Neuron Definition

“Neurons are the fundamental unit of the nervous system

specialized to transmit information to different parts of the
body.”

Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. They receive and
transmit signals to different parts of the body. This is carried out in both
physical and electrical forms. There are several different types of neurons
that facilitate the transmission of information.

The sensory neurons carry information from the sensory receptor cells
present throughout the body to the brain. Whereas, the motor neurons
transmit information from the brain to the muscles. The interneurons
transmit information between different neurons in the body.

Neuron Structure

A neuron varies in shape and size depending on its function and location.
All neurons have three different parts – dendrites, cell body and axon.

A neuron, or nerve cell, is the basic functional unit of the nervous system.
It is specialized for transmitting electrical and chemical signals. The
structure of a neuron is divided into the following key components:

1. Cell Body (Soma)

 The central part of the neuron containing the nucleus.

 Functions:

o Houses the nucleus, which contains genetic material (DNA)

and controls cellular activities.
 o Contains organelles like mitochondria (energy production) and
ribosomes (protein synthesis) that maintain the cell’s health
and function.

2. Dendrites

 Branch-like extensions protruding from the cell body.

 Functions:

o Receive signals (electrical or chemical) from other neurons or

sensory receptors.

o Convey these signals to the cell body for processing.

 Key Feature: Dendrites have a large surface area to accommodate

multiple synaptic connections.

3. Axon

 A long, thin fiber extending from the cell body.

 Functions:

o Transmits electrical impulses (action potentials) away from the

cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

 Key Feature: The length of an axon can vary from a few millimeters
to over a meter, depending on the neuron type.

4. Myelin Sheath

 A fatty layer that wraps around the axon, formed by glial cells
(Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and
oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system).

 Functions:

o Insulates the axon to prevent signal loss.

o Increases the speed of nerve impulse transmission through

saltatory conduction (jumping between gaps in the myelin,
called nodes of Ranvier).

5. Nodes of Ranvier

 Description: Small gaps between sections of the myelin sheath.

 Functions:

o Facilitate the rapid transmission of electrical impulses along

the axon by allowing ion exchange.
6. Axon Terminals (Synaptic Endings)

 The ends of the axon that form connections with other neurons or
target cells.

 Functions:

o Contain synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.

o Release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft to

communicate with adjacent neurons or effector cells.

Type of Nerurons:

There are three different types of neurons:

 Sensory Neurons
The sensory neurons convert signals from the external environment
into corresponding internal stimuli. The sensory inputs activate the
sensory neurons and carry sensory information to the brain and
spinal cord. They are pseudounipolar in structure.
 Motor Neurons
These are multipolar and are located in the central nervous system
extending their axons outside the central nervous system. This is
the most common type of neuron and transmits information from
the brain to the muscles of the body.
 Interneurons
They are multipolar in structure. Their axons connect only to the
nearby sensory and motor neurons. They help in passing signals
between two neurons.

Synapse

 The junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the
dendrite or cell body of another neuron.

 Components:

o Presynaptic Neuron: Releases neurotransmitters.

o Synaptic Cleft: The gap through which neurotransmitters

diffuse.

o Postsynaptic Neuron: Contains receptors that bind

neurotransmitters, initiating a response.

Neural conduction is the process by which information is transmitted

along neurons and between them. It involves electrical signals within a
neuron and chemical signals between neurons. Here’s a detailed
explanation of both processes:
1. Electrical Conduction (Within Neurons)

This occurs along the length of the neuron, primarily through the axon. It
involves changes in the electrical charge across the neuron’s membrane.

1. Resting Potential:

o The neuron at rest has a voltage of about -70mV.

o Inside the neuron, there is a higher concentration of

potassium ions (K⁺), while the outside has more sodium
ions (Na⁺).

o The membrane is polarized due to ion pumps and channels

maintaining this charge difference.

2. Stimulus and Threshold:

o When a stimulus reaches the neuron, ion channels open,

allowing sodium ions to flow into the neuron.

o If the charge reaches the threshold potential (~ -55mV), an

action potential is triggered.

3. Action Potential:

o This is an all-or-none electrical signal.

o Sodium ions rush in through voltage-gated channels, causing

a rapid depolarization (inside becomes more positive).

o Shortly after, potassium ions flow out, repolarizing the

membrane to restore the negative charge inside.

4. Propagation:

o The action potential travels along the axon toward the axon
terminals.

o In myelinated axons, this occurs through saltatory

conduction, where the impulse jumps between the nodes of
Ranvier, making it faster and more energy-efficient.

5. Refractory Period:

o After an action potential, the neuron temporarily cannot fire

another signal until it resets its ion balance.

2. Chemical Conduction (Between Neurons)

This occurs at the synapse, the junction between the axon terminal of
one neuron (presynaptic neuron) and the dendrite or cell body of another
neuron (postsynaptic neuron).

1. Arrival of Action Potential:

o The action potential reaches the axon terminal of the

presynaptic neuron.

o This triggers the opening of voltage-gated calcium (Ca²⁺)

channels, allowing calcium to enter the terminal.

2. Release of Neurotransmitters:

o Calcium influx causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the

membrane of the axon terminal.

o Neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine)

are released into the synaptic cleft.

