BEEE UNIT-1 AC & DC CIRCUITS

UNIT-2

DC & AC CIRCUITS
The machines which are operated in relation with electrical energy are called
electrical machines. In electrical machines, either input or output or both can be
electricity.

Classification:

DC machine
The DC machine can be classified into two types namely DC motors as well as
DC generators.

An electromechanical device which can convert direct current (dc) electricity into
mechanical energy or mechanical energy into direct current (dc) electricity is
known as a DC machine.

If the DC machine converts DC electrical energy into mechanical energy, it is

known as DC motor. If the machine converts mechanical energy into DC electrical
energy, then it is known as a DC generator. Both DC motor and DC generator have
the similar construction.

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1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast

iron or steel. It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly
but also carries the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or
welding. They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole
shoes serve two purposes; (i) they support field coils and (ii) spread out the
flux in air gap uniformly.
3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound
and placed on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such
a way that, when energized, they form alternate North and South poles.
4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in
shape with slots to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin
laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy current losses. It may be
provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes. Armature is
keyed (fixed) to the shaft.
5. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in
armature slots. The armature conductors are insulated from each other and
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also from the armature core. Armature winding can be wound by one of the
two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap or wave
windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that each
armature slot will carry two different coils.
6. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is
made through a commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a
commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the current generated in armature
conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in providing
current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of a set of copper
segments which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is
equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an
armature coil and the commutator is keyed (or fixed) to the shaft.
Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator
segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping
the physical contact to collect or supply the current.

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DC Motor
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. It works by using the interaction between a magnetic field
and an electric current to create torque.
The basic working principle of a DC motor is that whenever a current-carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force is known
as the Lorentz force, and it is responsible for the rotation of the motor's armature.

Working Principle
The principle of operation of a dc motor is 'when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a mechanical force'. As conductors are
placed in the slots which are on the periphery of armature, the individual force
experienced by the conductors acts as a twisting or turning force on the armature
which is called a torque. The torque is the product of force and the radius at
which this force acts. So overall armature experiences a torque and starts
rotating. Let us study this motoring action

Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic held as shown in the Fig.

1.2.1(a). The magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet but in a
practical dc motor, it is produced by the field winding when it carries a current

Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current a

Particular direction. Consider that it carries a current away from an observer as

shown in the Fig 1.2.1(b). Any current carrying conductor produces its own
magnetic field around it hence this conductor also produces its own flux, around.
The direction of this flux can be determined by right hand thumb rule. For
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direction of current considered, the direction of flux around a conductor is

clockwise. For simplicity of understanding, the main flux produced by the
permanent magnet is not shown in the Fig. 1.2.1 (b).

Now there are two fluxes present,

1. The flux produced by the permanent magnet called main Flux

2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.

These are shown in. Fig. 1.2.2 (a). From this, it is clear that on one side of the
conductor, both the fluxes are in the same direction. In this case, on the left of the
conductor there is gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes help each other. As
against this, on the right of the conductor, the two fluxes are in opposite direction
and hence try to cancel each other. Due to this, the density of the flux lines in this
area gets weakened. So on the left, there exists high flux density area while on the
right of the conductor there exists low flux density area as shown in the Fig. 1.2.2
(b).

This flux distribution around the conductor acts like a stretched rubber band
under tension. This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from
high flux density area towards low flux density area i.e. from left to right for the
case considered as shown in the Fig, 1.2.2 (b).

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F = BIL NEWTONS

Types of dc motors

 Separately Excited DC Motor

 Self Excited DC Motor
 Shunt Wound Motor
 Series Wound Motor
 Compound Wound Motor

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Applications of DC Motor

Shunt DC Motors Series DC Motors Cumulative Compound DC

motors
 Centrifugal and  Conveyors  Shears
reciprocating
pumps
 Blowers and Fans  Hoists, Elevators  Heavy Planers
 Drilling machines  Cranes  Rolling mills
 Milling machines  Electric  Elevators
Locomotives
 Machine tools

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DC Generator

DC generators' primary function is to convert mechanical energy into electrical

energy. DC generators generate electricity using the principle of Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction.

When a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive force

gets induced within the conductor.

