Lecture Notes
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Course content
1.0 Introduction: Overview of OS functions, architecture, traps and interrupts, kernel;
Reading list
Tanenbaum, A. (2008) Modern Operating Systems. 3rd ed.
Silberschatz et.al. (2005). Operating System Concepts. 7th edition
Harris, J. Archer. (2002). Operating systems.
Prerequisites
Proficiency in the C programming language.
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Lecture Notes
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Defining an Operating System
An operating system runs on computer hardware and serves as a platform for other software to run on
the computer system
I
An operating system is the software component of a computer system that is responsible for
the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of the
computer.
II
An operating system is a program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer
and the computer hardware.
From the two definitions above, we learn that an OS assumes two roles:
OS is a resource allocator - manages all resources; decides between conflicting requests
for efficient and fair resource use;
OS is a control program - controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer.
There is no universally accepted definition of an OS.
1.1.2 Do we need an OS?
Convenience: ease the use of machine by handling low-level tasks
Efficiency: maximize throughput by efficient usage of machine resources
Evolvability: allow development of new features while maintaining compatibility
Use OS techniques even if you're building controller for microwave oven
1.1.3 Evolution of computing from the OS perspective:
Early computers -- ENIAC to mid 50's:
Program by switches - no system software
Devices were very simple - didn't need resource abstraction
No concurrency (simultaneous multiple processes)
Application program responsible for all I/O
Simple batch systems - mid 50's - 60's:
Human OS
Key-punched card stacks put into ‘job queue’- an ordered list of jobs waiting to be
processed by a subsystem.
Step forward: allowed multiple users to share machine
Step back: no more real-time interaction/interactive debugging
Multiprogrammed batch systems - 60's:
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Lecture Notes
Took advantage of different time scales at which CPU and peripherals work to
improve
CPU usage
Introduced multiprogramming: time-MUX processor, space-MUX memory
Objective: maximize job throughput
short-term scheduling or "swapping" of jobs
Timesharing systems -- mid 60's - 70's:
Users work on central machine at interactive consoles
Computer provides virtual machine (VM) to each user
Timesharing allows users exclusive control of (comparitively slower) VM
Objective: provide equitable amounts of processor/memory to each VM
Minicomputers, microcomputers (early PCs) -- late 70's - early 80's:
Out of the special-purpose room into the office
Bare bones system software in ROM for device interface
One user, one program -- huge step back
But changed the way we view computers (from corporate resource to personal tool)
Mature PC's and workstations -- mid 80's - 90's:
Evolution to multi-user, multi-process, networked environment
1.2 Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components:
Hardware –provides basic computing resources and includes CPU, memory, I/O
devices
Operating system - controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
Application programs –define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve
the computing problems of the users; include word processors, compilers, web
browsers, database systems, video games
Users - People, machines, other computers
1.3 Functions of Operating system
a) Manages hardware resources of computer
Time multiplexes the processor (process management)
Space multiplexes memory (memory management)
Time multiplexes memory (virtual memory systems)
Implements file system (file management)
I/O system (device management)
b) Process management
Create, destroy, block, run a process
Allocate/deallocate resources to processes as needed
Allows multiple users (processes) to share machine
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Lecture Notes
c) Memory management
Finite amount of memory must be shared between different programs executing
concurrently
Must protect each running program from having its memory area corrupted by others
Programs often need more memory than is available - how do sort this out? use virtual
memory by integrating secondary storage devices
d) File management
Abstracts operations on low-level storage devices (disks, tapes, etc.)
Need to do so was instrumental in development of OSs
Defines organization of file system hierarchy
e) Device management
Allocate, isolate/share devices (disks, modems, printers, etc.)