3. Binding to Receptors:

o Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to

specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron’s membrane.

4. Postsynaptic Response:

o The binding of neurotransmitters to receptors opens ion

channels on the postsynaptic neuron.

o Depending on the neurotransmitter and receptor type, this

can cause:

 Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP):

Depolarization, making the neuron more likely to fire.

 Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP):

Hyperpolarization, making the neuron less likely to fire.

5. Termination:

o To prevent continuous activation, neurotransmitters are

removed from the synaptic cleft via:

 Reuptake: Absorption back into the presynaptic

neuron.

 Degradation: Breakdown by enzymes (e.g.,

acetylcholinesterase).

 Diffusion: Passive movement away from the synapse.

Integration of Electrical and Chemical Conduction

 Electrical signals (action potentials) carry information rapidly within

a neuron.

 Chemical signals (neurotransmitters) enable communication

between neurons, allowing for complex processes like learning,
memory, and behavior.

Nervous System

The nervous system is a complex network that coordinates all

activities in the body by transmitting signals between different body
parts. It’s divided into two main parts:

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

 Components: The brain and spinal cord.

 Function: It’s the main control center of the body, processing and
interpreting sensory data and sending out instructions.

 Brain: Responsible for higher functions like thinking, feeling, and

remembering. It’s divided into areas such as the cerebrum
(responsible for thought and action), cerebellum (for movement
coordination), and brainstem (controls basic life functions like
breathing and heart rate).

 Spinal Cord: Carries messages between the brain and the rest of
the body, also responsible for reflexes.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

 Components: All the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord,
including sensory and motor nerves.

 Function: Connects the CNS to limbs and organs, allowing the CNS
to communicate with the rest of the body.

 Divisions:

o Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements

(e.g., moving your hand).

o Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions

(e.g., heart rate, digestion). It’s further divided into:

 Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates the “fight or

flight” response.

 Parasympathetic Nervous System: Promotes “rest

and digest” activities.
 Neurons and Signal Transmission

Neurons, or nerve cells, are the basic units of the nervous system.
They communicate through electrical impulses and chemical
signals. When a neuron receives a signal, it passes this along to
other neurons, muscles, or glands, allowing the body to react to
stimuli, whether internal or external.

Brain Structure:

The brain is a complex organ composed of various structures that

work together to regulate bodily functions, process sensory
information, control movements, and enable cognition, emotion, and
behavior. Here’s an overview of the main structures of the brain:

1. Cerebrum

 Structure:

o The largest part of the brain, divided into two hemispheres

(left and right), connected by the corpus callosum.

o Each hemisphere has four lobes: frontal, parietal,

temporal, and occipital.

o The surface is covered by the cerebral cortex, a layer of

gray matter with folds (gyri) and grooves (sulci) to increase
surface area.

 Functions:

o Frontal Lobe: Decision-making, planning, reasoning,

voluntary movements, and speech production (via Broca’s
area).

o Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing (touch, pain,

temperature), spatial awareness, and navigation.

o Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing, memory

(hippocampus), and emotion regulation.

o Occipital Lobe: Visual processing and interpretation.

2. Cerebellum

 Structure: Located below the cerebrum at the back of the brain.

 Functions:

o Coordinates voluntary movements, posture, and balance.

 o Fine-tunes motor activities to ensure smooth and accurate
execution.

3. Brainstem

 Structure: Connects the brain to the spinal cord and is divided into
three parts:

o Midbrain: Controls eye movement, auditory, and visual

processing.

o Pons: Acts as a bridge between various parts of the brain;

regulates sleep and breathing.

o Medulla Oblongata: Regulates autonomic functions like

heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration.

 Functions:

o Controls vital life-sustaining functions.

o Plays a role in reflexes like swallowing, coughing, and

sneezing.

4. Diencephalon

 Structure: Located between the cerebrum and brainstem. Includes:

o Thalamus: Relay center for sensory and motor information to

and from the cerebral cortex.

o Hypothalamus: Maintains homeostasis by regulating hunger,

thirst, temperature, sleep, and hormones (via the pituitary
gland).

o Epithalamus: Includes the pineal gland, which regulates

circadian rhythms.

5. Limbic System

 Structure: A set of interconnected structures, including:

o Hippocampus: Critical for memory formation and spatial

navigation.

o Amygdala: Involved in emotion processing, especially fear

and aggression.

o Cingulate Gyrus: Plays a role in emotion regulation and

linking behavior to motivation.

 Functions:
 o Governs emotions, memory, and motivation.

6. Basal Ganglia

 Structure: A group of nuclei located deep within the cerebral

hemispheres.

 Functions:

o Regulates voluntary motor movements, procedural learning,

and habit formation.

o Works closely with the motor cortex and cerebellum.

7. Ventricular System

 Structure: A network of interconnected cavities (ventricles) filled

with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

 Functions:

o Protects the brain by cushioning it.

o Removes waste and provides nutrients.

8. Corpus Callosum

 Structure: A thick bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two

cerebral hemispheres.

 Function: Enables communication and coordination between the

hemispheres.

Brain Protection

 Meninges: Three layers of protective tissue (dura mater, arachnoid

mater, and pia mater).

 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): Cushions the brain and helps maintain

stable pressure.

 Skull: A bony structure that encases the brain.