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Electromagnetic Testing

American Society for

Nondestructive Testing
Lessons 1 through 7
Compiled for ASNT by:

Hussein M. Sadek
Technologies Consulting
International, Inc.
 Lesson 1

Introduction to
Electromagnetic Testing
 Early Observation of
Magnetic Attraction

1. Electromagnetic testing is one of the oldest

testing methods.
2. Thales of Miletus (600 B.C.E.) first recorded that
rubbing amber induced a state in which the
amber would attract other light objects.
 Development of
Induced Currents

James Clerk Maxwell summarized the first

50 years of electromagnetism in the book,
A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism.
 Oersted’s Discovery
1. Hans Christian Oersted observed that a wire
connecting the ends of a voltaic battery affected
a compass in its vicinity.
2. He also discovered that a compass placed near a
wire transmitting an electric current tends to set
itself perpendicular to the wire, and always
points toward the wire as the compass is moved
around the wire.
 Oersted’s Discovery, cont.

3. The space in which these forces act may

therefore be considered a magnetic field.
4. His discovery meant that the lines of
magnetic force are at right angles to the
wire, and are therefore circles perpendicular to
the wire.
 Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction
1. Faraday discovered the effect of electro-magnetic
induction while experimenting with coils of wire
and a battery.
2. He discovered that by connecting a battery to a
coil A, an instant electrical current is generated in
a second coil B placed near coil A when the
battery is switched on and off.
3. He also discovered that the second current travels
in the opposite direction of the first current.
 Maxwell

Maxwell published the comprehensive group

of relations to the electromagnetic field known as
Maxwell equations, which represent the entire
present knowledge of the principles of
electromagnetic testing.
 Hastings

1. In 1946, the first practical system for the

automatic electromagnetic measurement of flux
leakage fields was designed by Hastings.
2. Hastings demonstrated that he could detect both
surface and subsurface discontinuities near the
bore surfaces of steel tubes.
3. He noted an empirical correlation between the
amplitude of leakage signals and the depths of
surface cracks.
 Forster
1. In 1950, Forster developed the first instruments
with impedance-plane signal displays, which were
used to discriminate between different parameters.
2. The introduction of this equipment, and of practical
techniques for analysis of quantitative test signals
on the impedance-plane, contributed to the
development of electromagnetic induction and
eddy current testing.
 Lesson 1 Review 1

Who discovered the effect of

electromagnetic induction?

Oersted ? Maxwell !?
Faraday ? Hastings ?
 Basic Principles of
Eddy Current Testing

1. Eddy current testing is a nondestructive testing

method that is based on the principles of
electromagnetic induction.
2. Electromagnetic means that electricity and
magnetism are used.
 Basic Principles of
Eddy Current Testing, cont.

3. When an alternating current (AC) is passed

through a coil, a changing magnetic field is
generated, as the coil is placed near a conductive
test object, the magnetic field induces current
(eddy current), as illustrated in the following
image.
 Basic Principles of
Eddy Current Testing, cont.
 Basic Principles of
Flux Leakage Testing
1. Magnetic flux leakage testing is an electromagnetic
technique that provides a quick assessment of the
integrity of ferromagnetic material.
2. This testing involves magnetization of the test object
by a permanent magnet or by passing a direct current
directly through a coil, creating an electromagnet.
3. The presence of a discontinuity on or near the surface
of the sample disturbs the magnetic flux lines and
results in a local leakage field around the
discontinuity.
 Principles of
Flux Leakage Testing, cont.
4. The magnetic flux leakage can be detected
using a variety of techniques:
a. Magnetic particles testing: dry or wet.
b. Non-contact sensors such as a Hall effect probe or a
simple induction coil.
c. A Hall effect probe using an element oriented parallel
to the sample surface is sensitive to the normal
component of the magnetic flux leakage field and
generates a signal, as shown in the following image.
 Principles of
Flux Leakage Testing, cont.
 Lesson 1 Review 2
Which techniques can be used to detect
magnetic flux leakage?

