are the fixed-displacement type.

Vane and piston motors can be fixed or

variable displacement

But gear motors are available with only

fixed displacement.

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Gear Motor
A gear motor develops torque due to hydraulic pressure acting against the
area of one tooth. There are two teeth trying to move the rotor in the
proper direction, while one net tooth at the center mesh tries to move it in
the opposite direction.

Gear Motor
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Vane Motor
Vane motors develop torque by the hydraulic pressure acting on
the exposed surfaces of the vanes, which slide in and out of the
rotor connected to the drive shaft as shown if figure. As the rotor
revolves, the vanes follow the surface of the cam ring because
springs are used to force the vanes radially outward. No
centrifugal force exists until the rotor starts to revolve.

Vane Motor
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Vane Motor
Vane motors are balanced design as shown if figure. In this
design, pressure buildup at either port is directed to two
interconnected cavities located 180° apart. The side loads that
are created are therefore canceled out.

Balanced Design of Vane Motor

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Axial Piston type Motor

In axial piston motors, the

piston reciprocates parallel to
the axis of the cylinder block.
These motors are available with
both fixed- displacement and
variable-displacement feature
types. They generate torque by
pressure acting on the ends of
pistons reciprocating inside a
cylinder block.

Axial Piston Motor

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Fixed Displacement Piston Motor

Speed and torque depend on

the angle between the cylinder
block and driveshaft. The
larger the angle, the greater
the displacement and torque
but the smaller the speed. This
angle varies from a minimum
of 7½ ° to a maximum of 30°.

Fixed Displacement Piston Motor

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Variable Displacement Piston Motor

In variable-displacement units, the swash plate is mounted

on the swinging yoke. The angle can be varied by various
means such as a lever, hand wheel or servo control. If the
offset angel is increased, the displacement drive shaft
flange shaft displacement and torque capacity increase but
the speed of the drive shaft decreases.

Swash Plate Piston Motor

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Radial Piston Motor

In radial piston-type motors, the

piston reciprocates radially or
perpendicular to the axis of the
output shaft. The basic principle
of operation of the radial piston
motors is shown in figure. Radial
piston motors are low-speed high-
torque motors which can address a
multifarious problem in diverse
power transfer applications.
Radial Piston Motor

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Single Vane type Semi Rotary Actuator

A single-vane rotary actuator is shown

in Figure. A semi-rotary actuator allows
only a partial revolution. A vane-type
semi-rotary actuator consists of a vane
connected to an output shaft. When
hydraulic pressure is applied to one side
of the vane, it rotates. A stop prevents
the vane from rotating continuously.
The rotation angle in the case of a
single-vane semi-rotary actuator is 315°.

Single Vane type Semi Rotary Actuator

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Two Vane type Semi Rotary Actuator

A two-vane rotary actuator is

shown in Figure. The advantage of
this design is that the torque output
is increased because the area
subjected to pressure is large.
However, two-vane models cannot
rotate as many degrees as can
single-vane models. It is limited to
100°. Passage ways are used to
connect the different chambers of
the rotary actuator.
Two Vane type Semi Rotary Actuator

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Torque Calculation of Single Vane Semi Rotary Actuator

Let,
RR  Outer radius of the output shaft (m)
RV  Outer radius of the vane (m)
L  Width of the vane (m)
p  Hydraulic pressure (Pa)
F  Hydraulic force acting on the vane (N)
A  Surface area of vane in contact with oil (m )2
T  Torque capacity (N.m)

The force on the vane equals the pressure times the vane surface area:
𝑭 = 𝒑𝑨 = 𝒑 𝑹𝑽 − 𝑹𝑹 𝑳

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The torque equals the vane force times the mean radius of the vane:
𝑹𝑽 + 𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑽 + 𝑹𝑹
𝑻=𝑭 𝑳 = 𝒑 𝑹𝑽 − 𝑹𝑹 𝑳
𝟐 𝟐

