Transport Phenomena
Importance of Transport Phenomena in Metallurgical Processing
Transport phenomena is concerned with the
exchange of energy, mass and momentum between
system of engineering interest
Transport of mass, momentum, energy, and angular
momentum at three different levels:
(a) Macroscopic level : Centimetres or meters.
(b) Microscopic level : Micron to the centimeter range.
(c) Molecular level: About 1 to 1000 nanometers.
Variations of concentration in a medium, for example, lead to the relative
motion of the various chemical species present, and this mass transport is
generally referred to as diffusion.
Variations of velocity within a fluid result in the transport of momentum, which
is normally referred to as viscous flow.
Variations in temperature result in the transport of energy, a process usually
called heat conduction.
Basic Principles of Transport Phenomena
• The first principle on which transport phenomena are based
involves striking a balance between momentum, mass and energy.
• Rate and direction towards which a process will proceeds under a
set of conditions.
Equilibrium Foundations
• Fundamentally, the field of transport
phenomena describe the processes
that take a system of particle from a
non- equilibrium state toward an
equilibrium state, from an equilibrium
state toward a non equilibrium state,
or from one non equilibrium state to
another.
• State of particle at the origin in space
and time.
• State of the particle at their
destination Path the particles travel
from their origin to their destination.
FLUID
• A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a
tangential or shear stress, however small the shear stress may be. As
such, this continuous deformation under the application of shear stress
constitutes a flow.
• The molecules of a solid are more closely packed as
compared to that of a fluid. This may be attributed to
the fact that attractive forces between the molecules of
a solid are much larger than those of a fluid.
Fluid: A substance in the liquid or gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously under the influence of a shear stress, no matter how
small.
In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids, stress is proportional to strain
rate.
When a constant shear force is applied, a solid eventually stops deforming at some
fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid never stops deforming and approaches a constant
rate of strain.
IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
o Any physical quantity can be characterized
by dimensions.
o The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
o Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
o Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.
ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS FOR VECTORS AND
TENSORS IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES
DIFFERENTIAL OPERATIONS FOR SCALARS, VECTORS, AND
TENSORS IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES
Viscosity
T=0
Velocity buildup Final velocity
Lower plate set in motion
in unsteady distribution in
flow steady flow
Fig. Laminar flow of fluid between parallel plates.
This empirical relationship is known as Newton's law of viscosity, and defines the
constant of proportionality, η, as the viscosity.
• Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which
offers resistance to the movement One layer of fluid
over another adjacent layer of the fluid.
• Viscosity is a fluid property whose effect is understood when the
fluid is in motion.
• In a flow of fluid, when the fluid elements move with different
velocities, each element will feel some resistance due to
fluid friction within the elements.
• Therefore, shear stresses can be identified between the fluid
elements with different velocities.
• The relationship between the shear stress and the velocity field
was given by Sir Isaac Newton.
Causes of Viscosity
The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two factors:
(i) Intermolecular force of cohesion
(ii) Molecular momentum exchange
Question
• Example 1.1 Two parallel plates are 1 mm apart. The lower plate is stationary
and the upper plate moves with a velocity of 2 m s- 1 • A stress of 5 N m- 2 is
needed to maintain the upper plate in motion. Find the viscosity of the fluid
contained between the plates in (a) N s m·2 .
Q. The velocity distribution of flow over a plate is parabolic with
vertex 30 cm from the plate, where the velocity is 180 cm/s. If the
viscosity of the fluid is 0.9 N.s/m2 find the velocity gradient and shear
stress at distance of 0, 15 cm and 30 cm from the plate.
Solution
Concept of Continuum/continuous medium
• The concept of continuum is a kind of idealization of the continuous description of
matter where the properties of the matter are considered as continuous functions
of space variables.
• Although any matter is composed of several molecules, the concept of continuum
assumes a continuous distribution of mass within the matter or system with no
empty space, instead of the actual conglomeration of separate molecules.
• A dimensionless parameter known as Knudsen number,
K n = λ / L,
where λ is the mean free path and L is the characteristic length.
