LIGHT

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

When light falls on the surface of an object, it may be

(a) absorbed,
(b) transmitted, and
(c) reflected.

Based on their ability to transmit light, substances can be broadly classified into :
(a) Transparent substances which allow light to pass through, e.g. glass, water, colourless
substances, etc.
(b) Translucent substances which allow a part of the light to pass through, e.g. ground
glass, oiled paper, etc.
(c) Opaque substances which do not allow light to pass through them, e.g. metals, wood,
brick, etc.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zFJd57Ypwwo
• A shadow is the dark area formed by an object
• A shadow is formed when light is completely or
partially blocked by an object.
• A shadow is formed when the object blocks the
light from a light source
• A shadow is always formed on the opposite side
of the light source from an object
• A shadow has the same shape as the object
blocking the light
FORMATION OF SHADOWS

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xgJdXpN9il4
 SHADOWS
Shadows are formed when light is obstructed. The light may Be totally obstructed thereby forming a
dark shadow known as an umbra, or it may be partially obstructed thereby forming a gray shadow
known as a penumbra.
 Shadows Slide:

Penumbra

Umbra

Penumbra

A) C)

B) D)
+
+
Click
 Shadows Slide:

When the moon’s penumbral shadow strikes the Earth, a partial

eclipse is produced.

In which region/s can a partial eclipse of the sun be seen?

A) Region X only
B) Region Y only
C) Regions X and Z
D) Regions X, Y and Z

Click
Eclipses
SOLAR ECLIPSES

• Solar Eclipse- caused by

the moon making a small
shadow on the Earth.
– Moon crosses in front
of the sun.
– Occurs during the day.
 Types of Solar Eclipses:
1. A partial solar eclipse occurs when only part
of the Sun is covered by the Moon which
appears to take a “bite” out of the Sun.
 Types of Solar Eclipses:
2. Annular eclipse occurs when the Sun’s center
is covered by the moon , leaving its edges left
uncovered, producing a ring (or annulus) of the
Sun around its edges.
SOLAR ECLIPSE
• There are two parts to the
shadow.
– Umbra- darkest part
– Penumbra- lighter part
• Those people standing in
the umbra see a total solar
eclipse.
• Those people in the
penumbra see a partial
solar eclipse.
LUNAR ECLIPSE
• Lunar eclipse- caused by
the earth’s shadow covering
the moon.
– Moon is in a full moon
position.
– Large numbers of people
can see.
– Occurs at night.
 3 Types of Lunar Eclipses

• Total Lunar Eclipse-Earth’s full (umbral) shadow

falls on the moon.
• Partial Lunar Eclipse-the sun, Earth and moon are
not quite perfectly aligned, and Earth’s shadow
appears to take a bite out of the moon.
• Penumbral Lunar Eclipse-the moon is in Earth’s
faint outer (penumbral) shadow.
 Laws of Reflection
Following are the two laws of reflection :
(a) The incident ray, normal at the point of incidence and reflected ray all lie
in the same plane.
(b) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection : ∠ i = ∠ r.

The image so formed has the following

characteristics :
(a) It is virtual and erect.
(b) It is laterally inverted.
(c) Size of the object and size of the image are
the same.
(d) The image is as far behind the mirror as the
object is in front of it.
 REFLECTION AT CURVED SURFACES
Spherical mirrors are the mirrors having curved surfaces that are painted on one of the
sides. Spherical mirrors in which inward surfaces are painted are known as
convex mirrors, while the spherical mirrors in which outward surfaces are
painted are known as concave mirrors.
Characteristics of Concave Mirrors
• Light converges at a point when it strikes and reflects back from the reflecting
surface of the concave mirror. Hence, it is also known as a converging mirror.
• When the concave mirror is placed very close to the object, a magnified and virtual
image is obtained.
• The image formed by the concave mirror can be small or large or can be real or
virtual.

