1 Neurons and synaptic transmission

Definition

Neurons, or nerve cells, are the fundamental building blocks of the nervous system. They are
highly specialized cells designed to receive, process, and transmit electrical and chemical signals
throughout the body. Neurons enable communication between different parts of the body and the
brain, playing a key role in sensation, thought, movement, and various physiological processes.

Structure of a Neuron

Each neuron consists of several key components:

1. Dendrites:

 Function: Dendrites are branch-like extensions that receive information (signals) from
other neurons or sensory receptors.
 Structure: Covered with small protrusions called dendritic spines, which increase the
surface area for synaptic connections.
 Role in Signal Transmission: They collect electrical signals and funnel them toward the
soma (cell body) for integration.

2. Soma (Cell Body):

 Function: The soma integrates incoming signals and decides whether to generate an
action potential.
 Structure:
o Contains the nucleus, which houses DNA and regulates the cell's activity.
o Includes other organelles such as mitochondria (energy production), Golgi
apparatus (protein processing), and ribosomes (protein synthesis).
 Role: Serves as the control center of the neuron and maintains cell health.

3. Axon:

 Function: The axon carries electrical impulses away from the soma toward the axon
terminals.
 Structure: A single, long, thin fiber that can range from less than a millimeter to over a
meter in length (e.g., sciatic nerve axon).
 Role: The main transmission line of the neuron, connecting it to target cells such as other
neurons, muscles, or glands.

4. Axon Hillock:
  Function: Acts as the trigger zone where the neuron decides to initiate an action
potential.
 Role: Summates all incoming excitatory and inhibitory signals; if the threshold is met, an
action potential is generated.

5. Myelin Sheath:

 Function: Insulates the axon, allowing faster transmission of electrical signals.

 Structure: Fatty layer formed by glial cells—Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous
system (PNS) and oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS).
 Role in Speed: Enables saltatory conduction, where the action potential "jumps" from
one Node of Ranvier to the next, significantly increasing transmission speed.

6. Nodes of Ranvier:

 Function: Small gaps in the myelin sheath.

 Role:
o Concentrated with voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels.
o Facilitate the rapid recharging of the action potential during saltatory conduction.

7. Axon Terminals (Synaptic Boutons):

 Function: Release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft to communicate with target
cells.
 Structure: Bulbous endings at the end of the axon that store synaptic vesicles filled with
neurotransmitters.
 Role: Critical for synaptic transmission, enabling the neuron to pass its signal to the next
cell in line.
 The synaptic cleft is a gap between neurons that allows them to communicate with
each other. It's also known as the synaptic gap.
 Types of synapses
 Electrical synapses: Use gap junctions to transfer ions and small molecules between
cells.
 Chemical synapses: Use neurotransmitters and neuromodulators to communicate
between cells.

Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic functional units of the nervous system that relay electrical
impulses from one to another. The human body contains an unimaginable number of neurons,
with the cerebral cortex of the brain alone having over 9 trillion neurons.
All neurons are microscopic and although they vary in their characteristics, all neurons have
certain common structural features. Fig.1 below shows a typical neuron with an elongated axon.
The cell body (or soma) is the neuron’s central part and contains the nucleus. Emerging from the
soma are profusely branched structures called dendrites. The neuron receives excitation at one of
its dendrites from a neighboring neuron’s terminal arborization. The axon is a longer projection
from the soma. The longest axon of a human motor neuron can be over a meter long, reaching
from the base of the spine to the toes. The axon may or may not have a myelin sheath, a fatty
covering which is interrupted at the nodes of Ranvier. Neurons with a myelin sheath conduct
faster than those without it. Certain cells called Schwann cells make up the myelin sheath. The
neurolemma is a protective covering over the neuron. The axon carries nerve signals away from
the cell body towards the nerve endings or the terminal arborizations, also called terminal
buttons. The part of the axon where it emerges from the soma is called the axon hillock. The
terminal arborizations into which the axon eventually divides, are specialized structures that
release neurotransmitter chemicals into the synaptic cleft that separate the neuron from the
neighbouring target neurons.