If the conductor is provided

rovided with a closed path, the induced current will circulate
within the closed path. In this generator, field coils will generate an
electromagnetic field as well as the armature conductors are turned into the field.

Working of a DC Generator

Consider a single loop DC generator (as shown in the figure), in this a single turn
loop ‘ABCD’ is rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a constant
speed. When the loop rotates, the magnetic flux linking the coil sides ‘AB’ and ‘CD’
changes continuously.. This change in flux linkage induces an EMF in coil sides and
the induced EMF in one coil side adds the induced EMF in the other.

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The EMF induced in a DC generator can be explained as follows

 When the loop is in position-1, the generated EMF is zero because, the
movement of coil sides is parallel to the magnetic flux.
 When the loop is in position-2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the
magnetic flux and hence, a small EMF is generated.
 When the loop is in position-3, the coil sides are moving at right angle to the
magnetic flux, therefore the generated EMF is maximum.
 When the loop is in position-4, the coil sides are cutting the magnetic flux at
an angle, thus a reduced EMF is generated in the coil sides.
 When the loop is in position-5, no flux linkage with the coil side and is
moving parallel to the magnetic flux. Therefore, no EMF is generated in the
coil.
 At the position-6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and
hence the polarity of generated EMF is reversed. The maximum EMF will
generate in this direction at position-7 and zero when at position-1. This
cycle repeats with revolution of the coil.

It is clear that the generated EMF in the loop is alternating one. It is because any
coil side (say AB) has EMF in one direction when under the influence of N-pole
and in the other direction when under the influence of S-pole. Hence, when a load
is connected across the terminals of the generator, an alternating current will
flow through it. Now, by using a commutator, this alternating emf generated in
the loop can be converted into direct voltage. We then have a DC generator.

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APPLICATIONS

DC Separately Exited Generator:

Where a wide range of voltage is required for the testing purposes

DC Shunt Generator:
For electro plating
Battery charging
For excitation of Alternators

DC Series Generator:
Used as Boosters
Used for supply to arc Lamps

DC Compound Generator:
Used to supply dc welding machines
Used to supply power for offices, hostels and Lodges etc
Used to compensate the voltage drop in Feeders
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AC MACHINES

Transformer

Electrical transformer is a static electrical machine which transforms electrical

power from one circuit to another circuit, without changing the frequency.
Transformer can increase or decrease the voltage with corresponding decrease or
increase in current.

Basic construction of transformer

Transformer consists of following parts.

1. Core

The transformer consists of core. The circuit provides the path to the flow of
magnetic flux. The core is laminated to minimize the eddy current losses. The
laminations are insulated from each other by a light coating of varnish or by an
oxide layer. The thickness of laminations varies from 0.35mm to 0.5mm for a
frequency of 50 Hz.

According to the core construction and the manner in which the primary and
secondary windings are placed around it, the transformer is named as core
type and shell type.
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1. Core type transformer

In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted
on the core limbs as shown in the figure. The cylindrical coils have different
layers and each layer is insulated from each other. Materials like paper,
cloth or mica can be used for insulation. Low voltage windings are placed
nearer to the core, as they are easier to insulate.

2. Shell type transformer

The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation
between them. A shell type transformer may have simple rectangular form,
or it may have a distributed form.

2. Windings

Transformer consists of primary and secondary windings usually made of copper.

The Conductors of the rectangular cross-section are generally used for low
voltages winding. Conductors of the circular cross-sectional area are used for high
voltage winding in the small transformer.

3. Conservator

The Conservator is a cylindrical tank placed on the top or on the roof of the main
tank of the transformer. It acts as a reservoir for the transformer insulating oil.

When the transformer is fully loaded and the temperature of the transformer
rises high, an increase in the volume of the air inside the transformer takes place.
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As the level of the oil increases and decreases simultaneously, thus, a conservator
provides adequate space for this expanded oil inside the transformer.

4. Breather

When the temperature of the transformer rises, the insulating oil in the
transformer gets heated up. This oil expands and contracts. This process of taking
air in and out is called breathing of the transformer.

The air carries moisture, which contaminates the oil and thus the quality of oil
gets deteriorate.

For eliminating this moisture content, the breather is filled with Silica Gel. The
main function of the silica gel is to separate moisture from the oil. Initially, the
color of the silica gel is blue and as it absorbs the moisture from the oil it turns
into pink color.

