Text book of “Non Destructive Testing and Evaluation”

UNIT I OVERVIEW OF NDT

NDT Versus Mechanical testing, Overview of the Non Destructive Testing Methods for the
detection of manufacturing defects as well as material characterisation. Relative merits and
limitations, various physical characteristics of materials and their applications in NDT. Visual
inspection –Unaided and aided.
INTRODUCTION
What is NDT?
 NDT stands for Non-Destructive Testing.
 As its name implies, non-destructive testing means testing of materials without destroying them.
 A non-destructive test is an examination of an object which will not produce any kind of damageor
destruction to the sample.
 Definitions: Some of the commonly used definitions of NDT are given below:

(i) Non-destructive testing is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating materials, components or
assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in characteristics without destroying the serviceability of
the part or system. In other words, when the inspection or test is completed, the part can still be used.
(ii) "NDT is an examination that is performed on an object of any type, size, shape or material to
determine the presence or absence of discontinuities or to evaluate other material characteristics".
(iii) NDT is a procedure which covers the inspection and/or testing of any material, component or
assembly by means which do not affect its ultimate serviceability.
(iv) NDT is the examination of an object with the technology that does not affect the object's future
usefulness.
(v) NDT means the use of non-invasive techniques i) to determine the integrity of a material,
component or structure, or ii) to qualitatively measure some characteristics of an object.
(vi) NDT refers to technology that allows a component to be inspected for serviceability, without
impairing its usefulness.
 The other terms commonly used for NDT are Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) and Non-
Destructive Inspection (NDI).
 The NDT methods are becoming popular because these can be carried out without damaging the
parts in use.
Objectives of NDT
 NDT can have several objectives which includes:
 Materials sorting;
 Materials characterization; Property monitoring (for process control);
 Thickness measurement;
 Defect detection/location; and
 Defect characterization.

 However, the major task of NDT is to detect and identify the range of defects. Defects can include
production flaws such as heat treatment cracks, grinding cracks, inclusions (of many types), voids
(pores), and fatigue cracks (generated during service)
Uses of NDT methods
The NDT methods are most commonly used to achieve the following purposes:

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 Text book of “Non Destructive Testing and Evaluation”

1. Flaw detection and evaluation.

2. Leak detection.
3. Location measurement.
4. Dimensional measurements.
5. Structure and microstructure characterisation.
6. Estimation of mechanical and physical properties.
7. Stress-strain and dynamic response measurement.
8. Material sorting.
9. Chemical composition determination.

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INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS TESTING

Purposes of Materials Testing (Why are Materials tested?)
Materials are tested for one or more of the following purposes:
(i) To determine and evaluate various properties of materials both quantitatively
andqualitatively.
(ii) To detect and evaluate the surface or sub-surface defects in raw materials or processed parts.
(iii) To check chemical composition.
(iv) To determine suitability of a material for a particular application.
(v) To predict the strength and serviceability of the materials.
Properties of Engineering Materials
 There are many thousands of different engineering materials available today. But they can
beplaced into one or other of the following categories:
1. Metals,
2. Polymers,
3. Ceramics and inorganic glass, and
4. Composites.
 All materials exhibit many different properties and qualities. The properties of material provide
a basis for predicting its behaviour under various conditions.
 An engineer must have wide knowledge of materials and their properties so that he may select
a suitable material for his product.
 Some of the most important properties of materials are grouped, as shown in Table below
Table. Material properties and qualities
S.No Properties Qualities
Colour, density, melting point, size, shape, surface, finish,
Physical properties
1 dampingcapacity, specific gravity, porosity, structure.
Corrosion resistance, atomic weight, equivalent weight,
Chemical properties valency, molecular weight, acidity, alkalinity, atomic number,
2
chemical composition.
Strength, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, hardness,
Mechanicalproperties
3 toughness, stiffness, resilience, creep.
Resistivity, conductivity, capacitivity, dielectric constant,
Electrical properties
4 dielectricstrength.
Relative permeability, reluctivity, retentivity, susceptibility,
Magnetic properties
5 hysteresis, coercive force.
Specific heat, thermal capacity, thermal conductivity, thermal
Thermal properties
6 stresses, thermal fatigue, thermal shocks, latent heat.
Malleability, machinability
Technologica lproperties
7 , castability, formability, weldability.
Aesthetic properties Appearance, texture and ability to accept special finishes.
8
Economic
Raw material and processing costs, availability.
9 properties
Other
Optical, acoustical, and physiochemical properties
10 properties

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS TESTS

The materials test may be grouped into two classes as:
1. Destructive tests, and
2. Non-destructive tests.
Destructive Tests

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 In this type of testing, the component or specimen to be tested is destroyed and cannot be
reused. After being destructively tested, the component or specimen either breaks or remains no
longer useful for future use.
 As the name suggests, destructive testing (DT) includes methods where the component or
specimen is broken down in order to determine physical and mechanical properties such as
strength, toughness and ductility.
 Destructive testing is generally more suitable and economical for mass produced objects, as the
cost of destroying a small number of pieces is negligible. It is usually not economical to do
destructive testing where only one or very few items are to be produced.
 Examples of destructive tests: Destructive testing methods include mechanical testing, macro
and micro testing as well as material analysis and metallographic examinations. Some of the
commonly used destructive tests include:
i) Tensile test
ii) Compression
testiii)Shear test
iv) Hardness test
v) Impact test
vi) Fatigue test
vii) Creep test
viii)Bending
test
ix) Torsion test
Non-Destructive Tests
 In this type of testing, the component or specimen to be tested is not destroyed and can be
reused after the test.
 As its name implies, non-destructive testing means testing of components or specimens without
destroying them.
 As defined already, non-destructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or
evaluating materials, components sub-assemblies for discontinuities or differences in
characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the part or system. In other words,
whenthe inspection or test is completed, the part can still be used.
Applications of NDT:
The non-destructive tests are used:
 To ensure product integrity and reliability.
 To control manufacturing processes.
 To lower production costs.
 To maintain a uniformity in quality level.
 NDT tests can be performed on part:
(i) during manufacture, or
(ii) after manufacture, or
(iii) even on parts that are already in service.
 Features of NDT:
 Using NDT, an entire production lot can be inspected, or selected samples can be inspected.
 Also different tests can be applied to the same item, either simultaneous or sequentially,
andthe same test can be repeated on the same specimen for additional verification.
 It may be added that the NDT equipment is often portable. This permits the use of
NDT methods for on-site testing in most locations.
 Because NDT does not permanently alter the specimen being inspected, it is a high valuable
technique that can save both time and money in product evaluation, trouble shooting, and
research.
 Non-destructive tests make components more reliable, safe and economical.
 Objectives of NDT: The main objectives of non-destructive tests include:
(i) To detect internal or surface flaws.
(ii) To measure the dimensions of the specimen.
(iii) To determine a material's structure or chemistry.

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Basic elements of non-destructive testing:

The four basic elements in any non-destructivetesting are as follows.
i) Source or probing medium
 Source can be some probing medium that can be used to inspect the specimen undertest.
 The source/probing medium can be liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, ultrasonic wave,
radiations, etc.
 This probing medium must be changed or modified as a result of which the
discontinuities with the specimen can be studied.
ii) Detector
 A sensitive detector or sensor which is capable of detecting the changes in the probing
medium.
iii) Recorder
 A recorder or indicator is used to indicate or record the response from the detector.
iv) Interpretation
 Various means of interpreting the recorded results through peaks, graphs, bar diagrams,etc.