Fig.2 shows electrical impulse transmission across a synaptic cleft. A synapse consists of
junctions between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the postsynaptic membrane of the
target neuron, usually the dendrite. When an electrical impulse, in the form of an action potential,
is transmitted down an axon the terminal buttons release a neurotransmitter into the synaptic
cleft. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that produce a depolarization (which refers to excitation)
or a hyperpolarization (which means inhibition) in the postsynaptic neuron.
3.2 Types of neurons

1. Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)

Function:
  Sensory neurons are responsible for transmitting sensory information from peripheral
sensory organs (e.g., skin, eyes, ears, tongue, and internal organs) to the central nervous
system (CNS) for processing.
 They act as the initial link in the communication chain, detecting stimuli from the
environment or within the body.

Examples:

1. Photoreceptors:
o Located in the retina of the eye.
o Detect light and convert it into electrical signals for visual processing.
2. Mechanoreceptors:
o Found in the skin, muscles, and joints.
o Detect mechanical stimuli like pressure, touch, vibration, or stretch.
3. Thermoreceptors:
o Detect temperature changes.
4. Nociceptors:
o Respond to pain caused by tissue damage or harmful stimuli.
5. Chemoreceptors:
o Detect chemical changes, such as oxygen levels in the blood or specific molecules
in the air (smell) or food (taste).

Structure:

 Sensory neurons often have a pseudo-unipolar structure:

o A single process extends from the cell body, which then splits into two branches:
 One branch connects to the sensory receptor.
 The other connects to the CNS.
 This structure allows rapid transmission of signals.
 Some sensory neurons, such as those in the retina, have a bipolar structure, with one
dendrite and one axon extending from the cell body.

2. Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)

Function:

 Motor neurons carry signals from the CNS to effector organs (e.g., muscles and glands).
 They are the final link in the communication chain, translating neural commands into
physical actions or physiological responses.

Examples:

1. Alpha Motor Neurons:

o Control voluntary movements by stimulating skeletal muscles.
 For example, they are responsible for actions like walking, lifting, and writing.
o
2. Gamma Motor Neurons:
o Regulate muscle tone by innervating muscle spindles (sensory receptors in
muscles).
3. Autonomic Motor Neurons:
o Control involuntary functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and glandular
secretion.
o Subdivided into:
 Sympathetic neurons: Prepare the body for "fight or flight" responses.
 Parasympathetic neurons: Promote "rest and digest" functions.

Structure:

 Motor neurons have a multipolar structure:

o Multiple dendrites arise from the soma, allowing integration of information.
o A single long axon extends from the soma to the target effector organ.
 Axons can be very long; for example, the axons of motor neurons in the spinal cord can
extend to muscles in the feet.

3. Interneurons

Function:

 Interneurons serve as connectors within the CNS, forming complex circuits.

 They integrate sensory input and motor output, enabling reflexes, thought processes, and
higher-order brain functions like memory and decision-making.
 They are critical for reflex arcs, where sensory input is directly linked to motor output
without conscious brain involvement (e.g., withdrawing your hand from a hot surface).

Examples:

1. Reflex Interneurons:
o In the spinal cord, interneurons mediate simple reflex arcs.
o Example: A withdrawal reflex, where sensory input from a nociceptor (pain
receptor) is immediately relayed to motor neurons for a quick response.
2. Cortical Interneurons:
o Found in the brain, particularly in regions like the prefrontal cortex.
o Play roles in reasoning, emotion regulation, and working memory.
3. Inhibitory Interneurons:
o Release inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA) to prevent overexcitation in
neural networks, maintaining balance in brain activity.

Structure:
  Interneurons typically have a multipolar structure with:
o Short axons for local communication within the CNS.
o Highly branched dendrites to receive input from multiple neurons.
 This design allows them to act as hubs for integrating complex information from various
sources.

Comparison of Sensory, Motor, and Interneurons

Feature Sensory Neurons Motor Neurons Interneurons

Primary Detect and transmit sensory Relay CNS output to Connect sensory and
Function input to CNS effectors motor neurons
Photoreceptors, Alpha motor neurons, Reflex interneurons,
Example
mechanoreceptors autonomic neurons cortical neurons
PNS (sensory organs, skin) CNS to muscles or Within CNS (brain,
Location
to CNS glands spinal cord)
Long (pseudo-unipolar or
Axon Length Long (multipolar) Short (multipolar)
bipolar)
Key Role in Integration and
Perception Action
Behavior coordination

Psychological Relevance

 Sensory Neurons: Essential for perception, which forms the basis of cognitive processes
like attention and memory.
 Motor Neurons: Critical for behaviors, both voluntary (e.g., walking) and involuntary
(e.g., heart rate changes due to stress).
 Interneurons: Fundamental for higher-order processes such as learning, decision-
making, and emotional regulation.

