Objectives:

 To learn the throttling calorimeter operation

 To be able to determine the quality of steam generated

Principle and Theory:

I. Introduction: The Imperative of Steam Quality

The percentage of saturated steam (vapor) in a saturated liquid/vapor mixture is known as the
"dryness fraction" or "steam quality," and it ranges from 0 (100% liquid) to 1.0 (100% dry saturated
steam). Since most heat transfer equipment is built with the assumption that the steam is 100% pure,
maintaining excellent steam quality is essential for industrial processes. Because entrained liquid contains
less useful energy than steam vapor, low steam quality drastically affects heat transfer efficiency (perhaps
over 65%) (Swagelok, 2012).

Additionally, wet steam can result in deposits from carried-over sediments, raise the possibility of
hazardous water hammer, and induce early equipment failure owing to erosion (Pharmacalculations.com,
2016). In crucial applications like sterilization, low steam quality can lead to batch rejections and product
contamination. As a result, precise steam quality assessment is essential, usually incorporating
temperature, pressure, and entrained liquid content (Swagelok, 2012). When direct specific volume
measurement is difficult, calorimeters—specialized instruments—are employed to infer steam quality or
enthalpy (Kenny & Pope, 2000).

II. Thermodynamic Fundamentals and Calorimetry Principles

Understanding steam states is crucial to quality assessment. Dry saturated steam is 99% or more
pure vapor with all liquid traces eliminated, whereas saturated steam is at its boiling point for a specific
pressure (Pharmacalculations.com, 2016). The dryness fraction of wet steam, which is a mixture of
saturated steam and liquid droplets, determines the proportion of vapor. Dry saturated steam that has been
heated over its saturation point while maintaining a steady pressure is known as superheated steam.
Enthalpy (H), which stands for total energy, is one of the fundamental thermodynamic properties.
Sensible heat (hf) is energy absorbed to reach saturation temperature, while latent heat (hfg) is the energy
for phase change from liquid to vapor. Steam tables provide tabulated data for these properties (hf, hfg,
hg, saturation temperatures, specific volumes) across various pressures and temperatures, essential for
calorimetric calculations (Pharmacalculations.com, 2016).

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 By measuring energy changes through temperature variations in known masses of things,
calorimetry quantifies heat transfer. In order to determine the initial properties of steam, calorimeters are
used to bring the steam to a quantifiable state, such as superheated (Kenny & Pope, 2000). The widely
used throttling calorimeter works based on an isenthalpic (constant enthalpy) mechanism. Steam's
specific enthalpy (h1 = h2) stays constant as it expands adiabatically through a small opening without the
need for external labor (Kenny & Pope, 2000). The steam becomes superheated because of this pressure
reduction, making it possible to measure its characteristics. This calorimeter works well with steam that is
sufficiently dry to reach superheat after throttling.

III. Formula Application

IV. Factors Influencing Steam Quality

Boiler carryover, the entrainment of boiler water and its impurities into the steam system, is a
major cause of low steam quality (Pharmacalculations.com, 2016; Chemaqua, 2018). This can result from
water chemistry imbalances (e.g., high dissolved/suspended solids, alkalinity, and organic contaminants
leading to foaming), poor mechanical separation within the boiler, or unstable load characteristics.
Consequences include reduced heat transfer efficiency, equipment damage (valves, turbines, heat
exchangers), increased corrosion, water hammer risk, and product contamination (ISPE Boston Area
Chapter, 2020 ; Chemaqua, 2018). Proactive measures like meticulous boiler water treatment (e.g., proper
chemical dosing, blowdown control), regular monitoring (e.g., condensate conductivity), and consistent
maintenance are essential to prevent carryover and ensure optimal steam system performance and
longevity (ISPE Boston Area Chapter, 2020).