 Non-destructive testing methods: There are number of NDT methods are being employed
inpractice. Some of the most commonly used NDT methods are:
1. Visual inspection 6. Ultrasonic testing
2. Liquid penetrant testing 7. Acoustic emission testing
3. Magnetic particle testing 8. Radiographic testing
4.Thermography 9. Laser testing
5. Eddy current testing 10. Leak testing

Comparison between Destructive and Non-Destructive Tests

Table presents the comparison between destructive and non-destructive tests, highlighting their
advantages and limitations.
Table. Destructive tests Vs. Non-destructive tests
Comparison
S.No. Destructive Tests Non-Destructive Tests
Item
In this type of testing, the
In this type of testing, the component
component or specimen to be tested
1 Definition or specimen to be tested is destroyed
is not destroyed and can be used
and cannot bereused after the test.
after the test.
i) Tensile test i) Visual inspection
ii) Compression test ii) Liquid penetrant test
iii)Shear test iii)Magnetic particle
iv) Hardness test testingiv)Thermography
v) Impact test v) Eddy current
2 Examples
vi) Fatigue test vi) Ultrasonic testing
vii)Creep test vii)Acoustic emission testing
viii)Bending test viii)Radiographic testing
ix) Torsion test ix) Leak testing
x) Chemical analysis, etc x) Laser testing, etc
DT is generally performed when the
NDT can be performed on
component or specimen can no
3 Suitability component or specimen which is in
longer be used in service or is
service.
readily replaceable.

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1. Tests are done directly on

theobject.
2. 100% testing (or representative
samples) on actual components
canbe performed.
1. Provides a direct and reliable
3. Different NDT methods can be
measurements.
applied on the same component
2. Provides quantitative
andhence many or all properties of
measurements.
interest can be examined.
3. Result interpretation is easy.
4 Advantages 4. A non-destructive test can be
4. Can be performed without very
repeated on the same specimen.
high skilled personnel.
5. Can be performed on
5. Correlation between test
componentswhich are in service.
measurements and material
6. Little or no specimen
properties is direct.
preparationis required.
7. The test equipment is
oftenportable.
8. Labour costs are usually low.
9. Most NDT methods are quick.

1. Tests are performed only to a

1. Measurement is indirect.
sample and the sample may not be a
2. Reliability is to be verified.
representative of the group.
3. Measurements are
2. Tested parts are destroyed
often qualitative or
during testing.
comparative.
3. Usually cannot repeat a test on
4. Result interpretation is
the same specimen.
5 Limitations oftendifficult.
4. Usually cannot use the same
5. Skilled personnel are required
specimen for multiple destructive
fortesting and result interpretation.
testing.
6. Different observers may
5. May be restricted for costly or
interpretthe test results differently.
few in-number parts.
7. Some test equipment requires
6. Difficult to predict cumulative
alarge capital investment.
effect of service usage.

OVERVIEW OF DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

The overview of major destructive tests is briefly presented below.
Tensile Test
 The tensile test is one of the most widely used of the mechanical tests.
 A tensile test of a material is performed on ductile materials to determine tensile properties suchas:
(i) Limit of proportionality,
(ii) Yield point or yield
strength, (iii)Maximum tensile
strength,
(iv) Breaking strength,
(v) Percentage elongation, (vi) Percentage reduction in area, and (vii) Modulus of elasticity.
 The tensile test is usually carried out with the help of a ‘Universal Testing Machine' (UTM).

Arrangement

 The material to be tested, also known as a specimen, is machined to standardized dimensions,

asshown in fig
 A typical specimen has a diameter of 12.6 mm and gauge length of 50 mm.

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Figure. Standard tension specimen

 A schematic working arrangement of a universal testing machine is shown in Fig.

Figure. Universal testing machine

Schematic arrangement of a UTM.
 The specimen is elongated by the moving cross head; load cell and extensometer
measure themagnitude of the applied load and the elongation respectively.
Testing Procedure
 The specimen to be tested is fastened to the two end-jaws of the UTM. Now the load is
appliedgradually on the specimen by means of the movable cross head, till the specimen
fractures.
 During the test, the magnitude of the load is measured by the load measuring unit (load
cell). A strain gauge or extensometer is used to measure the elongation of the specimen
between the gauge marks when the load is applied.
 Then the different values of load and elongation at different intervals are recorded and
tabulated.By using the tabulated data, the stress-strain curve can be plotted.
Compression Test
 The compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile test, except that the
force iscompressive.
 Since brittle materials are unsuitable for tension test, therefore they are tested for
compression.
 Brittle materials such as cast iron, concrete, mortar, brick and ceramics are commonly
tested incompression.
 The compression test is also conducted on a universal testing machine.

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Hardness Tests
 Hardness defined: Hardness may be defined as the ability of a material to resist
scratching,abrasion, cutting or penetration.
 The hardness test is performed on material to know its resistance against indentation
andabrasion.
Types of Hardness Tests
The three most commonly used hardness tests are:
1. Brinell hardness test,
2. Vickers hardness test
3. Rockwell hardness test.
Basic Common Principle
The three hardness tests have the same basic principles as below:
 An indenter is pressed into the surface of the material by a slowly applied known load,
and theextent of the resulting impression is measured mechanically or optically.
 A large impression for a given load and indenter indicates a soft material, and a small
impressionindicates a hard material.
1. Brinell Hardness Test
 In the Brinell test, a hardened steel ball indenter is forced into the surface of the metal to be
tested. The diameter of the hardened steel (or tungsten carbide) indenter is 10 mm.
Standard loads range between 500 kg and 3000 kg in 500 kg increments. During a test, the
load is maintained constant for 10 to 15 seconds.

Figure. A Brinell hardness testing machine

 The Brinell's Hardness test is performed by pressing a steel ball, also known as indenter,
into thespecimen, as shown in figure

Figure. Brinell hardness test

 The diameter of the resulting impression is measured with the help of a calibrated
microscope.

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Vickers Hardness Test

 The Vickers hardness test is similar to the Brinell test, with a square-based diamond pyramid
beingused as the indenter.
 As in the Brinell test, the indenter is forced into the surface of the material under the action
of a static load for 10 to 15 seconds.
 The standard indenter is a square pyramid shape with an angle of 136° between opposite
faces. This angle was chosen because it approximates the most desirable ratio of
indentation diameter to ball diameter in the Brinell hardness test.
 An advantage of the Vickers test over the Brinell test is that the accuracy is increased in
determining the diagonal of a square as opposed to the diameter of a circle, as shown in
Figure.

Figure. Brinell Vs. Vickers indenter and impression

 Vickers hardness number: The diamond-pyramid hardness number (DPH) or Vickers
hardness number (VHN or VPH) is defined as the applied load divided by the surface
area of indentation.
2. Rockwell Hardness Test
 The Rockwell hardness test is probably the most widely used methods of hardness testing.

Figure. Rockwell Indenter

 The principle of the Rockwell test differs from that of the others is that of the depth of the
impression is related to the hardness rather than the diameter or diagonal of the impression,
as shown in Fig. Rockwell tests are widely used in industries due to its accuracy, and
rapidity. In this test, the dial gives a direct reading of hardness; no need for measuring
indentation diameter or diagonal length using the microscope.

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Impact Tests
 The impact test is performed to study the behaviour of materials under dynamic load i.e.,
suddenly applied load.
 Impact strength defined: The capacity of a metal to withstand blows without fracture is
known asimpact strength or impact resistance.
 The impact test indicates the toughness of the material i.e., the amount of energy absorbed
by the material during plastic deformation.
 The impact test also indicates the notch sensitivity of a material. The notch sensitivity
refers to the tendency of some normal ductile materials to behave like brittle materials in
the presence ofnotches.
 Principle: In an impact test; a notch is cut in a standard test piece which is struck by a single
blowin a impact testing machine. Then the energy absorbed in breaking the specimen can be
measuredfrom the scale provided on the impact testing machine.
 The schematic arrangement of the impact testing machine is shown in Figure.

