Physical Science Definitions

PHYSICS

Projectile motion

A projectile is an object upon which the only force acting is the force of gravity.

MECHANICS

Normal Force

Normal force (N) is the force or the component of a force which a surface exerts on an object with
which it is in contact, and which is perpendicular to the surface.

Frictional force

Frictional force (f) is the force that opposes the motion of an object and which acts parallel to the
surface.

Static frictional force

Static frictional force (fs) is the force that opposes the tendency of motion of a stationary object
relative to a surface.

Kinetic frictional force

Kinetic frictional force (fk) is the force that opposes the motion of a moving object relative to a
surface.

Weight

Weight is the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object on or near its surface.

Newton's first law of motion

A body will remain in its state of rest or motion at constant velocity unless a non-zero resultant/net
force acts on it.

Newton's second law of motion

When a resultant/net force acts on an object, the object will accelerate in the direction of the force
at an acceleration directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the
object.

Newton's third law of motion

When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body exerts a force of equal magnitude
in the opposite direction on the first body.
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

Each body in the universe attracts every other body with a force that is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their
centres.

Momentum

Momentum is the product of an object's mass and its velocity.

Newton's second law of motion in terms of momentum

The resultant/net force acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the
object in the direction of the resultant/net force.

Impulse

Impulse is the product of the resultant/net force acting on an object and the time the resultant/net
force acts on the object.

A closed/an isolated system (in Physics)

A closed/an isolated system (in Physics), a system on which the resultant/net external force is zero
(A closed/an isolated system excludes external forces that originate outside the colliding bodies, e.g.
friction. Only internal forces, e.g. contact forces between the colliding objects, are considered).

The Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum

The total linear momentum of a closed system remains constant (is conserved).

Work

The work done on an object by a constant force F is F Δx cos θ , where F is the magnitude of the
force, Δx the magnitude of the displacement and θ the angle between the force and the
displacement.

The Work-Energy Theorem

The net/total work done on an object is equal to the change in the object's kinetic energy OR the
work done on an object by a resultant/net force is equal to the change in the object's kinetic energy.

A Conservative Force

A conservative force is a force for which the work done in moving an object between two points is
independent of the path taken. Examples are gravitational force, the elastic force in a spring and
electrostatic forces (coulomb forces).

A non-conservative force

A non-conservative force is a force for which the work done in moving an object between two points
depends on the path taken. Examples are frictional force, air resistance, tension in a chord, etc.
The principle of conservation of mechanical energy

The total mechanical energy (sum of gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy) in an isolated
system remains constant. (A system is isolated when the resultant/net external force acting on the
system is zero.)

Power

Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is expended.

The Doppler effect

The Doppler effect is the change in frequency (or pitch) of the sound detected by a listener because
the sound source and the listener have different velocities relative to the medium of sound
propagation.

An Atomic Absorption Spectrum

An atomic absorption spectrum is formed when certain frequencies of electromagnetic radiation

An atomic emission spectrum

An atomic emission spectrum is formed when certain frequencies of electromagnetic radiation are
emitted due to an atom's electrons making a transition from a high-energy state to a lower energy
state.

Coulomb's law

The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point charge (Q1 ) on another point charge
(Q2 ) is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance (r) between them.

An Electric Field.

An electric field is a region of space in which an electric charge experiences a force. The direction of
the electric field at a point is the direction that a positive test charge would move if placed at that
point.

The Electric Field at a point

The electric field at a point is the electrostatic force experienced per unit positive charge placed at
that point.

Ohm's law

The potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the current in the
conductor at constant temperature.
rms for an alternating voltage or an alternating current

The rms value of AC is the DC potential difference/current which dissipates the same amount of
energy as AC.

The Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect is the process whereby electrons are ejected from a metal surface when
light of suitable frequency is incident on that surface.

Threshold frequency (fo)

Threshold frequency, as the minimum frequency of light needed to emit electrons from a certain
metal surface.

Work function (Wo)

Work function is the minimum energy that an electron in the metal needs to be emitted from the
metal surface.
CHEMISTRY

Molar volume of gases

Molar volume of gases: 1 mole of any gas occupies 22,4 dm3 at 0 °C (273 K) and 1 atmosphere
(101,3 kPa).

Different intermolecular forces (Van der Waal's forces)

Dipole-dipole forces: Forces between two polar molecules

Induced dipole forces or London forces: Forces between non-polar molecules

Hydrogen bonding: Forces between molecules in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to nitrogen,
oxygen or fluorine – a special case of dipole-dipole forces.

Boiling point

The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the boiling point.

Melting point

The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the melting point.

Vapour pressure

The stronger the intermolecular forces, the lower the vapour pressure.

Organic molecules

Organic molecules are molecules containing carbon atoms.

Molecular formula

A chemical formula that indicates the type of atoms and the correct number of each in a
molecule.