According to the functions they perform, neurons can be classified into:

a) sensory neurons
b) motor neurons
c) inter neurons
Sensory neurons relay information related to external stimuli
from the sensory organs to brain or the spinal cord where the information is processed. Motor
neurons take the processed information necessary for producing a response, and relay it to
muscles and organs. The inter neurons play an intermediary role between the sensory and the
motor neurons.
Given the diversity of functions performed by neurons in different parts of the nervous system,
they are of various shapes and sizes. Fig.3 shows some different types. The unipolar neuron is
the most primitive type. Here the dendrites and the axon arise from the same side of the soma
and hence the name ‘unipolar’. A bipolar neuron has only one dendron which arises from the
soma on the opposite side from which the axon arises. And in multipolar neurons there are many
dendrons that arise from different sides of the soma. The multipolar neurons are involved in
higher order functions and mostly found in the brain and spinal cord.

Glial cells

Glial Cells: The Supporting Cells of the Nervous System

Glial cells (or neuroglia) are non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that play essential roles in
supporting, protecting, and nourishing neurons. While neurons are the primary signaling units,
glial cells maintain the environment necessary for neuronal function, contribute to signal
transmission, and play critical roles in development, repair, and defense.

Types of Glial Cells

Glial cells are classified into central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system
(PNS) types.
1. Glial Cells in the Central Nervous System (CNS)

The major glial cell types in the CNS are astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal
cells.

a. Astrocytes

 Structure:
o Star-shaped cells with numerous processes extending from the cell body.
o Found in both gray and white matter of the CNS.
 Functions:

1. Structural Support: Provide physical support to neurons and help organize the neural
network.
2. Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB):
 End-feet of astrocytes cover blood vessels, contributing to the formation of the
BBB.
 Regulate the passage of substances between blood and neural tissue, protecting
the brain from harmful substances.
3. Regulate Ion Balance: Maintain extracellular ion homeostasis, especially potassium
levels.
4. Neurotransmitter Recycling:
 Remove excess neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft (e.g., glutamate and
GABA).
 Convert glutamate to glutamine, which can be reused by neurons.
5. Energy Supply: Store glycogen and provide lactate as an energy source for neurons
during high activity.
6. Repair and Scarring: Form glial scars after CNS injury (a process called reactive gliosis).

b. Oligodendrocytes

 Structure:
o Smaller cells with fewer processes than astrocytes.
o Each oligodendrocyte can myelinate multiple axons in the CNS.
 Functions:

1. Myelination:
 Produce and maintain the myelin sheath around axons, which insulates them
and speeds up electrical signal transmission.
2. Support Axons: Provide metabolic and structural support to neurons.

c. Microglia

 Structure:
o Small, mobile cells with branching processes.
 o Originate from mesodermal precursors (unlike other glial cells, which are ectodermal).
 Functions:

1. Immune Defense: Act as the macrophages of the CNS, detecting and removing
pathogens and damaged cells.
2. Synaptic Pruning: Eliminate unnecessary synapses during development to refine neural
circuits.
3. Inflammatory Response: Release cytokines and chemokines during injury or infection.
4. Debris Clearance: Engulf and digest cellular debris after injury.

d. Ependymal Cells

 Structure:
o Ciliated, epithelial-like cells that line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of
the spinal cord.
 Functions:

1. Produce Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): Form part of the choroid plexus, which secretes CSF.
2. CSF Circulation: Cilia help circulate CSF, ensuring it delivers nutrients and removes waste
from the CNS.

2. Glial Cells in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The primary glial cells in the PNS are Schwann cells and satellite cells.

a. Schwann Cells

 Structure:
o Wrap around axons in the PNS, with each Schwann cell myelinating only a single axon
segment.
 Functions:

1. Myelination:
 Produce myelin in the PNS to increase the speed of nerve impulse conduction.
 Insulate axons to prevent signal leakage.
2. Regeneration:
 Assist in axonal repair and regeneration after injury by guiding regrowth along a
Band of Büngner.
3. Support Unmyelinated Axons: Provide metabolic support to small-diameter axons that
are not myelinated.

b. Satellite Cells

 Structure:
o Flattened cells that surround the cell bodies of neurons in peripheral ganglia.
  Functions:

1. Nutritional Support: Supply nutrients to neurons.

2. Regulate Microenvironment: Maintain extracellular ion and neurotransmitter balance
around neurons.
3. Protect Neuronal Soma: Provide physical cushioning and protect neurons from damage.