On rearranging, we have;
𝑻 = 𝒑 𝑹𝟐𝑽 − 𝑹𝟐𝑹 𝑳 (1)

A second equation for torque can be developed by noting the following

relationship for volumetric displacement VD;
𝑽𝑫 = 𝝅 𝑹𝟐𝑽 − 𝑹𝟐𝑹 𝑳 (2)

Combining Equations. (1) and (2) yields;

𝒑×𝑽𝑫
𝑻= (3)
𝟐𝝅
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Chain and Sprocket Semi-Rotary Actuator
In this design shown in figure, an endless chain and a sprocket are used.
It is suitable for multi-revolution applications. The chain is anchored to
two pistons, one large and other small, which when in their respective
bores separate the half of the unit. The larger cylinder is the power
cylinder and the smaller cylinder is the chain return or seal cylinder.

Chain and Sprocket Semi-Rotary Actuator

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Rack and Pinion Rotary Actuator
A rack and pinion rotary actuator as shown in the figure is a
commonly used design for obtaining partial revolution actuation. This
consists of a hydraulic cylinder with a rack and pinion gear
mechanism.

The rack gear on the piston

rod turns the pinion gear,
thereby converting the
linear motion of the piston
into rotary motion, which is
transmitted to the load
through the output shaft. Rack and Pinion Rotary Actuator

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Performance of Hydraulic Motors

The performance of hydraulic motors depends upon

many factors such as precision of their parts,
tolerances between the mating parts, etc. Internal
leakage between the inlet and outlet affects the
volumetric efficiency. Friction between mating parts
affects the mechanical efficiency of a hydraulic motor.

Gear motors typically have an overall efficiency of 70–75%

as compared to vane motors which have 75–85% and piston
motors having 85–95%. Motor torque is divided into three
separate groups:

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Performance of Hydraulic Motors
1. Starting torque: The starting torque is the turning force the motor
exerts from a dead stop.

2. Running torque: Running torque is exerted when the motor is

running and changes whenever there is a change in fluid pressure.

3. Stalling torque: Stalling torque is the torque necessary to stop the

motor.
In most hydraulic motors, the stalling and
starting torques are equal. Usually, starting
torque is 75–80% of the maximum design
torque.

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Performance of Hydraulic Motors
Volumetric efficiency
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝑸𝑻
𝜼𝑽 = =
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑸𝑨

Mechanical efficiency
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑻𝑨
𝜼𝒎 = =
𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝑫𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑻𝑻

Torque is given by;

𝒑×𝑽𝑫
𝑻𝑻 =
𝟐𝝅

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍)

𝑻𝑻 =
𝑵
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Performance of Hydraulic Motors
Overall efficiency
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑫𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍)
𝜼𝒐 =
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑫𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒊𝒄)
𝑵 × 𝑻𝑨
𝜼𝒐 =
𝒑 × 𝑸𝑨

𝑵 × 𝑻𝑨 × 𝑻𝑻
𝜼𝒐 =
𝑻𝑻 × 𝒑 × 𝑸𝑨

𝑵 × 𝑻𝑨 × 𝑽𝑫 × 𝒑
𝜼𝒐 =
𝑻𝑻 × 𝒑 × 𝑸𝑨 × 𝟐𝝅

𝑸𝑻 × 𝑻𝑨
𝜼𝒐 =
𝑻𝑻 × 𝑸𝑨
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Performance of Hydraulic Motors
𝜼𝒐 = 𝜼𝑽 × 𝜼𝒎

𝑶𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
= 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 × 𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚

The following curves represent

typical performance curves obtained
for a 100 cm3 variable displacement
motor operating at full displacement.
Figure below gives the motor input
flow (LPM) and motor output torque
as a function of motor speed (rpm) at
two pressure levels.
Curves of overall and volumetric efficiencies
as a function of motor speed
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Performance of Hydraulic Motors

Performance curves for a 100 cm3 variable displacement motor

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Acceleration and Deceleration of Cylinder Loads
Acceleration