Characteristics of Convex Mirrors

• A convex mirror is also known as a diverging mirror as this mirror diverges light
when they strike on its reflecting surface.
• Virtual, erect, and diminished images are always formed with convex mirrors,
irrespective of the distance between the object and the mirror.
• The centre of the sphere, of which the mirror is a part, is called the centre of curvature
(C).
• The geometrical centre of the mirror is called its pole (P).
• The line joining the pole of the mirror and its centre of curvature is called the principal
axis.
• The distance between the pole and the centre of curvature of the spherical mirror is
called the radius of curvature of the mirror.
• When a parallel beam of light is incident on a spherical mirror, the point where the
reflected rays converge (concave mirror) or appear to diverge from the point (convex
mirror) on the principal axis is called the principal focus (F) of the mirror.
• The distance between the pole and the principal focus is called the focal length (f) of
the mirror
Relation between
f and R
 Linear Magnification
The ratio of the size of the image produced by a spherical mirror to the size of the
object placed, is called linear magnification (or simply magnification) produced by
the spherical mirror. It is denoted by m.

In a concave mirror, when the distance of the object is less than the focal length, the
magnification will be greater than one. When the distance of the object is greater than the
focal length, then the magnification is less than one.
As the object will get closer to the mirror the image will get bigger and bigger but it will not
get bigger than the original object. So, the image formed in a convex mirror is always virtual
and diminished. So, the magnification of a convex mirror is always less than 1.
 SEXTANT
The sextant is an instrument used to measure angles. Mainly used at sea, the tool is so
named because its arc is one-sixth of a circle – 60 degrees. It adheres to the principle of
double reflection hence it can measure angles up to 120 degrees. Practically speaking, the
arc of the sextant is a little over 60 degrees and therefore the total angle measurable is
about 130 degrees.
Sextant is an essential tool for celestial navigation and is used to measure the angle
between the horizon and a visible object (or two objects at sea.
The sextant is used to measure the following:
• Vertical Sextant Angle (VSA)
• Horizontal Sextant Angle (HSA)
• Altitudes
Principle of the Sextant
When a ray of light is reflected by a plane mirror, the angle of the incident ray is
equal to the angle of the reflected ray, when the incident ray, reflected ray and the
normal lie on the same plane
When a ray of light suffers two successive reflections in the same plane by two
plane mirrors, the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray is twice the
angle between the mirrors

Working of Sextant
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00ZEIZsl5xk
 REFRACTION
Refraction is the bending of a wave when it passes from one medium to another. The
bending is caused due to the differences in density between the two substances.

Why do stars twinkle?

 Causes of Refraction
Change of Speed Results in Change in Direction
A light ray refracts whenever it travels at an angle into a medium of different refractive
index. This change in speed results in a change in direction. As an example, consider air
travelling into water. The speed of light decreases as it continues to travel at a different
angle.
• When light travels from air into glass, the light slows down and changes direction
slightly.
• When light travels from a less dense substance to a denser substance, the refracted
light bends more towards the normal line.
• If the light wave approaches the boundary in a direction that is perpendicular to it, the
light ray doesn’t refract in spite of the change in speed.
 REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM
Refraction is the bending of light when it goes from one medium to another so, when
a ray of light passes through a glass prism, refraction of light occurs both, when it
enters the prism as well as when it leaves the prism. Since the refracting surfaces are
not parallel, therefore, the emergent ray and incident ray are not parallel to one
another. In this case the ray of light is deviated on passing through the prism.
 Simple Lens
A simple lens is an optical device which takes parallel light rays and focuses them to
a point. This point is called the focus or focal point f

Snell’s Law, applied at each point on the surface, determines where the light comes to a
focus.
Image Formation in a Lens – Ray Tracing
The three basic light rays used in ray tracing:
1. A ray which leaves the object parallel to the axis,
is refracted to pass through the focal point (P).
2. A ray which passes through the lens’s center is
undeflected (M).
3. A ray passing through the focal point (as shown)
is refracted to end up parallel to the axis (F).
 Images Formed by a Convex Lens

f 2f Object between 2f and f

2f f Image is inverted, real

enlarged.

f 2f Object between f and lens

2f f Image is upright, virtual,

and enlarged.
Images Formed by a Concave Lens

f 2f Object beyond 2f.