Figure. Impact testing machine

Types of Impact Tests
 Based on the types of specimen used on impact testing machine, the impact tests can be
classifiedinto:
1. Izod test, and
2. Charpy test.
 It can be noted that the impact testing machines are designed so that both types of test can
beperformed on the same machine with only minor adjustments.
1. Izod Test
 Izod test uses a cantilever specimen of size 75 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm, as shown in Fig.
1.8(a). TheV-notch angle is 45° and the depth of the notch is 2 mm.
 The Izod specimen is placed in the vise such that it is a cantilever, as shown in Figure

Figure. Specimen for Izod test

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2. Charpy Test
 The Charpy test uses a test specimen of size 55 mm x 10 mm x 10 mm, as shown in
Figure. The V-notch angle is 45° and the depth of the notch is 2 mm..
 The Charpy specimen is placed in the vise as a simply supported beam, as shown in Figure.

Figure. Specimen for Charpy test

Testing Procedure
The general procedure to conduct an impact test is given below:
1. The specimen is placed in the vice of anvil.
2. The pendulum hammer is raised to known standard height depending on the type of
specimen to betested.
3. When the pendulum is released, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy
just before itstrikes the specimen.
4. Now the pendulum strikes the specimen. It may be noted that the Izod specimen is hit
above the V-notch and the Charpy specimen will be hit behind the V-notch.
5. The pendulum, after rupturing the specimen, rises on the other side of the machine.
ENGINEERING BRIEF ON DISCONTINUITIES
What are Discontinuities?
 Whenever there is a change in the homogeneity of properties within a material, it can
invariably be attributed to the presence of discontinuities or imperfections within the
material.
 Engineering materials always possess some discontinuities, although they may be very
small andthey may or may not be acceptable.
 Examples of discontinuities include:
 Voids
 Inclusions
 Laps
 Folds
 Cracks
 Porosity
 Chemical segregation
 Local change in microstructure
 Sharp transitions in surface homogeneity, continuity, and contour are also considered to be
"discontinuities" on component surfaces. Geometric surface discontinuities include sharp
angles,notches, gouges, scratches, galling, fretting, pitting, and welding undercut.
 Discontinuities in engineering structures are unacceptable when they degrade the
performance or durability of the structure below the expectations of design and when they
challenge the operability, reliability, and life of a component.
 Discontinuities are evaluated completely by determining their location, number, shape,
size, orientation, and type.
 An understanding of the origin of discontinuities is useful in determining the type and
features of discontinuities that may be expected in a component. Awareness of the
characteristics, locations, and orientations of discontinuities is most helpful and sometimes
critical in their detection and evaluation.

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Types of Discontinuities
Discontinuities can be divided into three general categories based on the stage in
processing at which they are introduced as:
1. Inherent discontinuities,
2. Processing discontinuities, and
3. Service-induced discontinuities.
Inherent Discontinuities
 An "inherent discontinuity" is one that is generated in the original production of an alloy
stock material.
 Inherent discontinuities are usually formed when the metal is molten. There are two further
sub classifications:
o Inherent wrought discontinuities relate to the melting and solidification of the
original ingot before it is formed into slabs, blooms, and billets.
o Inherent cast discontinuities relate to the melting, casting and solidification of a cast
article.
Processing Discontinuities
 Processing discontinuities are usually related to the various manufacturing process such as
machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding, heat treating, and plating.
 During the manufacturing process, many discontinuities that were subsurface will be made
opento the surface by machining, grinding, etc.
 For instance, discontinuities generated during welding are called "welding discontinuities".
Any discontinuities caused by casting may be called "casting discontinuities," and
discontinuities generated in forging obviously would be "forging discontinuities".
 Table illustrates some of the common processing discontinuities.

Processing discontinuities

Fabrication and Processing Discontinuities

Seams: These are surface discontinuities and

1 appears as longitudinal scratches or folds in
the material.

Stringers: These are non metallic inclusions

2 in slabs or billets that are thinned and
lengthened in direction of rolling.

Laps: These are discontinuous the irregular

3 contours caused by the folding of metal in a
thin plate on the surface at forged product.

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Forging bursts or cracks: It occurs when a

4 material is forged at a temperature at which it
can't withstand at high internal stress.

Welding Defects

Crater crack: When a welding arc is broken,

5 acrater will form if adequate molten metal is
available to fill the arc cavity.

Slag inclusion: It occurs when compound

6 such as oxides, fluxes and electrode coating
material that are trapped in the weld zone.

Incomplete fusion: It occurs, when depth of

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welded joints is insufficient.

Under-filling: It occurs when joints are

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notfilled property.

Undercutting: It occurs due to melting

9
awayof the base metal.

Lamellar tears: It occurs due to shrinkage of

10 the restrained members in the structure
during cooling.

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Distortion and wrapping: They to occur

differential due thermal expansion and
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contraction of different regions of the welded
assembly.

Miscellaneous Processing Discontinuities

Blush: It causes due to shear stress between

12 molecules during injection and may be due to
small gate or fast injection speed.

Burn: It is a discoloration usually or dark,

13 depending severity. black, brown
yellow/brown upon the severity

Cold flow: It is a wavy or streaked appearance

on part surface. Looks like a fingerprint or
14
small waves like waves on the surface of
water.

Contamination: Foreign particles embedded

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in the part.

Service-Induced Discontinuities
 The discontinuities that are created during the use of a component are called "service-
induceddiscontinuities".
 Service discontinuities are related to the various service conditions, such as stress,
corrosion,fatigue and erosion.
 The discontinuities may after the local stress distribution and, in addition, may
affect themechanical or chemical (corrosion resistance) properties.
 Table presents some of the common service induced discontinuities.
Service-induced discontinuities

1. Wear
 It is the undesired removal of material caused by contacting surface through mechanical
action.
 The different types of wear are abrasive, erosive, grinding, gouging, adhesive and fretting.

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2. Corrosion
 It is the deterioration of a metal resulting from electrochemical reactions with its enrolment.
 It may be noted that wear is mechanical in origin, whereas corrosion is chemical in origin.
 The different types of corrosion are galvanic, uniform, crevice and erosion.
3. Fatigue cracking
 Fatigue can cause the failure of a material or component under repeated, fluctuating
stresses.
 The main types of fatigue are mechanical fatigue and thermal fatigue.

Discontinuity vs. Defect vs. Flaw

Though the terms discontinuity, defect, and flaw are used interchangeably in practice,
technically theycan be differentiated as below.
 Discontinuity is a lack of continuity or cohesion; it is an intentional or unintentional
interruption in the physical structure or configuration of a material or component.
 Flaw is an imperfection or discontinuity that may be detectable by non-destructive testing
and isnot necessarily rejectable.
 Defect is one or more flaws whose aggregate size, shape, orientation, location, or properties
do not meet specified acceptance criteria and are rejectable.
 In other words, if the discontinuities turn out to be rejectable according the criteria
specified in the applicable documents, then these as termed as 'defects'.
 A discontinuity will survive a field fast while a defect won't. For example, a crack on a
water pipe would be a defect since the water will leak while an acceptable profile could pass
as a discontinuityas long as the pipe doesn't leak.

OVERVIEW OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

The overview of commonly used non-destructive testing methods is briefly presented below.

Visual Inspection
What is it?
 Visual inspection is the simplest, fastest, and most widely used non-destructive testing
method.
 Visual inspection is carried out with the naked eye (unaided) or using some optical aids
(aided) such as mirrors, magnifying glasses, and microscopes.
Definition:
Visual Inspection is commonly defined as "the examination of a material, component, or product for
conditions of non-conformance using light and the eyes, alone or in conjunction with various aids".
 Visual inspection often also involves shaking, listening Feeling and sometimes even smelling
the component being inspected.
 Visual inspection is commonly employed to support/compliment other NDT methods.
 Digital detectors and computer technology have made it possible to automate some visual
inspections. This is known as machine vision inspection.
Characteristic Detected (Applicability)
The visual inspection is commonly used:
(i) To detect surface characteristics such as finish, scratches, cracks or color.
(ii) To check stain in transparent
(iii) To inspect corrosion.
Principle
 Seeing believes and the art of seeing is the visual inspection technique.
 Visual testing requires adequate illumination of the test surface and proper eye-sight of the
tester.
 The test specimen is illuminated and the test surface is observed and examined. Wherever
required, the optical aids such as mirrors, magnifying glasses, microscopes, video cameras
and computer-vision systems can be employed.