Hides low-level details of control
Provides generic interface through device drivers
1.3 Operating System Operation
1.3.1 Basic concepts
a) Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
b) Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently
that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory -process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time -CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
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Lecture Notes
Illustration: Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
1.3.2 Operating System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware
Software error or request creates exception or trap - Division by zero, request for
operating system service
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each other or the
operating system
Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components
User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware
Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or
kernel code
Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel
mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
1.3.3 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
Set interrupt after specific period
Operating system decrements counter
When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds
allotted time
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Lecture Notes
1.3.4 Evolution of kernels:
60's: non-process kernel
OS kernel is special program
Had own memory, stack, etc.
Operated in its own privileged mode
70's: kernel executed within user process
Common for small minicomputers, PCs
Typified by UNIX
OS services accessed via normal subroutine calls
Require scheme to enter SUP to give OS access to resources (and return to USER mode
when done)
80's onwards: Microkernels
Minimal fast kernel that provides only basic services
Non-kernel modules communicate largely via message-passing
1.5 Operating System Structure
1.5.1 Operating System Services
One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the user:
User interface -Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI)
Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface (GUI)
Program execution -The system must be able to load a program into memory and to run
that program, end execution, either normally or abnormally (indicating error)
I/O operations -A running program may require I/O, which may involve a file or an
I/O device.
File-system manipulation -The file system is of particular interest. Obviously, programs
need to read and write files and directories, create and delete them, search them, list file
Information, permission management.
Communications –Processes may exchange information, on the same computer or
between computers over a network; Communications may be via shared memory or
through message passing (packets moved by the OS)
Error detection –OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
o May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user program
o For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to ensure correct
and consistent computing
o Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s abilities
to efficiently use the system
Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the system itself via
resource sharing:
Resource allocation -When multiple users or multiple jobs running concurrently,
resources must be allocated to each of them; Many types of resources -Some (such as
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Lecture Notes
CPU cycles, main memory, and file storage) may have special allocation code, others
(such as I/O devices) may have general request and release code.
Accounting -To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of computer
resources
Protection and security -The owners of information stored in a multiuser or networked
computer system may want to control use of that information, concurrent processes
should not interfere with each other
Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled
Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends to
defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts
If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be instituted throughout
it. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.
1.5.2 System Calls
Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application Program Interface (API) rather
than direct system call use
Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API for POSIX-based
systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API for
the Java virtual machine (JVM)
Why use APIs rather than system calls?
1.5.3 Operating System Design and Implementation
Design and Implementation of OS not “solvable”, but some approaches have proven
Successful.
Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary widely
Start by defining goals and specifications
Affected by choice of hardware, type of system
User goals and System goals:
o User goals –operating system should be convenient to use, easy to learn, reliable,
safe, and fast
o System goals –operating system should be easy to design, implement, and
maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free, and efficient.
Important principle to separate
o Policy: What will be done?
o Mechanism: How to do it?
Mechanisms determine how to do something, policies decide what will be done
The separation of policy from mechanism is a very important principle, it allows
maximum flexibility if policy decisions are to be changed later.
Two main ways of structuring OS – simple and layered approach
a) Simple Structure
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Lecture Notes
OS developed as simple, small, having limited functionality and then with time they
started to grew up beyond their scope, e.g. MS-DOS
Not very much efficient
Illustration: MS-DOS
Written to provide the most functionality in the least space
Not divided into modules
Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and levels of functionality are not
well separated.
Drawbacks
Application programs are able to access the basic I/O routines -means they can
directly read or write to the basic display and disk drives - vulnerable to the malicious
programs, causing entire system crashes
Limited to hardware of its era
b) Layered approach
The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each built on top of
lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the highest (layer N) is the
user interface.
With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses functions (operations) and
services of only lower-level layers
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Lecture Notes
Drawbacks:
Problem in defining the functions of every layer because a layer can only use its lower
level layers for its functioning.
tend to be less efficient than other types; for instance consider an example, when an
user program executes an I/O operation, it executes a system call that is trapped to the
I/O layer, which then call the memory management layer, which in turn call the CPU
scheduling layer and then passes to the hardware. In this whole process, the each layer
add its corresponding overhead result in that system call takes more time in
comparison to the non-layered approach