K n is always less than 0.01 and it is usual to say that the fluid is a
continuum.
In continuum approach, fluid properties such as density, viscosity, thermal
conductivity, temperature, etc. can be expressed as continuous functions of
space and time
• Thixotropic and Rheopectic fluids.
• Apparent viscosity of a thixotropic fluid decreases with time under
constant shear.
• lipstick
• Fluids for which the apparent viscosity increases with increase in
time for a given shear rate are called rheopectic fluids.
• Examples of rheopectic fluids include gypsum pastes and printers
inks
The No-slip Condition
No relative tangential
velocity component
between the fluid and
the solid boundary at
their contact points.
This conceptual
paradigm is known as
‘no-slip’ boundary
condition.
Q. A fluid has a solute viscosity of 0.048 Pas and a specific gravity of
0.913. For the flow of such a fluid over a flat solid surface, the
velocity at a point 75 mm away from the surface is 1.125 m/s.
Calculate the shear stresses at the solid boundary, at points 25 mm,
50 mm, and 75 mm away from the boundary surface.
Assume
(i) a linear velocity distribution and
(ii) a parabolic velocity distribution with the vertex at the point 75
mm away from the surface where the velocity is 1.125 m/s.
MOLECULAR THEORY OF THE VISCOSITY OF GASES AT LOW DENSITY
A theoretical expression for the viscosity of gases can be obtained by
considering the transport of momentum via molecular collisions
between gas particles. The classical approach is based on one of the
most successful and long-lived models in physics; the kinetic theory of
gases.
• The kinetic theory of gases is based on the assumption that the
transport and thermodynamic properties of a collection of gas
particles can be obtained from a knowledge of their masses,
number density, and velocity distribution Each gas particle is
assumed to be a rigid, spherical, non-attracting, billiard ball of
diameter, dp, and mass, m.
• The spacing between particles must also be large enough so that
we can approximate the particles as points. Collisions between
particles are assumed to be perfectly elastic, so total momentum
and energy is conserved upon collision.
Chapman–Enskog Theory
• The Chapman-Enskog theory gives expressions for the transport
properties in terms of the intermolecular potential energy, where r is
the distance between a pair of molecules undergoing a collision.
σf is the characteristic diameter of the particle (its collision cross
section)
εf is a characteristic energy of interaction
The viscosity of a pure monatomic gas of molecular weight M may be written in
terms of the Lennard-Jones parameters as:
Q. Compute the viscosity of C02 at 200,300, and 800K
and 1 atm
To calculate the viscosity of a gas mixture, the multicomponent
extension.
Chapman-Enskog theory can be used
Fi gure Viscosity of oxygen as a function of pressure. Kinetic and Chapman–Enskog
theories fail. (Data from Weast, R.C., ed., Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 55th
edn., CRC Press, Cleveland, OH, 1974.
Viscosity of liquid Metals and Alloys
According to Eyring, a liquid at rest continually undergoes
rearrangements, in which one molecule at a time escapes from its
"cage" into an adjoining "hole," and that the molecules thus move in
each of the coordinate directions in jumps of length a at a frequency v
per molecule.
Figure: Structure of a static liquid—free
volume
Figure: Illustration of an
escape process in the flow of a
liquid. Molecule 1 must pass
through a "bottleneck to reach
the vacant site.
A jump of length a at a frequency v per molecule. The frequency is given by rate equation.
Fluid with the velocity gradient –dv/dy flowing in x-direction increase the frequency of
rearrangement
Net velocity = Distance travelled per jump times the net frequency.
Velocity profile is consider linear for small distance δ
Viscosity of Slag
• Viscous behaviour of blast furnace (BF) slags plays an
important role that affects operation efficiency since the
flow pattern of molten slags has a significant influence on
gas permeability, heat transfer, and the reduction of
SiO2 and FeO.
• Slag viscosity continuously decreases with increasing the
content of the network modifier (basic oxide).
• Most of the common slag are derived from oxide.
• The liquid oxide slag consist of cations and anions formed by the acid-
base reaction among the constitute.