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Advantages
Some of the advantages of visual testing are as follows:
 Simple and easy to use.
 Relatively inexpensive.
 Testing speed is high.
 Testing can be performed on components in-service.
 Permanent records are available when latest equipment is used.
Limitations
Some of the limitations of visual testing are as follows:
 The test results depend on skill and knowledge of tester.
 Limited to detection of surface flaws.
 Eye resolution is weak.
 Eye fatigue.
Applications
Typical applications of visual inspection include:
 Checking of the surface condition of the component.
 Checking of alignment of muting surfaces.
 Checking of shape of the component.
 Checking for evidence of leaking
 Checking for internal side defects.

Liquid Penetrant Testing

 Liquid penetrant method is an effective method of detecting surface defects in metals and
other non-porous material surfaces.
 It detects flaws that are open to the surface e.g., cracks, seams, laps, lack of bond, porosity,
cold shut etc.
 It can be effectively used for the inspection of:
i) Ferrous metals,
ii) Non-ferrous metals, and
iii) Non-porous, non-metallic materials such as ceramics
 This method is widely used for testing of non-magnetic materials.
Characteristics Detected (Applicability) Liquid penetrant testing is widely used:
 To locate cracks, porosity, and other defects that breaks the surface as a material and has
enough volume to trap and hold the penetrant material.
 To inspect large areas very efficiently and will work on most non-porous materials.
Principle
 The principle of liquid penetrant tests is that the liquid penetrants are drawn into surface
flaws such as cracks or porosities by capillary action. Then the developer material in
conjunction with visual inspection reveals the surface flaw.
 In this testing, "penetrant' and 'developer' are used.
 Penetrant is a liquid capable of testing the entire surface and being drawn into the
openings. Usually brightly colour eddies or fluorescent materials are used as penetrants.
 Developer is an absorbent material capable of drawing traces of penetrants from the
defects back onto the surface.
 Illustrates a typical sequence of operations for liquid penetrant inspection to detect the
presence of surface flaw in a work piece.

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Figure. Principle of Liquid Penetrant Testing

Advantages
Some of the advantages of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:
(i) Sample and easy to use.
(ii) Inexpensive and versatile.
(iii) Highly portable.
(iv) Highly sensitive to fine, tight discontinuities.
(v) Applicable to variety of materials.
(vi) Applicable to complex shapes.
(vii) Large surface areas or large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at
low cost.
Limitations
Some of the limitations of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:
 It can only detect flaws that are open to the surface.
 It cannot be used on porous and very rough surfaces
 Surface preparation (before testing) is critical contaminants can mask defects. So test
surface must free of all dirt, oil, grease, paint, rust, etc.
 Deformed surfaces and surface coatings may detection.
 it is required to remove all penetrant materials after test
 Chemical handling precautions are necessary (toxicity, fire, waste)
Applications
Typical applications of liquid penetrant testing are:
 Inspection of tools and dies.
 Inspection of tanks, vessels, reactors, piping, dyers, and pumps in the chemical,
petrochemical, food, paper, and processing industries.
 Inspection of diesel locomotive, truck, and automobile parts (such as axles, wheels,
gears, crankshaft, cylinder blocks, connecting rods, cylinders, transmissions, and
frames).
 Inspection of field drilling rigs, drill pipe, castings, and drilling equipment.
 Inspection of aircraft engine parts, propellers, wing fittings, castings and so on.

Magnetic Particle Testing

What is it?
 Magnetic particle testing is used for the testing of materials which can be easily magnetized.
 This method is capable of detecting surface and subsurface flaws such as cracks and
inclusions.
 This method can be used for testing of ferromagnetic materials (such as Iron, steel, nickel,
and cobalt alloys).
 The nonferrous metals (such as aluminium, magnesium, copper, lead, tin, and titanium) and
the ferrous (but not ferromagnetic) austenitic stainless steel cannot be inspected using this
method.
 It is a relatively simple, inexpensive and rapid technique. It is free from any restrictions as to
size, shape, composition, and heat treatment of a ferromagnetic specimen.

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Characteristics Detected (Applicability)

 The magnetic particle testing method is used extensively to detect surface and near surface
cracks, voids, inclusions, or materials or geometry changes in ferromagnetic parts and
materials.
Principle
 Illustrates the basic principle of magnetic particle testing method.
 Magnetic particle inspection is based on the principle that ferromagnetic materials, when
magnetized, will have a distorted magnetic field in the vicinity of flaws and defects.
 The flaws and defects are revealed by the application of minute magnetic particles (such as
dry iron powder or iron powder in suspension as a liquid).
 The magnetic particles are strongly attracted to surface regions where the flux is
concentrated.
 This would create a visual indication approximating the size and shape of the flaw. The parts
have to the demagnetized and cleaned after inspection.

Figure. Principle of Magnetic Particle Testing

(a) Magnetic field showing disruption by a surface cru

(b) Magnetic particles are applied and are preferentially attracts to field leakage
(c) Subsurface defects can also produce surface detectable disruptions if they are
sufficiently close to the surface

Thus the three procedural steps involved are:

(a) Magnetizing the test specimen.
(b) Applying magnetic particles on the test specimen, and
(c) Locating the defects.
Advantages
Some of the advantages of magnetic particle testing are as follows:
 It is relatively simple and fast.
 It can reveal both surface and subsurface flaws and inclusions.
 It is portable.
 Applicable to complex geometries.
 Applicable to any size of the component, as long as it can induce uniform magnetic
fields within the piece.

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Limitations
Some of the limitations of magnetic particle testing are as follows:
(i) Applicable only to ferromagnetic materials.
(ii) Alignment of the flaw and the field affects the sensitivity so that multiple inspections
with different magnetizations may be required.
(iii) Can only detect defects at or near surfaces.
(iv) After testing, the part must be demagnetized and cleaned.
(v) High current source is required.
(vi) Paint or other nonmagnetic coverings adversely affect sensitivity.
Applications
Typical applications of the magnetic particle testing method include:
(i) Inspection of fans and blowers in thermal power plants.
(ii) Inspection of weld cracks.
(iii) Inspection of connecting rods.
(iv) Underwater inspections such as offshore structural welds, pipeline inspection and ship
structures.
Thermography Testing
What is it?
 Thermography testing is a non-destructive testing (NDT) imaging technique that allows the
visualization of heat patterns on an object
 Thermography is also called as thermal imaging or infrared (IR) thermography.
 Thermography enables the thermal profile of material c component to be presented in a graphic
form which allows a working temperature assessment to be derived From this, variations in the
material or component temperature are identified, using which the flaws/defects can be
detected.
 Thermal inspection involves using contact and or non-contact type heat sensing devices to
detect temperature changes.
Principle
 The basic principle of thermal inspection involves the measurement or mapping of surface
temperatures when heat flows from, to, or through a test object. Temperature differentials on a
surface, or changes in surface temperature with time, are related to heat flow patterns. These
heat flow patterns can be used to detect flaws of the test object.
 For example, during the operation of a heating system, a hotspot detected at a joint in
heating duct may be caused by a hot air leak.
 Usually, when the temperature differentials are greater, then the imperfection/flaw will be
larger and closer to the surface.
 Detects in the work piece, such as cracks, deboned regions in laminated structures, and poor
joints, cause a change in thermal distribution. Using the temperature differentials and heat flow
patterns, the defects are detected.
Advantages
Some of the advantages of thermography testing are as follows:
 It can be carried out during normal operating conditions without stopping the system.
 The non-contact test method can be used from a safe distance.
 Visual picture of the components can be identified.
 Permanent record is possible.
 The results are available in real time and there is little or no processing needed.
 IR cameras are relatively cays to use.
 It can detect conditions of the equipment and defects before they become serious problems.
 The exact location of the defective zone can be easily
Limitations
Some of the limitations of the thermography testing are as follows:
 Interpretation of results needs a certain experience and knowledge.
 Higher accuracy on detection of defects can be difficult due to varying emissivity of the
different materials.
 Comparatively cost of the equipment is high