To calculate the acceleration of cylinder loads, the equations of

motion must be understood. Let u be the initial velocity, v the
velocity after a time t, s the distance moved during the time t and a
the acceleration during the time t. The standard equations of motion
are as follows:
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
𝟏 𝟐
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟐
𝟏
𝒔= 𝒖+𝒗 𝒕
𝟐

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Acceleration and Deceleration of Cylinder Loads

The force F to accelerate a weight W horizontally with an

acceleration a is given by;

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑾
𝑭= 𝒂
𝒈

Where, g is the acceleration due to gravity and is 9.81

m/s2. The force P required to overcome friction is given
by P = µW, where µ is the coefficient of friction.

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Various Methods of Applying Linear Motion
Using Hydraulic Cylinders
A cylinder must produce a force equal to the load the cylinder is
required to overcome. A cylinder may be placed with its axis
vertical, horizontal or inclined depending on the load to be
actuated.

Vertical cylinder:

In a vertical cylinder, the load to be

actuated is in the vertical direction as
shown in Figure. Then the cylinder load
F is equal to the weight W of the object,
acting in the vertical direction.
Cylinder Load–Vertical cylinder
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Various Methods of Applying Linear Motion
Using Hydraulic Cylinders
The schematic diagram of
horizontal cylinder is shown in
Figure. In a horizontal cylinder, the
cylinder load is theoretically zero,
because no component of the
object’s weight acts along the axis
of the cylinder. However, when the
object slides across the horizontal
surface, the cylinder must
overcome the frictional force
created between the object and the
Cylinder Load Horizontal cylinder
horizontal surface.

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Various Methods of Applying Linear Motion
Inclined cylinder Using Hydraulic Cylinders
In an inclined cylinder as shown in
Figure, the cylinder load equals the
component of the object’s weight acting
along the axis of the cylinder and
frictional force. For an inclined
cylinder, the load the cylinder must
overcome is less than the weight of the
object to be moved if the object does
not slide on an inclined surface. When
the object has to be accelerated from
zero velocity to a steady-state velocity, Cylinder Load Inclined cylinder
an additional force called inertia force
must be added to the weight component
and any frictional force involved.
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Pipes Pipes and Hoses

Pipes and pipe fittings are

classified by nominal size and
schedule number, as in table. The
schedules provided are 40, 80, and
160, which are the ones most
commonly used for hydraulic
systems. Also observe that the
nominal size is neither the outside
nor the inside diameter. Instead,
the nominal pipe size indicates the
thread size for the mating
connections. Common Pipe Sizes

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 Actuators
Pipes and Hoses

Figure shows the relative size of the cross

sections for schedules 40, 80, and
160 pipes. As shown for a given nominal
pipe size, the wall thickness increases as the
schedule number increases.

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Steel Tubing Pipes and Hoses

Seamless steel tubing is the most widely

used type of conductor for hydraulic
systems as it provides significant
advantages over pipes. The tubing can
be bent into almost any shape, thereby
reducing the number of required
fittings. For low-volume systems, tubing
can handle the pressure and flow
requirements with less bulk and weight.
However, tubing and its fittings are
more expensive.

Fittings Make Connections between Pipes

and Components 60
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Pipes and Hoses
Plastic Tubing

Plastic tubing has gained rapid

acceptance in the fluid power industry
because it is relatively inexpensive.
Also, it can be readily bent to fit
around obstacles, it is easy to handle,
and it can be stored on reels. Another
advantage is that it can be color-coded
to represent different parts of the
circuit because it is available in many
colors. Since plastic tubing is flexible, it
is less susceptible to vibration damage
than steel tubing.
Poly-Flo Flareless Plastic Tube Fitting

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Pipes and Hoses
Plastic Tubing
In another design, a sleeve is placed
inside the tubing to give it resistance
to crushing at the area of
compression, as illustrated in Figure
below. The sleeve is fabricated onto
the fitting so it cannot be
accidentally left off. Plastic tubing is
used universally in pneumatic
systems because air pressures are
low, normally less than 100 psi. Of
course, plastic tubing is compatible
with most hydraulic fluids and hence
is used in low-pressure hydraulic Flexible Hose is Constructed in Layers
applications.