• An oxide is consider to be acid, if when dissolved in molten slag, it
acquires additional oxygen ions to form complex anions whereas a
basic oxide ionizes to contribute oxygen ions to melt.
• The most common acidic constitute in oxide slag is silica (SiO2) and
the viscosity of the liquid oxide slag discusses on the basis of viscosity
of pure liquid silica and its variation with the addition of basic oxide
CaO, MgO, Na2O etc.
• Viscosity of pure silica is very high of the order of 105 poise. This
is due to the strong Si-O covalent bond.
• When basic oxide like CaO is added to the liquid silica, dissociate
to form Ca2+ and O2- ion causes two of the SiO44- tetrahedral to
separate whereas Ca2+ ion is accommodated in the interstices of
the silicate structure
• Increasing the addition of CaO causes progressive break down of
three dimensional silica network.
• It depends on the ratio of oxygen/silica in the melt
As the C/S ratio increases from 0.9 to 1.45, the IR bands for [SiO4]-tetrahedra
with non-bridging oxygen per silicon (NBO/Si) = 1, 2, 3 and 4 (1090, 990, 930
and 850 cm-1 bands, respectively) become prominent.
And, the relative intensity of the IR bands for [SiO4]-tetrahedra with
NBO/Si=3+4 increases with increasing the C/S ratio, while that of the IR
bands for [SiO4]-tetrahedra with NBO/Si=1+2 decreases with increasing the
slag basicity. Also, the centre of gravity of the [SiO4]-tetrahedral bands at
about 1170–750 cm-1 shifts from about 990 to 930 cm-1 and an increase in a
C/S ratio results in shifting of lower limit IR bands for the [SiO4]-tetrahedra
from 760–730 cm-1. These results indicate that the degree of polymerization
of silicate units continuously decreases with increasing the C/S ratio from 0.9
Thus, the viscosity of slag should be decreased as the C/S ratio increases.
However, the viscosity at 1723 K increases at the C/S higher than about 1.3
in Figure 5. Of course, because the liquidus temperature of slag is increased
by the increase in the C/S ratio, the slag phase at 1723 K may become the
coexisting phase of solid and liquid, resulting in increasing the viscosity at
1723 K.
• Liquidus temperatures of the slags as a function of the slag
basicity.
• It can be seen that the liquidus temperature is below 1723 K.
• Also, it is observed that the difference between the TLQ and
the experimental temperature (1723 K) decreases from about
173 to 33 K with increasing the C/S ratio from 0.9 to 1.5 and
is especially below 50 K at above C/S=1.35.
• This trend at above C/S>1.35 corresponds with the viscous
• Slag behaves as a homogeneous liquid at a fixed
temperature, it can be proposed that the viscosity of
slag is affected by not only the depolymerization
mechanisms of silicate network but also the melting
point of slag.
• That is, the effect of depolymerizatiou2n of silicate
melt on viscosity can be stronger than that of the
melting point of slag at the temperature higher than
the melting point of slag, and vice versa in the case of
the small difference between the T and TLQ.
Therefore, although a slag behaves as a
homogeneous liquid at a fixed temperature, it can be
proposed that the viscosity of slag is affected by not
only the depolymerization mechanisms of silicate
network but also the melting point of slag.
That is, the effect of depolymerization of silicate melt
on viscosity can be stronger than that of the melting
point of slag at the temperature higher than the melting
point of slag, and vice versa in the case of the small
difference between the T and TLQ.
• Therefore, in the present study, it was assumed that the driving
force for the decrease of slag viscosity would be an increase in
depolymerization of silicate network at C/S≤ 1.3 with increasing
the C/S ratio, while the viscous behavior at C/S>1.3 would be
increased with increasing the chemical potential of primary solid
phase e.g. dicalcium silicate as the slag basicity increases.
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF VISCOSITY
The reduced viscosity μr = μ / μc is plotted versus the reduced
temperature Tr = T/Tc, for various values of the reduced pressure
pr, = p/pc
(i) if a value of viscosity is known at a given reduced pressure and temperature,
preferably at conditions near to those of interest, then μc can be calculated from μc = μ /
μr
or (ii) if critical p-V-T data are available, then μc , may be estimated from these empirical
relations
GENERALIZATION OF NEWTON'S LAW OF VISCOSITY
Fig. Pressure and viscous forces acting on planes in the fluid perpendicular to the three
coordinate systems. The shaded planes have unit area.