Hall Effect sensor Induction Coil

Magnetic Particle Testing (wet or dry)

All the Above

 Personnel Qualifications

1. It is imperative that personnel responsible for

electromagnetic testing are trained and qualified
with a technical understanding of the
equipment/materials, test object, and test
procedures.
2. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing
(ASNT) has published guidelines for training and
qualification for nondestructive testing personnel.
 Personnel Qualifications, cont.
a. Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A:
Describes the knowledge and capabilities of
nondestructive testing personnel in terms of
certification levels.
b. ANSI/ASNT CP-189:
Standard for the qualification and certification
of nondestructive testing personnel.
i. Employer certification requirements and
NDT Level III certification in the method.
ii. Nondestructive testing instructor
qualifications.
 Levels of Qualification

There are three basic levels of qualification in

nondestructive testing:
1. Level I.
2. Level II.
3. Level III.
 Challenges

The major challenge facing nondestructive testing

personnel is to learn all that can possibly be
learned during the qualification processes and to
develop the mind set that there is something else
to learn each time the nondestructive testing
method is used.
 Personnel Certification
It is important to understand the difference
between qualification and certification.
1. Qualification of nondestructive testing
personnel should involve the following:
a. Training in the fundamental principles
and applications of the test method.
b. Experience in the related method.
c. Ability to pass written and practical
(hands-on) tests.
d. Ability to pass a vision test for visual
acuity and color contrast.
 Personnel Certification Cont.

2. Certification of nondestructive testing personnel

is the written testimony that the individual has
been properly qualified.
a. Name of the individual being certified.
b. Identification of the test method.
c. Level of qualification.
d. Date and name of individual issuing the
certification.
 Lesson 2

Eddy Current Theory

 Generation of Eddy Currents

1. The principles of eddy current testing depend on

the process of electromagnetic induction.
2. This process includes a test coil through which
varying or alternating current (AC) is passed.
3. A varying current flowing in a test coil produces a
varying electromagnetic field around the coil, as
shown in the next figure.
Generation of Eddy Currents, cont.
 Generation of Eddy Currents, cont.

4. The electromagnetic field produced around the

coil is directly proportional to the magnitude of
applied current, rate of change in current or
frequency and the coil parameters.
5. Coil parameters include: inductance, diameter,
length, thickness, number of turns of wire, and
core material.
6. Electrical current is defined as the movement of
electrons through a conductor.
 Generation of Eddy Currents, cont.

7. The unit of current is the ampere.

8. A conductor is any material that is capable of
carrying electrical current, such as copper or
iron.
9. Wood and plastic are not conductors.
10. Whether a material can conduct electricity or not
depends on the structure of the individual atoms
in the material.
 Electromotive Force

1. Electromagnetic force is the electrical energy

derived from mechanical, chemical, or other form
of energy that must be applied across the material
to force the electrons to move.
2. The unit of the electromagnetic force is called
the volt.
 Resistance

1. In an alternating current circuit containing only

resistance, the resistance simply limits the
amount of current that flows through the circuit.
2. It does not change the phase relationship between
the voltage and the current.
3. The current is exactly in phase with the voltage.
 Resistance, cont.
4. The unit of resistance is called the ohm.
a. Ohm is defined as the resistance through
which electromotive force of 1 Volt will
produce a current of 1 Ampere.
b. Ohms’s law is expressed as follows:

where E is voltage (volt), I is current

(ampere) and R is resistance (ohm).
 Resistance, cont.
5. Coil resistance is determined by the length of wire
used to wind a coil.
6. The specific resistance is determined by the wire
type and the cross-sectional area of the wire.

where resistance is in ohms, specific resistance in

ohms/circular mil-foot, area is in circular mils,
and length is in feet.
 Alternating Current
1. When a coil is placed in the open end of a magnet
between the north and south poles and given a spin,
electricity is induced in the coil.
2. The current produced does not travel in the same
direction through the coil at all times, nor is it of a
constant value.
3. The current starts out at zero, rises to a maximum
value, decreases to zero, rises to a maximum value in
the opposite direction, and then returns to zero.
4. This cycle repeats itself as long as the coil keeps
spinning.
 Lesson 2 Review 1

Resistance is expressed in units called?

Ohms ? Volts ? Amps ?

 Sine Wave

1. A sine wave is the form commonly produced by

alternating current generators.
2. Since one turn (360º rotation) of the generator
coil produces one cycle of the sine wave, the sine
wave can be marked into corresponding degrees
of rotation, as shown in the following figure.
Sine Wave, cont.
 Frequency

1. The frequency of an alternating current is defined

as the number of cycles of current that occur in
one second.
2. The unit of frequency is the Hertz.
3. One hertz is equal to one cycle per second.
Current at 60 cycles per second has a frequency
of 60 Hz.
 Inductive Reactance
The opposition to changes in alternating current
flow through a coil is called inductive reactance
and is designated by the letters XL.

XL = WL

where XL is the inductive reactance (ohm), L is the

inductance (Henries), and W equals 2πf.
 Impedance

1. Impedance in an alternating current circuit

is the total opposition to the current flow
through the circuit.
2. The impedance unit is the ohm.
3. The simplest way to combine the resistance and
the inductive reactance values to obtain the
impedance value is through a vector diagram.
 Impedance, cont.