List of Apparatus:

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 Mercury Manometer Thermometer Pressure Gauge

Boiler Stopwatch

Procedures:

1. Purge the water and impurities inside the steam pipeline

2. Insert the thermometer bulb inside the throttling calorimeter well.
3. Connect the hose of the Hg manometer to the drain valve.
4. Open the gate valve and let the steam enter the calorimeter

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5. Duration of the trial is 5 minutes
6. Let the condition of the steam inside stabilize before recording the steam line pressure,
calorimeter well temperature, and Hg manometer reading.
7. Calculate all requirements needed to complete the data sheet.

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Set up of Apparatus:

A.

A. B. C.

A. The picture shows the entire setup of the experiment. The image contains the mercury
manometer, pressure gauge, and thermometer.
B. Thermometer measurements
C. Stopwatch for accurate timing of each trial
D. Measurement of pressure using a pressure gauge.

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Final Data Sheet:
Trial Ps = P1 P2 P2 Tsat T2 hf1 hfg1 hg2 X Xtherm
(Manometer: mmHg) (Psig) of P2 (°C) (KJ/kg) (KJ/kg) (KJ/kg) (%) (%)
(°C)
1 36 15 0.29013 101 106 584 2148 2677.6 97.91 97.4
2 36 15 0.29013 101 109 584 2148 2677.6 98.18 98.35

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Sample Computation:
To find Tsat of P2, convert P2 into Pabs. Use steam table.

( 0.101325
Trial 1= ( 0.29013+14.7 ) Psia∗
14.7 Psia )
Mpa
=0.10332 Mpa ; T sat =101 ° C

Trial 2=( 0.29013+14.7 ) Psia∗(

14.7 Psia )
0.101325 Mpa
=0.10332 Mpa ; T sat =101 ° C

For computing X, use:

X =h g 2+ c p ¿ ¿

( 2677.6 )+ ( 1.922 (106−101 ) ) −584

Trial 1 : X = =97.91 %
2148
( 2677 .6 )+ ( 1.922 (10 9−101 ) )−584
Trial 2 : X = =98.18 %
2148

Find h2 in steam table. Use this equation to compute for Xtherm.

h2−hf 1
X therm =
hfg 1
KJ
Trial 1 :h2=2676.6
kg
2676.2−584
X therm = ∗100=97.4 %
2148
KJ
Trial 2 :h2=2696.5
kg

26 96 . 5−584
X therm = ∗100=98.35 %
2148
Test Data Analysis:
Using a throttling calorimeter, the experimental data for steam quality testing show
consistently high steam quality from the boiler, with two trials showing values ranging from
97.91% to 98.18%. Both cases produced superheated steam with temperatures (T2) of 106°C and

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109°C, respectively, after the steam was effectively throttled from an initial boiler pressure (P1)
of 36 Psig to a near-atmospheric pressure (P2) of 0.29013 Psig. Superheat and the dryness
percentage are directly associated, as seen by the direct correlation between the rise in T2 from
Trial 1 to Trial 2 and a modest increase in the computed steam quality (X). A straightforward
application of the empirical formula was made possible by the constancy of the enthalpy values
(hf1, hfg1, hg2) obtained from steam tables in conjunction with the measured pressures and
temperatures.
There were only slight differences between the theoretical or reference values (Xtherm)
and the empirically determined steam quality (X). The computed X (97.91%) was marginally
higher than Xtherm (97.4%) in Trial 1, while it was marginally lower than Xtherm (98.35%) in
Trial 2. These negligible variations (less than 0.6%) imply that the experimental design yields
result that are fairly accurate. Possible causes of these discrepancies include intrinsic
measurement errors, especially in temperature (T2) and manometer readings, which may have an
impact on the accurate assessment of superheat.
The observed variances may also be caused by variations from ideal isenthalpic throttling
circumstances, heat loss from the calorimeter to the environment, or the application of an
averaged specific heat capacity (Cps) value for superheated steam (which fluctuates with
temperature and pressure). The data supports the conclusion of high-quality steam generation,
even with these slight variances.