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Applications
Typical applications of the thermography testing include.
 Detection of defects in composites
 Inspection of impact damages in CFRP (carbon fibre reinforced polymer) panels.
 Detection of cracks in turbine components.
 Detection of corrosion in air craft parts.
 Inspection of drilling induced defects in laminates.
 Inspection of motors and rotating equipment.
 Inspection of surface cracks in method structures.
 Inspection of bearings wears due to misalignment.
Eddy Current Testing
What is it?
 Eddy Current Testing (ECT) is an electromagnetic non-destructive testing technique.
 This method can be used only on all electrically conducting materials.
 The eddy current testing is also known as inductive testing.
Characteristics Detected (Applicability)
This method is widely used to:
 To detect surface defects (seams laps, cracks, voids and inclusion).
 To sort dissimilar metals.
 To measure or identify properties such as electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability,
grain size, hardness, and physical dimensions.
 To measure the thickness of a nonconductive coating on a conductive metal (or the thickness
of a nonmagnetic metal coating on a magnetic metal).
 To measure case hardening depth.
Principle
 The eddy current tearing works on the basis of electromagnetic induction
 In this method, eddy currents are induced in a test object by bringing it close to on alternating
current carrying coil. These eddy currents are normally parallel to the coil winding. The
defects in the test object impede and change the direction of eddy currents and cause changes
in the electromagnetic field. These changes affect the inspection coil, the voltage of which is
monitored to determine the presence of defects.

Figure. Principle of Eddy Current Testing

Advantages
Some of the advantages of eddy current testing are as follow.
 It can detect both surface and near-surface IR-regulations.
 It is quick to use and provides immediate results of inspection.
 It is versatile, as it can detect flaws, variations in alloy or heat treatment, variations in plating
or coating thickness, wall thickness and crack depth.
 No physical contact required.
 It can be automated

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 Low cost and portable.

 Pre- and post-treatment of the test object is not required.
Limitations
Some of the limitations of eddy current testing are as follows:
 Response is sensitive to a number of variables, so interpretation may be difficult.
 Only applicable to conductive materials, such as metals.
 Reference standards are needed for comparison.
 Highly skilled operators are required to perform inspection.
 It is not reliable on carbon steel for the detection of sub-surface flaws and also not suitable for
large areas.
 Its depth of penetration is limited to 8 mm.
 Constant separation distance between coils and specimen is required for good results.
 No permanent record.
Applications
Typical applications of eddy current testing include:
 Detection and measurement of flaws in steering mechanisms, airplane landing gears, engine
parts, reactor and steam generator turbines, aircraft wheels, aircraft wing structures, condenser
pipes, turbine blades, etc.
 Detection and determination of the severity of various surface cracks, (stress, hardening.
grinding, etc) weld seams, laps, pits, scabs, porosity, voids and inclusions.
 Measurement of coating and plating thickness.
 Detection and measurement of flaws in seamless, hot-rolled steel tubes; welded tubes;
fastener holes, etc.
 Measurement of dimensional differences in machines, formed, or stamped parts.
 Determination of the hardness and depth of case hardening in bearing rings and other parts.
Ultrasonic Testing
What is it?
 Ultrasonic testing is one of the popular non-destructive testing methods,that uses the sound
energy to determine the integrity of the test objects.
 Even from early days, sound has been used to provide indication of product quality. A
cracked bell will not ring but a fine crystal goblet will have a clear ring when tapped lightly.
This basic phenomenon is employed in ultras testing.
 In ultrasonic testing the very short range, high frequency ultrasonic waves (whose range lies
between 0.5-20 MHz) are used for detection of surface and sub-surface flames in the test
objects.
 The ultrasonic waves are usually generated by the piezoelectric effect which converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy. A quartz crystal is used for this purpose.
Characteristics Detected (Applicability)
The ultrasonic testing method is used:
 For detection of flaws in materials.
 For measurement of thickness.
 For the determination of mechanical properties and grain structure of materials.
Principle
 In ultrasonic inspection, an ultrasonic beam travels through the test object. An internal
defect, such as crack, interrupts the beam and reflects back a portion of the ultrasonic energy.
The amplitude of the energy reflected, and the time required for return, indicates the
presence and location of any flaws in the test object.
 Illustrates as typical simple ultrasonic inspection of a float plate.
 The ultrasonic inspection employs sending separate probes namely transducer and receiving
transducer.
 Depicts the plot of sound intensity or transducer voltage versus time showing the initial pulse
and echoes from the bottom surface and intervening defect.

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Figure. Ultrasonic inspection of a flat plate

Advantages
Some of the advantages of ultrasonic testing are as follows:
 High sensitivity, greater accuracy than other methods in determination of internal defects.
 High-speed test with immediate test results.
 Portable device.
 It can be automated and recorded.
 High penetration in most important materials (upto 60 ft in steel).
 It indicates both flaw size and location. (viii) It requires access to only one surface of the test
object.
 It presents no radiation or safely hazard.
Limitations
Some of the limitations of ultrasonic testing are as follows
(i) Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
(ii) Rough and uneven scanning surfaces can reduce the effectiveness of the test.
(iii) A couplant is required to promote the transfer of sound energy into the test specimen. Trained
and experienced operators are required.
(iv) Defect orientation affects defect detestability.
(v) Unfavourable geometry of the test object causes problems.
Applications
Typical applications of ultrasonic testing method include.
(i) Inspection of large castings and forging, for internal soundness, before carrying out expensive
machining operations.
(ii) Inspection of moving strip or plate for laminations as regards its thickness.
(iii) Routine inspection of locomotive axles and wheel pins for fatigue cracks.
(iv) Inspection of rails for bolt-hole breaks without dismantling rail-end assemblies.
Acoustic Emission Testing
What is it?
 The Acoustic Emission (AE) test is a Non-Destructive Test (NDT) method generally used to
detect and locate imperfections in mechanically loaded structures and components.
 The acoustic emission testing is based on the fact that solid materials emit sonic or ultrasonic
acoustic emissions when they are mechanically or thermally stressed to the point where
deformation or fracturing occurs. By detecting these sounds through the use of electronic
devices, the flaws can be detected.
 The acoustic emission in the sound form is to the cars visual inspection is to the eyes.
Characteristics Detected (Applicability)
The acoustic emission is used:
1. To detect and locate imperfections to mechanically loaded structures and
components.
2. To detect the formation of cracks in materials during production operations.

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Principle
 Almost all materials will emit high frequency sound (acoustic emissions) when stressed,
deformed, or undergoing structural changes, such as the formation or growth of a crack or
defect. These emissions can now be detected and provide an indication of dynamic change
within the material.
 Illustrates the process of generation and detection of acoustic emissions.