4. The following figure shows resistance and

inductive reactance vectors 90º apart in
direction. By adding these two vectors
together, a rectangle can be constructed and
the diagonal from corner to corner represents
the impedance (Z) and phase angle, as shown in
view B of the next figure.
Impedance, cont.
 Phase Angle

1. Refer to the figure in the previous slide. The

phase angle between the resistance vector and
the inductive vector is 90º.
2. The Greek letter alpha (A) is used to denote the
phase angle of the impedance vector.
Phase angle (A) = arctan XL/R
3. The angle whose tangent is known is written
tan-1 or arctan.
 Lesson 2 Review 2

Impedance is expressed in units of:

?
? ?
Henrys

Ohms
Amperes

?
Volts

? ? ?? ?
 Lesson 3

Eddy Current Instrumentation

 Eddy Current Instrument Circuits
1. All eddy current instruments have some method of
detecting the impedance or change of impedance
in the test coil.
2. It is the electronic circuitry that is the greatest
variation between instruments.
3. Basic test circuits consist of the following:
a. Alternating current source.
b. Testing coil.
c. Display apparatus.
 Eddy Current
Instrument Circuits, cont.

4. When the test coil is placed on or near a test

object, the impedance of the coil changes. This
change in impedance is reflected by the change
indicated in the display apparatus, as shown in
the following image.
 Eddy Current
Instrument Circuits, cont.
 Impedance Bridge Circuit
(Wheatstone Bridge)
1. The impedance bridge circuit, as shown in the
next slide, consists of the following:
a. Alternating current source.
b. Two balanced resistors (R1 and R2).
c. Testing coil.
d. Balancing coil.
e. Display apparatus.
 Impedance Bridge Circuit
(Wheatstone Bridge), cont.
 Impedance Bridge Circuit
(Wheatstone Bridge), cont.

2. When the bridge is in balance (the impedance on

both sides of the bridge are equal), the display
apparatus will read 0.
3. When the testing coil is placed on or near a test
sample, there is a change in impedance in that leg
of the bridge. The bridge becomes unbalanced
and the display apparatus will indicate a current
that is proportional to the imbalance.
 Internal Functions of
Eddy Current Instrumentation

1. The following image shows the basic internal

functions of an eddy current instrument.
 Internal Functions of
Eddy Current Instrumentation, cont.
 Internal Functions of
Eddy Current Instrumentation, cont.
2. The internal functions of eddy current
instrumentation are accomplished by the
following functional steps:
a. Signal excitation: The excitation portion of an
eddy current instrument consists of a signal
generator and amplifiers to drive the test
coils. The signal generator provides sine wave
excitation for the test coil using one
frequency or multi-frequencies to provide
multiple parameter options.
 Internal Functions of
Eddy Current Instrumentation, cont.
b. Signal modulation: Signal modulation occurs in the
electromagnetic field of the coil’s assembly. It is
the magnetic field created by the primary coil that
provides the energy transfer into the test object.
This magnetic energy is modulated by the test
object, and the resultant magnetic field from the
eddy currents opposes the primary field and is
sensed by the instrument for processing.
c. Signal preparation: The purpose of this step
is to amplify the probe signal and reject
extraneous noise.
 Internal Functions of
Eddy Current Instrumentation, cont.
d. Signal demodulation: In this step and after the
signal has been demodulated, the signal can be
analyzed by many means. The signal may be
directed to an analog meter or bar graph for
display or it may be digitized for further
analysis.
e. Signal display: The signal display section is the
key link between the test equipment and its
intended purpose. Common displays include:
meters, cathode ray tubes (CRTs), and liquid
crystal displays (LCDs).
 Internal Functions of
Eddy Current Instrumentation, cont.
f. Signal-to-noise ratio: The ratio of signals of
interest to unwanted signals. Common noise
sources are test object variations of surface
roughness or geometry, external sources such
as electrical interference, or mechanical
vibrations, etc. It is common practice in
nondestructive testing to require a minimum
signal-to-noise ratio of 3:1. This means that a
signal of interest must have a response at least
three times that of the noise at that point.
 Lesson 3 Review

Recommended NDT industry standard

for signal-to-noise ratio is:

3:1 ?
2:1
1:3
2:2
1:2
2:3
1:
1
 Lesson 4

Readout Mechanisms
 Introduction
1. The readout mechanism is an important part of
eddy current test systems. It is the part of the
instrument that quantifies the change in the test
coil impedance.
2. This component of the system can be:
a. An integral part of the test system.
b. A module that is plugged into the test system.
c. A separate device connected to the test
system.
 Introduction, cont.