2f f Image is upright,
virtual, reduced.

Object between
f 2f f and lens.

2f f Image is upright,
virtual, reduced.
 Sing Conventions

1. Converging or convex lens

• focal length is positive
• image distance is positive when on the other side
of the lens (with respect to object)
• height upright is positive, inverted is negative
2. Diverging or concave lens
• focal length is negative
• image distance is always negative
(on the same side of the lens as the object)
• height upright is positive, inverted is negative
FIBRE OPTICS
 Introduction
An optical fiber is essentially a
waveguide for light

• An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber designed to guide

light along its length by confining as much light as possible in a
propagating form.
• They are arranged in bundles called optical cables and used to
transmit light signals over long distances.
• Based on the principle of “Total Internal Reflection”
• Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communication, which permits
transmission over longer distances and at higher data rates than other forms
of wired and wireless communications.
A fibre optic cable consists of glass or plastic
threads, which are protected by the thin polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) or metal sheath. The central part
of optical fibe is known as core, which is
surrounded by cladding. These layers are further
protected by PVC sheath

1. Core is made up of thin glass or plastic layer

through which light travels.

2. Cladding is outer optical material surrounding

the core and reflects back the light into the
core.
Core Refractive Index
3. Sheath is plastic coating that protects fibre Is slightly greater than that of
from any damage or other environmental Cladding
conditions.
The range of the core diameter is 5-100
micrometer.
The cladding diameter is usually 125 um
and sheath diameter is about 250 um.
Optical fibers are very fine fibers of glass. They consist of a glass core, roughly
fifty micrometres in diameter, surrounded by a glass "optical cladding" giving an
outside diameter of about 125 Micrometres.

Basic Structure Core

Glass or plastic with a higher index of
refraction than the cladding
Carries the signal
Cladding
Glass or plastic with a lower index of
refraction than the core
Protective Sheath/Buffer Coating
Protects the fiber from damage and
moisture
Core Refractive Index Jacket
Is slightly greater than that of Holds one or more fibers in a cable
Cladding
 Transmission of Light in Optical Fibre
An optical fiber guides light
waves in distinct patterns
called modes.

In case of optical fibre, the

refractive index of core (n1) is
slightly greater than the
refractive index of cladding
Total Internal Reflection (n2). Then light signal is totally
internally reflected. As a
result, light ray undergoes
multiple total internal
reflections at core cladding
interface until it emerges out
of the other end of the fibre
even if the fibre is bent.
 Acceptance Angle

• Acceptance angle:- The acceptance angle is the maximum angle made

by incident ray of light with the axis of core at core-outside medium,
so that it gets totally internally reflected at core cladding interface.

The acceptance angle of an optical fiber is defined based on a purely geometrical

consideration (ray optics): it is the maximum angle of a ray (against the fiber axis) hitting
the fiber core which allows the incident light to be guided by the core.
Acceptance Cone
Fractional Refraction index/Relative refractive index
 DIFFRACTION THROUGH SINGLE SLIT

Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object.
 Diffraction by a Single Slit
Example: Single-slit diffraction
maximum.
Light of wavelength 750 nm passes
through a slit 1.0 x 10-3 mm wide. How
wide is the first minima?

θ
First minimum : D sin  = 
θ
 −1  7.5  10 
−7
 = sin   = sin 
−1
−6
 = 48.6
D  1.0  10 
DIFFRACTION THROUGH CIRCULAR APERTURE
 LIMIT OF RESOLUTION
There are many situations in which diffraction limits the resolution. The acuity of our
vision is limited because light passes through the pupil, the circular aperture of our eye. Be
aware that the diffraction-like spreading of light is due to the limited diameter of a light
beam, not the interaction with an aperture. Thus light passing through a lens with a
diameter D shows this effect and spreads, blurring the image, just as light passing through
an aperture of diameter D does. So diffraction limits the resolution of any system having a
lens or mirror.