Key Differences Between CNS and PNS Glial Cells

Feature CNS Glial Cells PNS Glial Cells

Oligodendrocytes (myelinate
Myelination Schwann cells (myelinate one axon)
multiple axons)

Structural
Astrocytes Satellite cells
Support

Immune Absent; immune function handled by macrophages

Microglia
Defense from the bloodstream.

CSF Regulation Ependymal cells Absent

Clinical Relevance

1. Astrocytes:
o Overactivation can lead to gliosis, contributing to neurodegenerative diseases like
Alzheimer’s disease.
o Dysfunction can disrupt the BBB, increasing the risk of CNS infections.

2. Oligodendrocytes:
o Damage to oligodendrocytes causes demyelination in diseases like Multiple Sclerosis
(MS), leading to impaired signal conduction.

3. Microglia:
o Chronic microglial activation can contribute to neuroinflammation in disorders like
Parkinson’s disease, ALS, and schizophrenia.

4. Schwann Cells:
o Damage or mutation in Schwann cells can lead to conditions like Guillain-Barré
Syndrome, a demyelinating disorder of the PNS.
Role in Psychology

 Glial cells influence cognition, emotion, and behavior by modulating synaptic activity and neural
plasticity.
 Dysfunction of glial cells has been implicated in mental health conditions such as depression,
schizophrenia, and autism.
 Glial cells are also targets in research for repairing CNS injuries and neurodegenerative
conditions.

Neurons are not the only kind of cells in the nervous system. In fact other the second type of
cells called glial cells which outnumber neurons by 10 to 1. The word ‘glial’ is taken from
‘glue’, i.e. something that joins together. The spaces in between neurons are filled with different
types of glial cells:
a) Oligodendrocytes: they myelinate some neurons of the CNS and send out extensions that wrap
around the axons of these neurons.
b) Schwann cells: they myelinate the neurons of the peripheral nervous system. Each Schwann
cell constitutes one myelin segment. They can also guide axonal regeneration if damage happens.
c) Astrocytes: they are star shaped. The arm-like extensions of astrocytes cover the outer surface
of blood vessels that course through the brain. They play a role in the BBB system (Blood-Brain
Barrier). This is a mechanism which impedes the passage of certain kinds of chemicals or toxic
substances from the blood into the brain. There is a restrictive semipermeability on the
substances in passing from the blood plasma to the extracellular fluid of the brain. This is
because of the special structure of the cerebral blood vessels. The cells that compose the walls of
blood vessels of the brain are very tightly packed and in addition, the astroglial cells line them.
This prevents the movement of many unwanted molecules. Only those large molecules like
glucose which are necessary for brain functioning is transported actively through the membranes
of cerebral blood vessels.
d) Microglia: they respond to injury or disease by engulfing cellular debris and triggering
inflammatory responses.
e) Radial glia: they have long radiating arms and they assist in transporting or providing
pathways for newly formed neurons during their migration. They have cup-like feet that attach to
the cortical destination where the neuron is supposed to reach.

II. Neurophysiology of Neurons

Understanding the electrical properties of neurons is crucial to understanding how they

communicate. The two key phenomena in neuronal activity are the resting membrane potential
and the action potential.

Resting Membrane Potential

Definition:
  The resting membrane potential is the electrical charge difference across a neuron’s
membrane when it is not actively transmitting a signal.
 Typically, this potential is around -70 mV, meaning the inside of the neuron is more
negatively charged compared to the outside.

Key Components:

1. Ion Distribution:
o Sodium (Na⁺): High concentration outside the neuron.
o Potassium (K⁺): High concentration inside the neuron.
o Chloride (Cl⁻): High concentration outside the neuron.
o Large anionic proteins: Confined inside the neuron, contributing to its negative
charge.
2. Selective Permeability of the Membrane:
o The neuronal membrane is more permeable to K⁺ than to Na⁺ due to the presence
of more leak channels for K⁺.
o This creates a net efflux of K⁺, making the interior more negative.
3. Role of the Sodium-Potassium Pump:
o The pump actively transports 3 Na⁺ ions out of the cell and 2 K⁺ ions in, using
ATP.
o This active transport maintains the concentration gradients of Na⁺ and K⁺, which
are essential for the resting potential and action potentials.