3. The indicating device used should be of adequate

speed, accuracy, and range to meet the
requirements of the test system.
4. There are two types of readout mechanisms that
are used in eddy current instrumentation:
a. Analog meters.
b. Digital displays.
 Analog Meters

1. An analog meter is an indicting device whose

visual output varies as a continuous function of
the input of the meter.
2. A meter has a needle that moves in response to
the input. The response is immediate, and scales
can be calibrated to read specific values directly.
 Audio Alarms

Audio alarms only indicate qualitative information

caused by abnormal conditions.
 Strip-Chart Recorders

1. Strip-chart recorders provide an analog recording

of values at reasonably high speeds.
2. The strip-chart recorder is one method that
produces a permanent, fairly accurate record.
3. The strip-chart length is indexed to time or
distance and indicates normal or abnormal
conditions.
 Digital Displays

1. A digital meter is one whose visual output is

shown in discrete steps in time.
2. The meter measures the input at a given moment,
and the value of the measurement is displayed in
numerical form.
3. Digital meters provide greater accuracy and range
than analog meters.
 Cathode Ray Tube

1. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) can be used to display

the output of a test circuit.
2. They give continuous presentation and are highly
accurate.
3. Presentation displayed is adjustable and stored so
that the parameters of particular interest may be
studied more accurately.
 Digital Data Storage
1. Digital data are displayed in a complex plane
presentation with supporting strip-chart and
C-scan displays, as required by the application.
2. Digital systems allow setup of calibration curves
constructed from stored data and automated
analysis of signals as compared to these curves.
3. Digital conductivity meters for example,
calibrated from conductivity reference standards,
feed acquired data into algorithms that calculate
conductivity and then display results in numerical
format.
 Digital Mixing

The combination of components from different test

frequencies allows the suppression of unwanted
parameters or signals from structures, such as
support plates in tubing applications, while
retaining the signature of discontinuities beneath
those structures.
 Liquid Crystal Display

1. A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display

device made up of any number of color or
monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light
source or reflector.
2. Liquid crystal displays use very small amounts of
electric power.
 Liquid Crystal Display, cont.

3. The following are important factors when

evaluating a LCD monitor:
a. Resolution.
b. Viewable size and input viewing angle.
c. Response time and contrast ratio.
d. Matrix type.
4. A computer screen is a typical LCD that is widely
used in state-of-the-art eddy current instruments.
 Lesson 4 Review

What are two types of readout mechanisms

used in eddy current instrumentation?

Analog meters Digital displays

 Lesson 5

Eddy Current Inspection Coils

 Introduction

There are three types of inspection coils:

1. Surface coil (probe).
2. Encircling coil (feed through).
3. Bobbin coil (internal).
 Surface Coil

1. Surface coil, flat coil or pancake coil are common

terms used to describe the same type of test coil.
Probe coils provide a convenient method of
examining the surface of a test object.
 Surface Coil, cont.

2. The following figure shows an illustration of a

typical surface probe. View (a) shows the coil
mounted in a probe and view (b) shows the coil
mounted in a spring loaded housing.
Surface Coil, cont.
 Surface Coil, cont.

3. The surface probe may be hand-held or may be

mounted in automatic scanning equipment.
4. The magnetic field produced by the coil is
approximately the size of the coil.
5. Probe coils with added coil shielding may be used
where high resolution is required.
 Applications

Surface probes are used in aircraft testing for crack

detection, near fasteners or fastener holes, weld
examination for surface discontinuities, and metal
sorting and critical areas of heat exchanger tubes.
The probe coil is spinning while being withdrawn at
a uniform rate. This is known as a spinning probe
technique.
 Encircling Coil

1. Encircling coil, outer diameter coil and feed-

through coil are terms commonly used to describe
coils that are used to test outside diameter
surfaces of objects that pass through the coil.
2. The width of the coil, as shown in the following
figure, is a function of the application.
Encircling Coil, cont.
 Encircling Coil, cont.

3. Wide coils cover large areas, so they respond to

bulk effects such as conductivity, whereas narrow
coils sense small changes produced by
discontinuities or small thickness changes.
4. The following figure shows the flow of the eddy
currents produced in a test rod by an encircling
coil.
Encircling Coil, cont.
 Encircling Coil, cont.