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Questions with Answers/Problems with Solutions:
1. What is the primary purpose of throttling the steam in this experiment?
The primary purpose of throttling the steam is to reduce its pressure (from P1 to P2) so that it
becomes superheated. This allows for a direct measurement of the steam's temperature (T2 ) at the
reduced pressure, enabling the calculation of its enthalpy (h2) and, subsequently, its initial steam
quality (X).
2. Why is it important for the steam to become superheated after throttling for this method to
be valid?
The steam must become superheated because in the superheated region, the temperature and
pressure are independent properties that uniquely define the steam's state and enthalpy. If the steam
remains saturated (wet) after throttling, its temperature would still be the saturation temperature
corresponding to P2, making it impossible to determine the final enthalpy and, consequently, the
initial steam quality using this throttling calorimeter method. A minimum of 5°C superheat is
typically required for accurate measurement.

3. What does a calculated steam quality of 97.91% (Trial 1) mean in practical terms for boiler
operation?
A steam quality of 97.91% indicates that for every kilogram of the steam-water mixture leaving
the boiler, 97.91% (0.9791 kg) is dry saturated steam, and 2.09% (0.0209 kg) is entrained liquid
water. While this is a high quality, the presence of even a small percentage of liquid can lead to issues
such as reduced heat transfer efficiency, erosion of steam system components (e.g., valves, turbine
blades), and potential water hammer.

4. How are steam tables utilized in determining the steam quality from the experimental data?
Steam tables are essential for obtaining the thermodynamic properties of steam at the measured
pressures and temperatures. Specifically, for the initial state (boiler pressure P1), hf1 (enthalpy of
saturated liquid) and hfg1 (latent heat of vaporization) are retrieved. For the final state (throttled
pressure P2), hg2 (enthalpy of saturated vapor) and Tsat2 (saturation temperature) are obtained. These
values are then substituted into the empirical formula to calculate the steam quality.

5. What possible reasons could explain the small discrepancies between the calculated steam
quality (X) and the theoretical steam quality (Xtherm)? Possible reasons for the discrepancies
include:
 Measurement Errors: Inaccuracies in reading temperatures (T2) or pressures (P1,
manometer for P2).
 Heat Loss: The throttling calorimeter might not be perfectly adiabatic, leading to some heat
loss to the surroundings, which would lower the measured T2 and thus affect the calculated
X.

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  Non-Ideal Throttling: The assumption of truly isenthalpic throttling might not be perfectly
met due to minor kinetic energy changes or incomplete adiabatic conditions.

Conclusion:
A high dryness fraction was successfully established by the experimental evaluation of boiler
steam quality using a throttling calorimeter; computed values for Trial 1 and Trial 2 were 97.91% and
98.18%, respectively. These findings show effective steam generation with little liquid entrainment,
which is in line with operating expectations for a properly maintained boiler. Although there were some
slight differences between the theoretical values (Xtherm) and the computed steam quality (X), these
were negligible (<0.6%), indicating that the experimental design and procedure offered a fair
representation of the real steam conditions.
To enhance the efficiency and accuracy of future experiments, several improvements could be
implemented. Calibration of temperature and pressure sensors (thermometers and manometers) before
each experimental run would minimize measurement uncertainties. Ensuring optimal insulation of the
calorimeter and connecting lines would reduce extraneous heat losses, making the throttling process more
truly adiabatic and thus improving the accuracy of the enthalpy balance. Furthermore, utilizing a more
precise method for determining Cps that accounts for its variability with temperature and pressure,
perhaps through detailed steam property software or more granular steam tables, could refine calculations.
For situations where steam quality is expected to be very low, employing a combined separating and
throttling calorimeter would be more appropriate, as throttling alone may not yield superheated steam,
thereby invalidating the current method.

References:
(Swagelok, 2012). Plant operations require a high steam quality.

(S. Kenny & D. Pope, 2000). BASIC WATER TREATMENT OF STEAM BOILERS

(Pharmacalculations.com, 2016). How to calculate energy of steam.

(Chemaqua, 2018). The effects of carryover in steam boiler systems.

(ISPE Boston Area Chapter, 2020). Steam quality testing: Introduction & best practices.

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