Applications of Differential Balance Equations
Laminar Flow through a Pipe.
• Viscosity determinations by Stokes method.
• Viscosity determination by concentric cylinder method.
Laminar Flow through a Pipe
• Hagen Poiseuille Flow
• Consider fully developed laminar flow through a straight tube of circular
cross-section as in Fig. Rotational symmetry is considered to make the
flow two-dimensional axisymmetric.
• Let us take z-axis as the axis of the tube along which all the fluid
particles travel, i.e
Q. During deoxidation of liquid steel in a furnace, the time taken for
alumina deoxidation Products of radius 10-3 cm to rise through 40 cm
of the liquid steel bath is 12 minutes. Calculate the viscosity of liquid
steel, given that the densities of liquid steel and the deoxidation
Product are 7000 and 2800 kg m-3 respectively and g equals 9.81 ms-2.
Overall Momentum Balance
• Overall momentum balance is based on Newton’s second
law of motion.
• {(Amount of momentum input in system per unit time) -
(Amount of momentum output from system per unit time)}
= {(Rate of change of momentum in system)- (force acting
on system)}.
• Force due to tangential and normal stresses in the fluid
have been neglected.
Application of overall balances
Flow Meters (Pitot tube, Orifice meter, Nozzle, Venturi
meter, Rotameter)
• The rate of flow through pipes can be measured with the
help of instrument whose working principle based on the
overall energy balance .i.e. Bernoulli’s Equations.
• In these meters, the fluid is either accelerated or retarded
at the section used for measurement and the change in
kinetic energy is measured by the pressure difference so
produced.
Pitot Tube
Chimney Draft
• In Fossil-fuel fired metallurgical furnaces, chimneys are
provided to carry away the flue gases.
• These chimneys also produce a draft, known as chimney draft
or natural draft, which helps to draw in atmospheric air into
the furnace to assist in the combustion process of the fossil-
fuel.
• The magnitude of this draft is proportional to the pressure drop
caused by the chimney and can be calculated by applying the
energy balance, i.e Bernoulli’s equation.
Flow through Packed bed
• Flow through beds of stationary granular solids is often
found in blast furnace smelting, shaft type direct
reduction process etc.
• In one approach, a packed bed is consider to be
system consisting of a number of particle submerged in
a fluid and the pressure drop is calculated by summing
up the resistances of submerged particles.
• In second approach, a packed bed is consider to be
consist of a bundle of tangled tubes of weird cross-
section.
• Thus pressure drop across the beds due to the resistance
caused by presence of particles is a prerequisite.
• Packing material of the bed may be spheres, irregular
particles etc.
• Theoretically in general it is assumed that packing is uniform
everywhere and a little or no channeling occurs.
• Actual channels are irregular in shape, have a variable cross-
section and orientation and are highly interconnected.
• However, to calculate an equivalent channel diameter it is
assumed that the bed has a set of uniform circular channels
whose total surface area and void fraction match those of the
bed.
Flow through Fluidized Beds
• When particle remains freely suspended in the fluid
stream. The bed under this condition is said to be
fluidization.
• Fluidized bed reactors have become important in
metallurgical processes particularly for combustion of
pulverized coal, etc.
• In order to calculate the minimum fluidization velocity
vmf and pressure drop across the bed with help of Ergun
equation.
• At instant when fluidization starts, beds becomes
suspended in the fluid. At this instant the total
buoyancy force and upward force must be equal to the
wt. of this bed.
• ALmfg(1-ℇmf)ρf + APmf = ALmfg (1-ℇmf) ρs
Pmf = Lmfg(1-ℇmf)(ρs- ρf )
Where,
A, Lmf , ℇmf , Pmf are Cross sectional area, Length,
void fraction and pressure drop of bed at minimum
fluidization state.