Figure. Principle of Acoustic Emission Testing

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF THE ACOUSTIC EMISSION METHOD
 Sudden movement at the source produces a stress wave (acoustic emissions), which radiates
out into the structure and excites a sensitive piezo electric transducer.
 As the stress is the material is increased, many of these emissions are generated. The signals
from one or more sensors are amplified and measured to produce data for display and
interpretation
Advantages
Some of the advantages of acoustic emission testing method are as follows:
 The entire structure can be monitored with near instantaneous detection and response.
 In this method, only 'active' flaw scan be detected.
 Defects inaccessible to other methods can be detected.
 It can be performed in severe environments.
 Real time evaluation and remote scanning is possible.
 Less intrusive.
 Less geometry sensitive.
Limitations
 Some of the limitations of acoustic emission testing method are as follows:
 Only growing flaws can be detected (i.e. the mere presence of defects is not detectable).
 There is no indication of the size or shape of the flaw.
 Influence of ambient noise and attenuation of signals may result in poor output.
 Sophisticated data processing devices are required.
 Poor repeatability.
 Experience is required to interpret the signals.
 Size and shape of the component affects the strength of the emission signals that reach the
detector.
Applications
Typical applications of acoustic emission testing method are as follows:
 AE testing is employed in many industries such as refineries, pipelines, power generation,
structural, and aircraft.
 AE testing and evaluation is also used by offshore oil platforms and paper mills.
 Structures frequently tested using AE method include bridges, tunnels, towers, tanks, pipes,
cranes and heavy industrial equipment.
Radiography Testing
What is it?
 Radiography testing is one of the most important, versatile and widely accepted of all the
non-destructive examination methods.

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 The radiographic testing method is commonly used for the detection of internal flaws such as
cracks and porosity in many different materials and configuration.
 In radiography testing, X-ray or gamma ray is used to determine the internal soundness of the
metal: hence it is also called as X-ray or gamma ray testing.
 Radiographic inspection employs the same principles and techniques as those of medical X-
rays
Characteristics Detected (Applicability)
The radiography testing method is used:
 To inspect almost any material for surface and sub-surface defects.
 To locate and measure internal features:
 To confirm the location of hidden parts in an assembly.
 To measure the thickness of materials.
Principle
 Radiography uses an X-ray or gamma ray as a source of radiation which passes through the
test object and is captured on film or digital device.
 After processing the film, an image of varying density is obtained. Using the image, possible
imperfections are identified through density changes.

Fig. Principle of Radiography Testing

Advantages
Some of the advantages of radiography testing method are as follows:
 Wide variety of materials can be inspected.
 Minimum surface preparation is required.
 Sensitivity to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids and cracks.
 Both surface and sub surface defects can be detected.
 Provides permanent record of inspection.
 It can inspect complex shapes and multi-layered structures without disassembly.
Limitations
Some of the limitations of radiographic testing method are as follows:
 Most costly of the NDT methods (as it involves expensive equipment, film and processing).
 Access to both sides of the specimen is required.
 It cannot detect planar defects readily.
 Orientation of the specimen is critical to assess the defects.
 Determination of flaw depth is impossible without additional angled exposures.
 Extensive operator training and skill required.
 Additional safety measures are essential to present radiation hazard for personnel.
Applications
 Typical applications of radiography testing method include:
 Detection of internal discontinuities such as shrinkage, cracking and porosity in castings.
 Verification of integrity of internal components.
 Determination of the quality of welded sections and pipes.

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 Identification of the extent of corrosion

 Inspection of variety of non-metallic parts.
 Locating discontinuities in assemblies, fabricated structured
VISUAL INSPECTION
INTRODUCTION
What is it?
 Visual inspection is the simplest, fastest and by far the most commonly used destructive
testing method.
 As the name suggests, visual inspection relies primarily on good eyesight and can be carried
out with the naked eye known as an aided visual inspection) or using some optical s known as
aided visual inspection) such as mirrors, glasses and microscopes.
Definition:
 Visual inspection is commonly defined as "the examination of a material, component, or
product for conditions of non-conformance using light and the eyes, alone or in conjunction
with various aids"
 Visual inspection often also involves shaking, listening, feeling, and sometimes even smelling
the component being inspected.

Other NDT Methods Rely on Visual Testing

 Visual testing is inherently part of all other NDT test method. Visual inspection is commonly
employed compliment/support other NDT methods.
 Other NDT methods require visual intervention to interpret images obtained while carrying
out the examination. At some point, all NDT methods fall back on visual testing.
 For example, liquid penetrant Testing uses dyes that rely on Inspector's ability to visually
identify surface indications
Characteristics Detected (Applicability)
 The visual testing is commonly used:
 To detect surface characteristics such as finish, scratches, Cracks, colour, wear and corrosion.
 To check alignment of mating surfaces.
 To check shape of the components.
 To check for evidence of leaking.
 To check for internal side defects.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF VISUAL INSPECTION
Principle
 Seeing is believing and the art of seeing of visual inspection
 Techniques. Visual testing requires adequate illumination of the test surface and proper eye-
sight of the tester. The test specimen is illuminated and the test surface is observed and
examined.
 Whenever required, the optical aids such as mirrors. Magnifying glasses, microscopes, video
cameras and computer-vision systems can be employed. The surface of the specimen should
be adequately cleaned before bang inspected
 The following three basic requirements form basis for correct application of visual testing:
 Good eye sight/vision of the inspector,
 Good lighting conditions, and
 Experienced and judgement of the inspector.
Advantages of Visual Inspection
Some of the advantages of visual testing are as follows:
(i) Simple and easy to use.
(ii) Relatively inexpensive.
(iii) Testing speed is high.
(iv) Testing can be performed on components which are in-service.
(v) Permanent records are available when latest equipment is used.
(vi) Almost all materials can be inspected.

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Limitations of Visual Inspection

Some of the limitations of visual testing are as follows:
1. Limited to detection of surface flaws.
2. The test results depend on skill and knowledge of tester.
3. Eye resolution is weak
4. Eye fatigue.
TYPES OF VISUAL TESTING
Visual testing can be classified on the basis of use of aids used
(i) Unaided or direct visual testing, and
(ii) Aided visual testing.
Unaided or Direct Visual Testing
 As the name suggests, the unaided visual testing is carried out with naked eye (and without
using any optical aids).
 The most important instrument is visual testing in the human eye.
Eye
 The human eye is the most fascinating and valuable tool in NDT.
 It has greater precision and accuracy than many of the sophisticated cameras. It has unique
focusing capabilities and has the ability to work in conjunction with the human brain s that it
can be trained to find specific details or characteristics in a test specimen.
 It has the ability to differentiate and distinguish between colors and their tones/shades
characteristics as well.
 The human eye is capable of assessing many visual characteristics and identifying various
types of discontinuities
 The eye can perform accurate inspections to detect size, shape, color, depth, brightness,
contrast, and texture.
Aided Visual Testing
 As the name suggests, the aided visual testing is carried out with the aid of optical aids (such
as magnifying glasses microscopes, boroscopes, fiberscopes) and a variety of other optical
imaging and image enhancement tools.
 The optical aids are mainly used in usual testing for:
(i) magnification of defects which cannot be detected
(ii) Assisting in the inspection of defects;
(iii) Permitting visual checks or areas not accessible to unaided eye.

EQUIPMENT USED IN VISUAL INSPECTION

The optical aids used in practice for visual testing include:
1. Mirrors (small, angled mirrors)
2. Magnifying glasses, eye loupes, multilane magnifiers measuring magnifiers.
3. Microscopes (optical and electro)
4. Borescopes
5. Fiberscopes and videoscopes
6. Telescopes
7. Periscopes
8. Optical comparators
9. Optical Flats (for surface flatness measurement)
10. Phographic records
11. Closed-Circuit television (CCTV)Systems
12. Machine Vision System
13. Image enhancement(Computer analysis and enhancement)
The Brief Description of the basic optical aids used in visual testing is given below.
Magnifying Mirrors
 When inspecting areas not easily accessible, a magnifying mirror can be used.
 Depending on the test specimen, the mirror can be of any size (from the small dentist's mirror
which can be stuck into small openings to a much larger mirror).

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Magnifying Glass
 A magnifying glass can be used for closer inspection of Suspicious looking areas
 It generally consists of a simple lens for lower power magnification and double or multiple
lenses for high demagnification.
Microscopes
 The simple microscope consists of a convex lens. The obi is placed between lenses and focus
length of lens, so that erect, virtual and magnified image is formed. The size of image of an
object depends upon the angle subtended at eye by the object (known as the visual angle).
Borescopes (or Endoscopes)
 Borescopes are optical instrument designed for remote Viewing of objects. They are used to
inspect the inside of narrow tube, bore, or chamber.
 Borescopes is a precision optical instrument with built Illumination.
 Borescopes also called as ‘endoscopes’ or ‘end probe consist of superior optical systems and
high intensity light sources.
 Some borescopes provide magnification option, zoom control or accessories.
 Because of the variety of applications and multitude o inspection needs, boroscopes are
manufactured in rig extended, flexible, and micro designs.