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Pipes and Hoses
Flexible Hoses

The fourth major type of

hydraulic conductor is the
flexible hose, which is used
when hydraulic components
such as actuators are
subjected to movement. Hose
is fabricated in layers of
elastomer (synthetic rubber)
and braided fabric or braided
wire, which permits operation
at higher pressures
Flexible Hose is Constructed in Layers

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 Differences in Construction
Hoses, Pipes and Connectors

Hydraulic hoses and Fittings

Hose
connectors are heavily (Connectors)
constructed to hold the
higher pressures. Rubber
hoses are steel
Reinforced (Braided) to
Strengthen them. Braid
(Reinforcement)

Pipe Fittings
Pneumatic Pipes and
(Connectors) Fittings are of light
construction.
Straight Pneumatic Pipe is made
Coupling Y from nylon and
generally connects to
the fittings using ‘Push
Fit’ connectors.
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Pipes and Hoses
Materials for Flexible Hoses
Materials for plastic tubing include polyethylene

Flexible Hose is Constructed in Layers

1. polyvinyl chloride,
2. polypropylene, and
3. nylon.

Each material has special properties that are desirable for specific
applications. Manufacturers’ catalogs should be consulted to
determine which material should be used for a particular
application.

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Pipes and Hoses
Flexible Hoses

Hose izes

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Pipes and Hoses
Flexible Hoses

Various flexible hose designs.

(a) FC 194: single-wire braid;
(b) FC 195: double-wire braid;
(c) FC 300: single-wire braid,
polyester inner braid;

(d) 1525: single-textile braid;

(e) 2791: four heavy spiral wires,

partial textile braid

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Losses in Pipes
Darcy’s Equation
The head loss (HL) in a system actually consists of two components:

 Losses in pipes
 Losses in valves and fittings
Head losses in pipes can be found by using Darcy’s equation:
𝑳 𝒗𝟐
𝑯𝑳 = 𝒇
𝑫 𝟐𝒈
Darcy’s equation can be used to calculate the head loss due to friction in
pipes for both laminar and turbulent flow.

For laminar flow the friction factor equals to;

𝟔𝟒
𝒇=
𝑹𝒆

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Losses in Pipes
Effect of Pipe Roughness

For turbulent flow, experiments have shown

that the friction factor is a function of not
only the Reynolds number but also the
relative roughness of the pipe. The relative
roughness is defined as the pipe inside surface
roughness,  (Greek letter epsilon), divided by
the pipe inside diameter D:
𝜺
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑹𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑫 Pipe Absolute Roughness
Figure below illustrates the physical meaning
of the pipe inside surface roughness , which
is called the absolute roughness.

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Losses in Pipes
Effect of Pipe Roughness

Values of Absolute Roughness

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Moody Diagram Losses in Pipes
To determine the value of the
friction factor, the Moody
diagram shown in Figure
below may be used. This
diagram contains curves that
were determined by data
taken by L. F. Moody. Each
curve represents values of
friction factor as a function of
the Reynolds number for a
given value of relative Moody Diagram
roughness.

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Losses in Valves and Fittings

There are energy losses in valves and fittings such as tees, elbows, and
bends. For many fluid power applications, the majority of the energy
losses occur in these valves and fittings in which there is a change in the
cross section of the flow path and a change in the direction of flow.

As a result, experimental techniques are used to determine losses. Tests

have shown that head losses in valves and fittings are proportional to the
square of the velocity of the fluid:

𝒗𝟐
𝑯𝑳 = 𝑲
𝟐𝒈

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Losses in Valves and Fittings

The constant of proportionality

(K) is called the K-factor (also
called loss coefficient) of the valve
or fitting. Figure below gives
typical K-factor values for several
common types of valves and
fittings.

K-Factors for Valves and Fittings

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Thanks
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