(a) Monochromatic light passed through a small circular aperture produces this diffraction pattern. (b) Two
point light sources that are close to one another produce overlapping images because of diffraction. (c) If they
are closer together, they cannot be resolved or distinguished.
 Limits of Resolution; Circular
Apertures
The Rayleigh criterion states that two images are just
resolvable when the center of one peak is over the first
minimum of the other.
 INTENSITY OF LIGHT
Intensity can usually be understood as the strength of something like a beam of light.
 INTERFERENCE
Wave interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while traveling
along the same medium. interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose
to form a resultant wave of greater, lower, or the same amplitude.

The amplitudes of two equally

intense light beams may have
opposite signs at some location,
so that they can cancel each
other (destructive interference).
On the other hand, with equal
signs (equal phases) of both
contributions (constructive
interference), the total intensity
can be four times (rather than
only two times) that of the single
beams.
Coherent Light:
Coherent light is uniform in frequency, amplitude, continuity and constant initial phase
difference.
Coherent beam of light is obtained due to stimulated emission of photons from the
atoms jumping from meta-stable state to lower energy state.

Coherent Light

1) Many Wavelengths 1) Monocromatic

2) Multidirectional 2) Directional
3) Incoherent 3) Coherent
 Absorption of Radiation

E2
E2 = E1 + h ν

E2 - E1 = ΔE =
hν
E1

The probability of occurrence of this absorption from state 1 to

state 2 is proportional to the energy density u(ν) of the radiation
P12 = B12 u(ν)
Where Proportionality constant B12 is known as Einstein coefficient
of absorption of radiation
 Spontaneous Emission

The probability of occurrence of spontaneous emission transition

from state 2 to state 1 depends only on the properties of states 2 and 1
and is given by
P΄21 = A21
Where proportionality constant A21 is known as Einstein coefficient
of spontaneous emission of radiation.
 Stimulated Emission

E2 - E1 = ΔE =
hν

The probability of occurrence of stimulated emission transition

from the upper level 2 to the lower level 1 is proportional to the
energy density u(ν) of the radiation and is expressed as
P΄΄21 = B21 u(ν)
Where proportionality constant B21 is known as Einstein coefficient
71
of stimulated emission of radiation.
Total Probability (P21) of emission of transition from upper
level 2 to the lower level 1 is given by

P21 = P΄21 + P΄΄21

Or
P21 = A21 + B21 u(ν)
 He-Ne Laser
• He-Ne Laser is a four layer gas laser.
• Laser medium is mixture of Helium and Neon
gases in the ratio 10:1
• In gas, atoms are characterized by sharp
energy levels compared to solids.
• Actual lasing atoms are the Neon atoms
• Pumping Action: Electric discharge is passed
through the gas and electrons are accelerated,
collide with He and Ne atoms and excite them
to higher energy levels.
He-Ne Laser
75
76
 Advantages
1. Easy to construct and operate.
2. Continuous beam
3. Exceptionally monochromatic
beam with high operation duration
 PERISCOPE
Periscope, optical instrument used in land and sea warfare, submarine navigation, and
elsewhere to enable an observer to see his surroundings while remaining under cover,
behind armour, or submerged. A periscope includes two mirrors to change the direction of
the light coming from the scene observed: the first deflects it down through a vertical
tube, the second diverts it horizontally so that the scene can be viewed conveniently. The
simplest type of periscope consists of a tube at the ends of which are two mirrors, parallel
to each other but at 45° to the axis of the tube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4zEY4EzhFik
 TELESCOPE
• A telescope is a tool used to see faraway objects. Most telescopes, and all large
telescopes, work by using curved mirrors to gather and focus light from the night sky.
The mirrors or lenses in a telescope are called the “optics.” Really powerful telescopes
can see very dim things and things that are really far away.
• A telescope made with lenses is called a refracting telescope. People with especially
poor eyesight need thick lenses in their glasses. Big, thick lenses are more powerful.
The same is true for telescopes. If you want to see far away, you need a big powerful
lens. Unfortunately, a big lens is very heavy.
• Heavy lenses are hard to make and difficult to hold in the right place. Also, as they get
thicker the glass stops more of the light passing through them.
A telescope that uses mirrors is called a reflecting telescope.