Structural formula

A structural formula of a compound shows which atoms are attached to which within the molecule.
Atoms are represented by their chemical symbols and lines are used to represent ALL the bonds that
hold the atoms together.

Condensed structural formula

This notation shows the way in which atoms are bonded together in the molecule, but DOES NOT
SHOW ALL bond lines.

Hydrocarbon

Organic compounds that consist of hydrogen and carbon only.

A series of organic compounds that can be described by the same general formula OR in which one
member differs from the next with a -CH2 group.

Saturated compounds

Compounds in which there are no multiple bonds between Carbon atoms in their hydrocarbon
chains.

Unsaturated compounds

Compounds with one or more multiple bonds between Carbon atoms in their hydrocarbon chains.

Functional group

A bond or an atom or a group of atoms that determine(s) the physical and chemical properties of a
group of organic compounds.

Structural isomer

Organic molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulae.

Chain isomers

Same molecular formula, but different types of chains

Positional isomers

Same molecular formula, but different positions of the side chain, substituents or functional groups
on the parent chain.

Functional isomers

Same molecular formula, but different functional groups.

Hydro-halogenation

The addition of a hydrogen halide to an alkene.

Halogenation

The reaction of a halogen (Br2, Cℓ2 ) with a compound.

Hydration

The addition of water to a compound.

Hydrogenation

The addition of hydrogen to an alkene.

The elimination of hydrogen and a halogen from a haloalkane.

Dehydration of alcohols

The elimination of water from an alcohol.

Cracking of alkanes

The chemical process in which longer chain hydrocarbon molecules are broken down to shorter
more useful molecules.

Hydrolysis

The reaction of a compound with water.

Macromolecule

A molecule that consists of a large number of atoms.

Addition polymer

A polymer formed when monomers (usually containing a double bond) combine through an addition
reaction.

Condensation polymerisation

Molecules of two monomers with different functional groups undergo condensation reactions
with the loss of small molecules, usually water.

Condensation polymer

A polymer formed by two monomers with different functional groups that are linked together in a
condensation reaction in which a small molecule, usually water, is lost.

Endothermic Reaction ΔH > 0

ΔH > 0 for endothermic reactions, i.e. reactions in which energy is released.

Exothermic Reaction ΔH < 0

ΔH < 0 for exothermic reactions, i.e. reactions in which energy is absorbed.

Heat of reaction (ΔH)

Heat of reaction (ΔH) is the energy absorbed or released in a chemical reaction.

Exothermic reactions

Exothermic reactions are reactions that release energy.

Endothermic reactions are reactions that absorb energy.

Activation energy

Activation energy is the minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place.

Activated complex

Activated complex is the unstable transition state from reactants to products.

Reaction rate

Reaction rate is the change in concentration of reactants or products per unit time.

Positive catalyst

Positive catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
undergoing a permanent change.

Catalyst

A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative path of lower activation
energy. It therefore decreases the net/total activation energy.

Open system

Open system is a system that continuously interacts with its environment, while a closed system is
isolated from its surroundings.

Factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions

 nature of reacting substances,

Reversible reaction

A reaction is reversible when products can be converted back to reactants.

Chemical equilibrium

Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic equilibrium that occur when the rate of the forward reaction
equals the rate of the reverse reaction.

Factors that influence the position of an equilibrium

Le Chatelier's principle

When the equilibrium in a closed system is disturbed, the system will re-instate a new equilibrium by
favouring the reaction that will oppose the disturbance.

Arrhenius theory

An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+)/hydronium ions

(H3 O+) when it dissolves in water.

A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH-) when it dissolves in water.

Lowry-Brønsted

An acid is a proton (H+ ion) donor.

A base is a proton (H+ ion) acceptor

Strong acids

Strong acids ionise completely in water to form a high concentration of H3O+ ion.

Weak acids

Weak acids ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of hydronium ion (H 3O+ ).

Strong bases

Strong bases dissociate completely in water to form a high concentration of hydroxyl ions(OH -ions).

Weak bases

Weak bases dissociate/ionise incompletely in water to form a low concentration of OH - ions

Concentrated acids/bases

Concentrated acids/bases contain a large amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to

Dilute acids/bases

Dilute acids/bases contain a small amount (number of moles) of acid/base in proportion to the
volume of water.

Conjugate acid-base pairs

Ampholyte or amphiprotic substance

Ampholyte or amphiprotic substance a substance that can act as either as an acid or as a base.

Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis the reaction of a salt with water.

Equivalence point of a titration

Equivalence point of a titration is the point at which the acid /base has completely reacted with the
base/acid.

Endpoint of a titration

• Endpoint of a titration is the point where the indicator changes colour.

Equilibrium constant for the ionisation of water (Kw)

Kw is the equilibrium constant for the ionisation of water or the ionic product of water or the
ionisation constant of water, i.e.

Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = 1 x 1014 by 298K.

Auto-ionisation of water

Auto-ionisation of water is the reaction of water with itself to form H3O+ ions and OH- ions.