5. Radiator/cooling tubes

The main function of the radiator or cooling tubes is to cool the oil in the
transformer. When the transformer is in the working conditions, the oil of the
transformer gets heated and moves up in the main tank and enters the radiator
through the upper valve. There it gets cooled and from the lower valve of the
radiating unit the oil again enters the transformer tank and this process
continues.

6. Bushings

The Bushings in the transformer are the insulting device that allows an electrical
conductor to pass electrical energy safely through it.

Solid porcelain type bushing is used in smaller transformer and oil-filled

condenser type bushing is used in large transformer.

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Working principle of transformer

The basic principle behind working of a transformer is the phenomenon of

mutual induction between two windings linked by common magnetic flux.

The figure shows the simplest form of a transformer. Basically a transformer

consists of two inductive coils; primary winding and secondary winding. The coils
are electrically separated but magnetically linked to each other.

When, primary winding is connected to a source of alternating voltage,

alternating magnetic flux is produced around the winding. The core provides
magnetic path for the flux, to get linked with the secondary winding. Most of the
flux gets linked with the secondary winding which is called as 'useful flux' or main
'flux', and the flux which does not get linked with secondary winding is called as
'leakage flux'.

As the flux produced is alternating (the direction of it is continuously changing),

EMF gets induced in the secondary winding according to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. This emf is called 'mutually induced emf', and the
frequency of mutually induced emf is same as that of supplied emf. If the
secondary winding is closed circuit, then mutually induced current flows through
it, and hence the electrical energy is transferred from one circuit (primary) to
another circuit (secondary).

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3-Phase Induction Motor

The induction motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Construction of an Induction Motor

The induction motor contains a stationary part stator that accommodates the 3-
phase winding in its slots, and the rotating component is a rotor that drives the
mechanical load.

Stator

It contains an outer frame that acts as a protective covering for the entire
machine, made of cast iron and the hallow stator core that is made up of high-
grade silicon steel laminations containing slots at the inner periphery. The slots
contain the three-phase winging that is uniformly distributed among them.

Rotor

There are two-type two-types of rotors

 Squirrel-cage rotor
 Slip-ring rotor

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Squirrel Cage Rotor

The squirrel cage rotor contains a cylindrical rotor core made of steel or silicon
steel laminations that are thick as the induction motor will operate at low-
frequency conditions (50 Hz or 60 Hz). It contains the copper bars solidly short-
circuited at both ends using two metal rings. The slots of the rotor are skewed to
reduce the effects of crawling and cogging.

Slip Ring Rotor

The rotor windings are placed in slots that are an exact mirror image of the stator
winding but preferably star-connected. In each phase of the rotor inserted with
an external resistance of suitable value to increase the starting torque as the
starting torque of the induction motor is proportional to its rotor resistance up to
a suitable value.

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Rotating Magnetic Field (R.M.F)

When a three-phase supply is given a three-phase winding, the three-phase

currents will produce the three-phase fluxes to produce a net flux that rotates at
the synchronous speed in a particular direction with a resultant magnitude of 1.5
times the peak value of the fundamental flux, the direction of rotation will depend
on the phase sequence.

Working Principle of an Induction Motor

The basic principle involved in the operation of an induction motor is

electromagnetic induction just like the transformer. Hence often the induction
motor is referred to as the rotating transformer.

When a 3-phase supply is given to the 3-phase winding a rotating magnetic field
will produce and rotates at a synchronous speed. The rotating magnetic field will
cut the stationary rotor conductors at a relative speed of Nr(=Ns−0)to induce
voltage and produce the current in the rotor as it is essentially a closed circuit.
Therefore, the rotor will start the rotation, and the direction of rotation of the
rotor can be explained with Lenz’s law. According to Lenz’s law, the result (rotor
rotation) will oppose the cause (relative speed), hence the rotor starts to oppose
the relative speed by rotating in the direction of R.M.F.

Slip: It is defined as the difference between synchronous speed and the actual
speed of the rotor expressed in the percentage of synchronous speed.

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQqyGNOP_3o&t=12s

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Alternator

An alternator is an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy in the form is alternating current AC. It is also known as
a synchronous generator or AC generator.