Unlike a lens, a mirror can be very thin. A bigger mirror does not also have to be
thicker. Light is concentrated by bouncing off of the mirror. So the mirror just has to
have the right curved shape.
 BINOCULARS
Binoculars are a useful tool with a diverse array of applications as far-flung as hunting,
sporting events, birding, and surveillance. Their list of uses has almost no end, and they’ve
been employed in almost every hobby and outdoor activity there is.
These tools allow us to see far distances with incredible detail.
WORKING:
Two objective lenses are situated at each end of the binoculars. The purpose of the
objective lens is to collect light from the object that the user is looking at and bringing the
collected light into focus in the eyepiece lens, which creates a visible and magnified
image. The image generated is backwards and upside down. Corrective elements known as
prisms are used to fix this problem and they are situated between the objective lens and
the eyepiece lens. The prisms used in binoculars are basically blocks of glass that acts like
mirrors. Two types of prisms are used in binoculars: roof prisms and porro prisms.
 How to make a telescope from two lenses. The objective lens makes a focused image of the object.
The eyepiece lens makes the image bigger.

How prisms correct the inverted image and turn it the right way up. The eyepiece lens takes the corrected
image from the prisms and magnifies it, as before.

When light rays from a distant object pass through a convex lens, they can cross over. That's why
distant things sometimes look upside down if you look at them through a magnifying glass. The
second lens doesn't sort out that problem. So binoculars have a pair of prisms (large wedges of
glass) inside them to rotate the image through 180 degrees. One prism rotates the image through
90 degrees (flips it onto its side), then the next prism rotates it through another 90 degrees (flips it
onto its side again), so the two prisms effectively turn it upside down.
Porro prisms are arranged horizontally, side by side at 90 degrees. This allows the image to refract from one
prism into the other. This technology is very old and has been used for centuries. Because they’re arranged
horizontally, Porro prism binoculars are much larger and bulkier. But they’re also simpler to build, so they
usually cost less than roof prism binoculars.

Roof prisms are set in a straight line instead of being set beside each other. This allows for a more compact
and streamlined set of binoculars.
You might think this means that the light takes a straight path as well, but the path the light follows is much
more complicated in roof prism binoculars since it must refract around the prisms and come back into a
straight line for you to view. This has longer focal path, resulting in greater magnification.
But these prisms are more complex and harder to manufacture, which means that roof prism binoculars are
generally more expensive.
 FIELD OF VIEW

Field of view represents how much area you’re actually viewing. It’s a measure of how
many feet across you’re able to see through your device.
In general, higher magnification means a smaller field of view. As you’re zoomed in
with higher magnification, you’ll be able to see a smaller area overall, but you’ll get a
more detailed view.
 AZIMUTH MIRROR

Azimuth mirror is used for taking

the bearings of terrestrial and
celestial objects.
By the use of mirrors or lenses or
prisms or combination of all these,
the equipment allows both, the
readings of the compass card, and
the object to be seen at the same
time and in the same direction.
Thus the bearing of the object can
be read out.
Azimuth mirror is therefore
portable equipment which is
placed over a magnetic or gyro
compass for measuring bearings of
terrestrial and celestial objects.
• Sight Vanes (Near vane & far vane):
Allow the observer to take bearings of
objects by aligning the two vanes to the
object. The near vane contains a peep sight
while the far vane contains a vertical wire.
The far vane is mounted on top of a housing
that contains a reflective mirror inside
enabling the observer to read the bearing
from the reflected portion of the compass
card.
• Reflector Vane: Allow the observer to
observe azimuths of celestial bodies (stars
and planets) at various altitudes by picking
up their reflection in the black mirror. When
the body is observed, its reflection appears
behind the vertical wire in the far vane.
• Levels: Indicate if the ring is level with the
horizon.
• Concave mirror: Reflects the sun’s rays
onto the prism housing on the other side of
the ring when the observer is taking an
azimuth of the sun.
• Prism Housing: Directs the beam of light
from the concave mirror downward in a
narrow beam onto the compass card enabling
the observer to read the azimuth to the sun.