Action Potential

Definition:

 The action potential is a rapid, temporary change in the membrane potential that occurs
when a neuron transmits a signal.
 It is an all-or-none phenomenon: if the stimulus reaches the threshold (typically ~-55
mV), the neuron fires an action potential.

Phases of an Action Potential:

1. Resting State:
o The neuron is at resting membrane potential (~-70 mV).
o Voltage-gated Na⁺ and K⁺ channels are closed.
2. Depolarization:
o A stimulus causes the membrane potential to become less negative.
o If the threshold is reached (~-55 mV), voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open, and Na⁺
rushes into the cell.
o The membrane potential becomes positive (~+30 mV).
3. Repolarization:
o After depolarization, voltage-gated Na⁺ channels inactivate.
 oVoltage-gated K⁺ channels open, allowing K⁺ to exit the cell, restoring the
negative charge inside.
4. Hyperpolarization:
o The membrane potential temporarily becomes more negative than the resting
potential (e.g., ~-80 mV) due to the slow closing of K⁺ channels.
o The neuron enters the refractory period, during which it cannot fire another
action potential.
5. Return to Resting State:
o The sodium-potassium pump restores the resting membrane potential by re-
establishing ion gradients.

Role of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels

 Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels:

o Open rapidly during depolarization and inactivate shortly afterward.
o Their opening initiates the action potential.
 Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels:
o Open more slowly during repolarization, allowing K⁺ to exit the cell.
o Their delayed closing leads to hyperpolarization.

Propagation of Action Potentials

Once generated, the action potential travels along the axon to communicate with the next cell.
The propagation can occur in two ways:

1. Continuous Conduction (Unmyelinated Axons):

 In unmyelinated axons, the action potential travels as a continuous wave.

 Every segment of the membrane undergoes depolarization and repolarization
sequentially.
 This process is relatively slow because the entire length of the axon must be activated
step by step.

2. Saltatory Conduction (Myelinated Axons):

 In myelinated axons, the action potential "jumps" between Nodes of Ranvier (gaps in the
myelin sheath).
 Mechanism:
o Myelin insulates the axon, preventing ion leakage and speeding up electrical
conduction.
o At the nodes, where voltage-gated channels are concentrated, the action potential
is regenerated.
  Advantages:
o Significantly faster conduction than continuous propagation.
o Energy-efficient because fewer ions need to be pumped back by the sodium-
potassium pump.

Key Concepts in Action Potential Propagation

1. Unidirectional Travel:
o Action potentials move in one direction due to the refractory period of the
membrane behind the action potential.
2. Speed Factors:
o Axon diameter: Larger axons conduct signals faster.
o Myelination: Myelinated axons are much faster than unmyelinated ones.

Psychological and Clinical Relevance

 Neurotransmission and Behavior:

o Proper action potential conduction is essential for normal sensory perception,
motor control, and cognitive processes.
 Disorders:
o Multiple Sclerosis: A demyelinating disorder that disrupts saltatory conduction,
leading to neurological impairments.
o Epilepsy: Abnormal, excessive neuronal firing due to disrupted ion channel
functioning.
 Therapeutic Interventions:
o Drugs like local anesthetics block Na⁺ channels, preventing action potentials and
pain transmission.

III. Synaptic Transmission

Synaptic transmission is the process by which neurons communicate with each other or with
effector cells (e.g., muscles or glands). It is critical for all nervous system functions, including
perception, movement, cognition, and emotion.

Definition

 Synaptic transmission refers to the transfer of signals between neurons or between a

neuron and an effector cell. It occurs at synapses, which are specialized junctions for
communication.
Types of Synapses

1. Electrical Synapses

 Mechanism:
o Electrical synapses allow direct flow of ions and electrical signals through gap
junctions.
o Gap junctions are formed by connexin proteins that create channels between
adjacent cells.
 Features:
o Fast transmission due to direct ionic flow.
o Bidirectional signaling (signals can move in either direction).
o Less common in humans but found in certain areas like the retina and in reflex
pathways.
 Function:
o Facilitate synchronized activity, such as rhythmic breathing or coordinated muscle
contraction.