Construction of alternator

The alternator is made of a stationary armature winding and a rotating magnetic

field. The field windings are placed in the rotor while the armature windings are
placed in the stator.
The rotor field windings are connected to an external DC supply with the help of
slip rings and brushes. A prime mover rotates the rotor using a pulley and belt.
The rotating rotor generates changing magnetic field. This varying field generates
end in the armature windings and supplies it to the load or circuit through its
terminals.

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Components of Alternator or AC Generator

The alternator is made of different stationary and moving components each
serving its own purpose. The components of the alternator are given below

Stator
A stator is the stationary part of an electrical machine. In an alternator, it is used
for holding the armature winding that generates the induced emf. The core itself
is made of laminated steel or cast iron of good magnetic quality to reduce Eddy
current losses. The rotor that carries the field windings rotates inside the stator
without physically touching it.

Rotor

The rotor is the rotating part of the alternator. It is made in a cylindrical shape
that has copper windings also known as field winding. The field windings are
electromagnets that generate the necessary rotating magnetic field when rotated.
Rotor has a shaft that is rotated using a drive belt pulley system. The source that
rotates the rotor is called a prime mover. It can be anything such as an engine,
water turbine, wind turbine, etc.

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There are two types of rotors used in alternators or synchronous generators.

 Salient Pole Type

 Cylindrical Pole Type

Salient Pole Type: it is a type of rotor that has a large number of projecting poles
mounted on a core made of magnetic laminated steel or cast iron.

The salient pole rotor has a large diameter and small axial length. They are used
in low and medium-speed alternators such as in hydropower stations.

Cylindrical Type: such type of rotor has very few 2 or 4 poles. It is made up of a
laminated steel cylinder. The cylindrical rotor has slots for field winding that is
connected in series. The poles are left unslotted as shown in the figure below.
Since the poles are not protruding out of the core, it is also known as a non-salient
pole or round rotor. it has very few and non-salient poles, therefore its rotor
diameter size is small while its axial length is longer than the salient pole rotor.

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The cylindrical design provides mechanical strength, robustness and uniform

distribution of magnetic flux. It has lower windage loss. Therefore it is suitable for
high-speed, noise-less operation. They are designed for high-speed alternators
such as in thermal power stations

Slip Ring and Brushes

A slip ring is a component that transfers electrical power between stationary and
rotating parts of a machine. In an alternator, it is used to transfer DC power to the
rotor field windings from a DC battery using brushes that slide over the slip ring.
It is made of concentric discs placed on the shaft of the rotor. As it supplies DC,
the alternator only requires two slip rings.

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Working Principle of Alternator

All the alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. According

to this law, for producing the electricity we need a conductor, magnetic field and
mechanical energy. To understand the working principle of the alternator,
consider two opposite magnetic poles north and south, and the flux is traveling
between these two magnetic poles.

In the figure (a) rectangular coil is placed between the north and south magnetic
poles.
s. The position of the coil is such that the coil is parallel to the flux, so no flux
is cutting and therefore no current is induced. So that the waveform generated in
that position is Zero degrees.

If the rectangular coil rotates in a clockwise directio

direction n at an axis a and b, the
conductor side A and B comes in front of the south pole and C and D come in front
of a north pole as shown in figure (b). So, now we can say that the motion of the
conductor is perpendicular to the flux lines from N to S pole and the conductor
cuts the magnetic flux. At this position, the rate of flux cutting by the conductor is
maximum because the conductor and flux are perpendicular to each other and
therefore the current is induced in the conductor and this current will be in
maximum position.

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The conductor rotates one more time at 90 0 in a clockwise direction then the
rectangular coil comes in the vertical position. Now the position of the conductor
and magnetic flux line is parallel to each other as shown in figure (c). In this
figure, no flux is cutting by the conductor and therefore no current is induced. In
this position, the waveform is reduced to zero degrees because the flux is not
cutting.

In the second half cycle, the conductor is continued to rotate in a clockwise

direction for another 900. So here the rectangular coil comes to a horizontal
position in such a way that the conductor A and B comes in front of the north pole,
C and D come in front of the south pole as shown in the figure (d). Again the
current will flow through the conductor that is currently induced in the conductor
A and B is from point B to A and in conductor C and D is from point D to C, so the
waveform produced in opp opposite
osite direction, and reaches to the maximum value.
Then the direction of the current indicated as A, D, C and B as shown in figure (d).
If the rectangular coil again rotates in another 900 then the coil reaches the same
position from where the rotation is started. Therefore, the current will again drop
to zero.