5. The eddy current’s strength is greater near the

surface and decreases toward the center of the
rod.
6. If the diameter of the rod is large enough, there
is no current at the center. The phenomenon is
known as the center effect.
7. Encircling coils are used to locate discontinuities
that are parallel or longitudinal to the length of
the rod.
 Lesson 5 Review 1

Other names for a surface probe are:

Flat Coil ?
Yes
Pancake Coil ?Yes
Absolute Coil ?No
 Applications

Encircling coils are primarily used to test tubular

and bar-shaped products. The tube or bar is fed
through the coil (feed-through) at relatively high
speed by means of a special mechanical system.
 Internal Coil

1. Bobbin coil, inner diameter coil and inside probe

are terms that describe coils used to test from the
inside diameter or bore of a tubular test object.
2. The following figure illustrates a type of coil that
can be inserted into tubing to test for
discontinuities and thickness changes in the tube.
Internal Coil, cont.
 Internal Coil, cont.

3. The internal coil induces currents that encircle

the entire circumference of the tube so that the
entire section surrounding the coil is tested.
4. The internal coil may be either wide or narrow,
and the magnetic field extends slightly beyond
the ends of the coil.
5. The coil may be shielded or unshielded.
 Applications

Internal coils are used to test tubular products

from the inside diameter or the bore of a tubular
test object.
 Test Coil Arrangements
1. There are three basic coil arrangements that can
be applied in surface, internal and encircling coils:
a. Absolute coil arrangement.
b. Differential coil arrangement.
c. Hybrid coil arrangement (through transmission).
2. Absolute coil arrangements can be either single or
double coil.
3. Differential coil arrangements can be either
self-comparison or external comparison.
 Single Coil

1. This figure illustrates the single coil arrangement.

 Single Coil, cont.

2. The same coil is used to induce eddy currents in

the test object and to sense the test object’s
reaction to the eddy currents.
3. The single coil arrangement (absolute) will test
only the area under the coil and does not directly
reference or compare itself to a reference
standard.
 Double Coil

1. The following figure illustrates the double coil

absolute arrangement.
Double Coil, cont.
 Double Coil, cont.

2. It is possible to use two coils: one to establish the

magnetic field and induce eddy currents into the
test object, and another to detect changes in
eddy current flow.
3. The double coil arrangement may appear in all
three of the coil classes: surface, inside, and
encircling.
 Lesson 5 Review 2

Name the three basic coil arrangements

applied in surface, internal,
and encircling coils.

1
Absolute
2
Hybrid
3
Differential
 Self-Comparison Technique

1. The differential coil arrangement shown in the

following figure illustrates a means of balancing
out effects that are the same.
Self-Comparison Technique, cont.
 Self-Comparison Technique, cont.

2. The two coils are wound and electrically

connected so that the output of one coil cancels
the output of the other coil (oppose each other).
3. This occurs when the test object properties are
the same under both coils.
 External Comparison Technique
1. The coil arrangement illustrated in the following
figure is exactly the same as the self-comparison,
except that the differential coil arrangement is
set up on an external reference standard and the
test object.
External Comparison Technique, cont.
 External Comparison Technique, cont.
2. A carefully chosen, discontinuity-free test
reference object is held stationary in one coil
while the test object moves through the other
coil.
3. This differential coil arrangement is used to
detect differences between a calibration
standards and the test object.
4. It is mostly used to compare conductivity,
permeability, and dimensional measurements.
 Hybrid Coil Arrangements
(Through Transmission)
1. Hybrid coils may or may not be the same size
and are not necessarily adjacent to each other.
2. Common types of the hybrid coil are
driver/pickup, through transmission or
primary/secondary coil assemblies.
 Hybrid Coil Arrangements
(Through Transmission), cont.

3. The through transmission technique involves

inducing eddy currents into the test object by a
transmitting coil placed on one side of the
material, and the presence of eddy currents is
sensed by a receiving coil placed on the opposite
side of the material as shown in the following
figure.
 Hybrid Coil Arrangements
(Through Transmission), cont.
 Hybrid Coil Arrangements
(Through Transmission), cont.

4. This arrangement requires that the two coils be

placed exactly opposite each other.
5. Only thin materials may be tested with the
through transmission coils.
 Lesson 5 Review 3

Which coils are employed in the inspection

of test parts from the inside diameter?

Inner Diameter Coils

?
Inside Coils Bobbin Coils

All the above

 Factors Affecting Choice
of Sensing Elements
The following is a list of several critical factors
and specifications that must be carefully
considered when selecting eddy current sensing
elements:
1. Frequency.
2. Excitation.
3. Gain linearity.
 Factors Affecting Choice of
Sensing Elements, cont.

4. Horizontal and vertical deviation.

5. Quadrature accuracy.
6. Digitization rate.
7. Sample rate.
8. Bandwidth.
Thank You Thank You Thank You