2. Chemical Synapses

 Mechanism:
o Use neurotransmitters to transmit signals across a small gap, the synaptic cleft.
 Features:
o Slower than electrical synapses but allow for greater flexibility and modulation.
o Unidirectional signaling (from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic cell).
 Function:
o Provide the ability to modulate signals, amplify responses, and integrate complex
information.

Structure of a Chemical Synapse

1. Presynaptic Terminal:
o Located at the end of the axon of the transmitting neuron.
o Contains:
 Synaptic Vesicles: Store neurotransmitters.
 Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels: Open in response to action potentials,
triggering neurotransmitter release.
 Mitochondria: Provide ATP for neurotransmitter synthesis and vesicle
cycling.
2. Synaptic Cleft:
o A small gap (~20-40 nm) between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
o Neurotransmitters diffuse across this space to transmit the signal.
 3. Postsynaptic Membrane:
o Found on the dendrite, soma, or axon of the receiving cell.
o Contains:
 Receptor Proteins: Bind neurotransmitters.
 Ion Channels: Open or close in response to receptor activation, altering
the membrane potential.

Steps of Synaptic Transmission

1. Neurotransmitter Synthesis

 Neurotransmitters are produced in the presynaptic neuron.

 Small-molecule neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholine, dopamine):
o Synthesized in the cytoplasm of the axon terminal.
 Peptide neurotransmitters (e.g., endorphins):
o Synthesized in the cell body and transported to the axon terminal in vesicles.

2. Vesicle Docking and Neurotransmitter Release

 Action Potential Arrival:

o An action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, depolarizing the membrane.
 Calcium Influx:
o Depolarization opens voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing Ca²⁺ to enter the
terminal.
 Vesicle Docking:
o Synaptic vesicles dock at the membrane using proteins like SNAREs.
 Exocytosis:
o Increased intracellular Ca²⁺ triggers vesicle fusion with the presynaptic
membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

3. Binding to Postsynaptic Receptors

 Receptor Activation:
o Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptors
on the postsynaptic membrane.
 Effects on the Postsynaptic Cell:
o Ionotropic Receptors (Ligand-Gated Ion Channels):
 Directly open ion channels, causing immediate changes in membrane
potential.
 Example: Glutamate binding to AMPA receptors opens Na⁺ channels,
depolarizing the membrane.
o Metabotropic Receptors (G-Protein-Coupled Receptors):
 Indirectly influence ion channels via second messengers.
 Slower but can produce longer-lasting effects.
4. Postsynaptic Potential:

 Binding of neurotransmitters results in either:

o Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP):
 Depolarizes the membrane, increasing the likelihood of an action
potential.
 Example: Glutamate-mediated Na⁺ influx.
o Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP):
 Hyperpolarizes the membrane, reducing the likelihood of an action
potential.
 Example: GABA-mediated Cl⁻ influx.

5. Termination of Neurotransmitter Action

 To prevent overstimulation, neurotransmitter action is terminated by:

1. Reuptake:
 Transport proteins on the presynaptic membrane reabsorb
neurotransmitters.
 Example: Serotonin is taken up by the serotonin transporter (SERT).
2. Enzymatic Degradation:
 Enzymes in the synaptic cleft break down neurotransmitters.
 Example: Acetylcholine is degraded by acetylcholinesterase into acetate
and choline.
3. Diffusion:
 Some neurotransmitters diffuse out of the synaptic cleft and are removed
by nearby glial cells.

Neurotransmitter Examples

Neurotransmitter Receptor Type Effect

Glutamate AMPA, NMDA (Ionotropic) Excitatory (CNS signaling)
GABA GABA-A (Ionotropic) Inhibitory (CNS signaling)
Acetylcholine Nicotinic (Ionotropic) Excitatory (Neuromuscular)
Dopamine D1, D2 (Metabotropic) Modulation (Reward)
Serotonin 5-HT3 (Ionotropic) Mood, appetite regulation

Psychological Relevance

 Learning and Memory:

o Synaptic plasticity, such as long-term potentiation (LTP), depends on efficient
synaptic transmission.
 Mental Health:
 o Imbalances in neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin in depression) underlie many
psychiatric conditions.
 Pharmacological Targets:
o Drugs like SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) enhance synaptic
transmission to treat disorders.