In the complete cycle, the current in the conductor reaches the maximum and
reduces to zero and in the opposite direction, the conductor reaches the
maximum and again reaches zero. This cycle repeats again and again, due to this
repetition of the cycle the current will be induced in the conductor continuously.

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This is the process of producing the current and EMF of a single

single-phase.
phase.

The stator has separate armature windings for each phase placed at exactly 120°
displacement. Therefore the induced EMF is 120° apart as in a 3
3-phase alternating
current as shown below.

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tiKH48EMgKE

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Measuring instruments

Wheatstone bridge
Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance bridge, calculates the unknown
resistance by balancing two legs of the bridge circuit. One leg includes the
component of unknown resistance.

Construction:
A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of four arms, of which two arms consist of
known resistances while the other two arms consist of an unknown resistance
and a variable resistance. The circuit also consists of a galvanometer and
an electromotive force source. The emf source is attached between
points a and b while the galvanometer is connected between points c and d. The
current that flows through the galvanometer depends on its potential difference.

The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of
their resistances is equal, and no current flows through the circuit. Under normal
conditions, the bridge is in an unbalanced condition where current flows through
the galvanometer. The bridge is said to be balanced when no current flows

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through the galvanometer. This condition can be achieved by adjusting the known
resistance and variable resistance.

Wheatstone bridge Derivation

The current enters the galvanometer and divides into two equal magnitude
currents as I1 and I2. The following condition exists when the current through a
galvanometer is zero,
Vb = V d
I1 P=I2 R (1)

The currents in the bridge, in a balanced condition, are expressed as follows:

I1 = I3 = E/ (P+Q)

I2 = I4 = E/ (R+S)

Here, E is the emf of the battery.

By substituting the value of I1 and I2 in equation (1), we get
E*P/ (P+Q) = E*R/ (R+S)

P/ (P+Q) = R/ (R+S)

P*(R+S) = R*(P+Q)

PR+PS = RP+RQ

PS = RQ ------ (2)

R = (P/Q) *S –---- (3)

Equation (2) shows the balanced condition of the bridge, while (3) determines
the value of the unknown resistance.
Where,

 R is the unknown resistance

 S is the standard arm of the bridge
 P and Q is the ratio of the arm of the bridge

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Wheatstone bridge Applications

1. The Wheatstone bridge is used for the precise measurement of low resistance.
2. Wheatstone bridge and an operational amplifier are used to measure physical
parameters such as temperature, light, and strain.
3. Quantities such as impedance, inductance, and capacitance can be measured
using variations on the Wheatstone bridge.

Wheatstone bridge Limitations

1. For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and contacts
becomes significant and introduces an error.
2. For high resistance measurement, the measurement presented by the bridge is
so large that the galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance.
3. The other drawback is the resistance change due to the current’s heating effect
through the resistance. Excessive current may even cause a permanent change in
the value of resistance.

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PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL

These instruments use permanent magnets to create the stationary magnetic field
in the coils, and then it is used with the moving coil that is connected to the
electric source for generating deflection torque according to the Fleming left-hand
rule theory.

PMMC Instrument Construction

The construction of the PMCC instrument can be done using several parts where
the permanent magnet and moving coils are essential parts. Each part of this
instrument is discussed below.

Moving Coil

It is an essential component of the PMMC instrument. The designing of this coil

can be done by wounding copper coils to a rectangular block among the magnetic
poles. It is made with Aluminum and the rectangular block can be called
Aluminum former rotated into the jeweled bearing. So it permits the coil to turn
freely.

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Magnet System

The PMMC instrument includes two high-intensity magnets otherwise a ‘U’

shaped magnet-based design. The designing of these magnets can be done with
Alnico & Alcomax for higher superior field intensity & coercive force.

Control

In the PMMC device, the torque can be controlled due to the springs which are
fabricated with phosphorous bronze. These springs are arranged among the two
jewel bearings. The spring provides the lane to the lead current to supply in & out
of the moving coil. The torque can be controlled mainly due to the delay of the
ribbon.