Fiberscope and Video scopes
 Modern fiberscope and videoscopes, due to their small size And flexibility, can provide
access to internal areas inaccessible to rigid borescopes.
 Using these, digital images can be captured and processed real time. With the aid of laser
lights, the area and depth many surface defects can also be determined.
Telescopes
 Telescope is an instrument that collects radiation from distant object in order to produce an
image of it.
 An optical telescope uses visual radiations
 The telescopes are used for providing visual examination of the inaccessible surfaces.
Optical Comparators
 Optical comparators are the magnifying devices for visual examination and measurement.
 A comparator produces 2D enlarged image of an object on a large ground-glass screen.
 Optical comparators project the image of small parts onto a large projection screen. The
magnified image is then compared against an optical comparator chart, which is a magnified
outline drawing of the work piece being gauged.
Periscopes
 Periscope is an instrument used for remote observation of inaccessible areas.
 In simple periscope, two right angle reflecting prisms are utilized in combination with a series
of lenses.
 The periscopes are commonly used for remote visual inspection in hazardous situation such as
radiations areas, toxic environment and for overhead viewing of areasinvolving obstacles.
APPLICATIONS OF VISUAL INSPECTION
Typical applications of visual inspection include:
(i) Inspection of cleaning in machines.
(ii) Checking for corrosion, erosion and deformities of machine components.
(iii) Checking for ruptures, cracks and wear of parts in the equipment.
(iv) Monitoring of manometers, press stats and temperatures.
(v) Monitoring of oil level, greasing and greasing apparatus.
Illustration of Some Applications of Visual Testing
Visual Testing of Welds
 The visual inspector performing weld inspection is required to perform tasks in accordance
with the relevant codes & standards at all stages of welding i.e., before welding, during
Welding, and after welding.
 While performing visual inspection of welds, the firs checking should take place without prior
cleaning of the weld for rust and dirt. This is because; it is often easier to discover any crack
formation when the seam has not been cleaned.

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 After the initial inspection, a more thorough cleaning of the surface of the weld should be
carried out.
 During the subsequent visual inspection, one should be aware that many irregularities in the
weld may look like cracks. In such cases, the cleaned welds can be further investigated with
dye penetrant or magnetic particle method or using other methods such as ultrasonic and
radiography.
Visual Testing of Pumps
 For carrying out visual testing, dismantling of pumps should be done following the
manufacturers, instruction manual.
 During the dismantling process, the following tasks may be performed:
 Check impellers visually for signs of erosion Cavitations damage.
 Diffuser elements for pumps to be visually inspected for erosion and cracks.
 Sleeves and rings should be tested to verify their dimensions to be within tolerance limits.
 Check the pump shaft to see its straightness by taking a dial test indicator testing.
 Shaft bearing journals should be checked for correct Finish.
 Bearing surfaces should be inspected for smoothness and Wear.
 Pump casing should be visually inspected for erosion and Washout.
 All sleeve bearings should be visually inspected for pitting, finish, scoring, and dimension.

Visual Testing of Hydraulic Systems

 The following points should be visually checked when the hydraulic system is stopped:
 Check that the oil is clean and clear.
 Check that the system is clean and dry
 The following points should be checked when the hydraulic system is in operation:
 Listen for unusual noises from the motor, pump and Piping system.
 Check that the oil is clean and clear (must not foam) and that the temperature is correct.
 Check that the system is intact (no leaks) and that the Filter indicators are OK.
 Check for possible draining of condensation.
Visual Testing of Belt Pulley
The following points should be visually checked when the system is stopped:
 Check for missing belts and screening.
 Check for belt tracks.
 Check that the belts are of equal length.
 Check that the pulleys are finished.
 Check belt tension by pushing the belt downward by Hand.
 Check the condition of the belts; possible cracks.
The following points should be visually checked when the System is in operation:
 Check for belt noise.
 Check for missing belts and screening.
Visual Testing of Forging Discontinuities
 Forgings are inspected visually to detect bursts, laps and cracks.
 It is helpful for the inspector to use a 5X to 10 X magnifier during visual inspections.
 A burst, normally an internal discontinuity, shows up during secondary processing of a large
forging.

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UNIT 2 LIQUID PENETRANT &MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

Liquid Penetrant Testing: Principles, types and properties of liquid penetrants, developers, advantages and
limitations of various methods, testing procedure, interpretation of results. Magnetic Particle Testing: Theory of
magnetism, inspection materials magnetisation methods, interpretation and evaluation of test indications, principles
and methods of demagnetization, residual magnetism.

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING (LPT)

INTRODUCTION
 Liquid penetrant method is an effective method of detecting surface discontinuities in metals and other
non-porous material surfaces.
 It detects flaws that are open to the surface e.g., cracks, seams, laps, lack of bond, porosity, cold shut etc.
 It can be effectively used for the inspection of
1. ferrous metals,
2. non-ferrous metals;
3. non-porous, non-metallic materials such as ceramics, plastics and glass; and
4. non-magnetic materials.
 The principle of liquid penetrant test is that the liquid penetrant is drawn into surface flaws such as cracks porosities
by capillary action. Then the developer material conjunction with visual inspection reveals the surface flaw.
 This method is popularly used due to two main factor it's relative ease of use and its flexibility.
Characteristics detected (Applicability): Liquid penetrant testing is widely used:
1. To locate cracks, porosity and other defects that break the surface at a material and have enough volume to trap
and hold the penetrant material.
2. To inspect large areas very efficiently and will work most non-porous materials.
PRINCIPLE OF LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
Principle
 In this method, a penetrating liquid (known as penetrant) is applied over the cleaned surface of the test specimen
by dipping, spraying, or brushing; and it is allowed to remain long enough to seep into surface openings through
capillary action.
 Excess penetrant liquid is then wiped off and the surface is dried. The surface is then coated with a thin film of
developer
 A developer is applied, to allow the penetrant to seep back to the surface (by action) and to spread to the edges of
openings, this addition of developer magnifies the surface of the defects.
 The surface is then inspected for defects, either visually (in case of dye penetrants) or with fluorescent lighting After
inspection, the developer and residual penetrant are removed by a second cleaning operation.

Figure illustrates the principle of liquid penetrant testing.

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Advantages of Liquid Penetrant Testing
Some of the advantages of liquid penetrant testing method are as follows:
i. Simple and easy to use.
ii. Inexpensive and versatile.
iii. Highly sensitive to fine, tight discontinuities
iv. Highly portable
v. Applicable to variety of materials.
vi. Applicable to complex shapes
vii. Large surface areas or large volumes of parts/materials can inspected quickly and at low cost.
viii. All surface discontinuities are detected in one operation regardless of orientation

Limitations of Liquid Penetrant Testing

Some of the limitations of liquid penetrant testing method are as follows:
1. It can only detect flaws that are open to the surface.
2. It cannot be used on porous and very rough surfaces.
3. Surface preparation before testing is critical as contaminants can mask defects. So test surface must be free of all
dirt, oil, grease, paint, rust etc.
4. Deformed surfaces and surface coatings may prevent detection.
5. It is necessary to remove all penetrant materials after testing.
6. Chemical handling precautions are necessary (toxicity, fire, waste)
7. There is no easy method to produce permanent record.

LIQUID PENETRANT TEST PROCESS

(Test Procedure of Liquid Penetrant Testing) (Stages of Liquid Penetrant Process)
 The liquid penetrant test essentially involves the sequence of operation listed in the table below.