Damping Torque

Damping torque can be generated within the PMMC instrument using the
aluminum core’s movement within the magnetic field.

So the pointer can be kept at rest after the early deflection. It assists in the right
measurement devoid of fluctuations. Because of the movement of the coil within
the magnetic field, eddy current can be generated within the aluminum former.
This generates the damping force otherwise torque to resist the motion of the
coil.

Pointer and Scale

The pointer within the instrument can be designed with lightweight material.
Thus, it can be simply deflected through the coil’s movement. Sometimes, the
parallax error can occur within the device which is simply decreased by properly
arranging the pointer’s blade.

Scale is uniform in these instruments

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Working Principle of a PMMC Instrument

Whenever a current caring conductor is located within a magnetic field, then it

experiences a force that is perpendicular to the current & the field. Based on the
rule of “Fleming left hand”, if the thumbnail of the left hand, middle and forefinger
are at 90 degrees with each other.
After that the magnetic field will be in the forefinger, flow of current will be
across the middle finger and finally, the force will be through the thumb finger.

Once the current flow within the coil on the aluminum former, the magnetic field
can be generated in the coil in proportion to the current flow.
The electromagnetic force throughout the fixed magnetic field from the
permanent magnet generates the deflection force within the coil. After that the
spring generates the force to resist additional deflection; therefore it helps to
balance the pointer.
So damping force can be generated within the system through the aluminum core
movement of the magnetic field. It maintains the pointer stable to a point. Once it
attains equilibrium by controlling & deflection torque to provide accuracy in
measurement.

Applications of PMMC Instrument

 Ammeter
 Galvanometer
 Ohmmeter
 Voltmeter

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=Ygp42NpBElI

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Moving Iron

The moving iron type instruments are one of the types of measuring instruments
used for measuring voltage or current. These instruments use a movable piece of
iron placed in the magnetic field that deflects the pointer over the scale and hence
named moving iron instrument.
There are two types of moving iron (MI) instruments. They are attraction type
and repulsion type moving iron instruments.
The working principle of attraction type moving iron instrument is based on
magnetic attraction, which attracts an iron piece when placed near a magnet field.
Here, the magnet field will be produced by an electromagnet.
Construction of Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument:

It consists of a fixed coil that is flat with a narrow opening in it. A moving iron that
is made of soft iron is mounted on a spindle. The coils are wound with a number
of turns that depend upon the range of the instrument. The pointer is mounted on
a spindle which consists of a graduated scale for showing the deflection. The
construction of attraction type moving iron is shown below.

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The controlling torque is provided by the springs or if the instrument is vertically

operated gravity control can also be employed. This instrument uses air friction
damping to damp out oscillations which consist of a movable piston made of
aluminum placed in an air chamber.
Since the operating magnetic field produced by the coil winding is not much
strong, the eddy current damping which uses permanent magnets can distort the
main field. Thus eddy current damping cannot be used and fluid friction damping
is not much preferred. The moving iron is made of sheet metal for obtaining a
uniform scale.
Working of Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument:
Whenever coil winding is connected across the supply to be measured, it setups a
magnetic field. The intensity of the magnetic field is higher inside the coil
compared to the intensity of the outside, and hence low reluctance exists inside
the coil.

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As the moving iron tries to occupy the low reluctance position, it is moved and
gets attracted to the fixed coil. As the iron piece moves, the pointer also moves to
show the deflection. The instrument attains the equilibrium position when
controlling torque balances the deflecting torque.

From the above, we can say deflecting torque produced is proportional to the
square of the current. For ac measurement, the readings obtained will be the RMS
value of the current or voltage. Due to square law response of the instrument, the
scale of moving iron instruments is not uniform.

Advantages:
 The instruments can be used for measuring both dc and ac quantities.
 Simple in construction.
 Since the winding coil is kept stationary, these instruments are robust and
reliable.
 As attraction type instruments have lower inductance, the measurement can
be done over a wide range of frequencies.

Disadvantages:
 These are not suitable for economical production in manufacturing.
 The power consumption is higher for a low voltage range.
 Accuracy in the readings cannot be obtained due to the non-uniform scale.

Applications:
 Moving iron voltmeters.
 Moving iron power factor meters.
 Moving iron synchroscope.

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