Step 1: Surface Preparation

The surface of components to be inspected is prepared by cleaning, creating a clean dry surface
Step 2: Application of Penetrant
Penetrant is applied by dipping, spraying or brushing on the prepared surface to be inspected
Step 3: Dwell Penetrant Time
Sufficient period of time is allowed for the penetrant to enter any discontinuity open to that surface
Step 4: Removal of Excess Penetrant
The excess penetrant is removed in such a manner that will ensure retention of penetrant inside of the
discontinuity

Step 5: Application of Developer

A developer agent is applied to draw the penetrant liquid from the discontinuities out to the surface and thereby
give an enhanced indication of such discontinuities.

Step 6: Examination, Interpretation and Evaluation

After the developing time, the discontinuities are visually examined, interpreted and evaluated under
appropriate viewing conditions.

Step 7: Post-Process Cleaning

Finally the surface of the component is cleaned and a corrosion penetrant is applied, if necessary.

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Surface Preparation
 The test surface should be thoroughly cleaned and dried before the penetrant is applied
 The test surface should be free of contaminants such as rust, scale, welding flux, spatter, grease, paint, oily films,
dirt, etc.
 The presence of contaminants on the test surface can result in the failure of penetrant:
a) To wet the test surface,
b) To enter into discontinuities, and
c) To bleed out of discontinuities.
 Cleaning methods: Depending on the surface contamination, any one of the following cleaning methods can be used
for surface preparation
1. Mechanical Cleaning Methods
Mechanical cleaning methods include:
a) Abrasive tumbling
b) Dry abrasive grit blasting
c) Wet abrasive grit blasting
d) Wire brushing grit blasting
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e) High-pressure water and steam

f) Ultrasonic cleaning
g) Sand blasting
2. Chemical Cleaning Methods
Chemical Cleaning methods include
a) Alkaline cleaning
b) Acid cleaning
c) Molten salt bath cleaning
d) Pickling
e) Chemical etching
3. Solvent Cleaning Methods
Solved cleaning methods include
a) Vapour degreasing
b) Solvent wiping
c) Solvent spraying
d) Ultrasonic immersion using solvents
Table. Applications of various methods of pre-cleaning for liquid penetrant inspection
S.No Method Uses
1.Mechanical Methods
Removing light scale, burrs, welding flux, braze stop off, rust, casting
a) Abrasive tumbling mold, and core material; should not be used on soft metals such as
aluminum, magnesium, or titanium.
Removing light or heavy scale, flux stop off, rust, casting mold and core
b) Dry abrasive grit blasting material, sprayed coatings, carbon deposits-in general, any friable deposit;
can be fixed or portable.
Same as dry except, where deposits are light, better surface and better
c) Wet abrasive grit blasting
control of dimensions are required.
d) Wire brushing Removing light deposits of scale, flux, and stop off.
Ordinarily used with an alkaline cleaner of detergent; removing typical
machine shop soils such as cutting oils, polishing compounds, grease,
e) High-pressure water and steam
chips, and deposit from electrical discharge machining; us when surface
finish must be maintained inexpensive
Ordinarily used with detergent and water or with a solvent; removing
f) Ultrasonic cleaning
adherent shop soil from large quantities of small parts.
2. Chemical Methods
Removing braze stop off, rust, scale, oils, greases, polishing material, and
a) Alkaline cleaning carbon deposits; ordinarily used on large articles where hand methods are
too laborious; also used on aluminum for gross metal removal.
Strong solutions for removing heavy scale: mild solutions for light scale;
b) Acid cleaning
weak (etching) solutions for removing lightly smeared metal.
c) Molten salt bath cleaning Conditioning and removing heavy scale.
3. Solvent Methods
Removing typical shop soil, oil, and grease: usually employs chlorinated
a) Vapor degreasing
solvents; not suitable for titanium.
Same as for vapor degreasing except a hand operation; may employ non-
b) Solvent wiping
chlorinated solvents; used for localized low-volume cleaning.

Application of Penetrants
 In the second stage, the liquid penetrant is applied by dipping. spraying, brushing or flowing on the cleaned test
surface.
 Penetrant is a liquid capable of wetting the entire surface, and being drawn into fine openings.
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 Methods of penetrant application: The four methods employed for penetrant application are as follows:
i. Dipping method: In the dipping method, the test component is immersed/dipped into a task containing
the penetrant liquid. It is then raised and allowed to drain.
ii. Spraying method: In the spraying method, the conventional spray guns or pressurized spray cans are
used to spray the penetrant on the test component.
iii. Brushing method: In this method, the penetrant is brushed using brushes or swabs.
iv. Flowing method: In this method, the penetrant is poured over the test component and allowed it to drain.
Dwell or Penetrant Time
 Dwell time, also known as penetration time, is the period of time from when the penetrant is applied to the surface
until it is removed.
 This dwell period varies according to the type of penetrant used, material on which penetrant is applied, type of
defect for which it is applied, etc.
 Usually a dwell time of 15 to 30 minutes is practiced for many applications.
.
Minimum
S.No Material Form Type Of Defects Penetration Time
(Minutes)
Porosity, cold shut,
Aluminum And Castings, forgings. 15
1. laps, fatigue cracks,
Magnesium Alloys Welds, all forms 30
porosity
Porosity, cold shut,
Castings, forgings. 30
2. Stainless Steel laps, fatigue cracks,
Welds, all forms 60
porosity
Castings, forging. Porosity, cold shut,
10
3. Brass And Bronze Brazed parts, all laps, fatigue cracks,
15-30
fonns porosity
4. Plastics All forms Cracks 5-30
5. Glass All forms Cracks 5-30
6. Carbide Tipped Tools Lack of bond, porosity, grinding crack 10

Removal of Excess Penetrant

 In this fourth stage, the excess surface penetrant is removed from the test component surface.
 The removal method is determined by the type of penetrant used.
 Methods of removal: Three methods/techniques used for excess surface penetrant removal are:
i. Water washing.
ii. Post-emulsifying, and
iii. Solvent removing.
(i) Water washing method
 This method is used when self-emulsifying penetrants are employed. Here the excess penetrant is removed by
simply washing with water.
 When post-emulsible penetrant are employed, they are not directly water-washable. They require the use of an
emulsifier (oil or water base).
(ii) Post-emulsification method
 This is post emulsifier process of excess penetrant removal is carried out in two steps
 First, the excess penetrant is treated with an emulsifier for stipulated period of time as recommended by the
manufacturer.
 Then, the excess penetrant is removed by usual water washing.
 In this method, emulsifying time is a critical factor.
(iii) Solvent removal method
 In this method, the organic solvents are used for penetrant removal.
 Solvent removal is carried out in two steps:
 First, the excess penetrant is wiped from the test surface as much as possible with a clean, dry, lint-free cloth.
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 Then a second cleaning is carried out with a clean, lint-free cloth moistened with a solvent cleaner.

Application of Developer
 Developer is an absorbent material capable of drawing traces of penetrant from the discontinuities back into the
surface.
 The purpose of developer is to increase the brightness intensity of fluorescent indications and the visible contrast
of visible-penetrant indications.
Types of developers: The four types of developers used in liquid penetrant testing are
i. Powder developers,
ii. Water solvable developers,
iii. Water-suspendable developers, and
iv. Non-aqueous wet developers
 Developing time: Developing time is the time it takes the application of the developer until the actual evaluation
commences
Examination, Interpretation and Evaluation
 Upon completion of the development time, the indications from discontinuities that have formed on the test
surface should be examined, interpreted and evaluated.
 The penetrant indications can be examined under natural daylight or with ultraviolet or laser incident light; and
the defect recognition may be made with the human eye or with automated optical scanners.
 Visible penetrant indications can be inspected in either natural or artificial white light.
 In case of fluorescent penetrants, examination is carried out in a dark enclosure under black light (UV light) of
minimum 70 LUX intensity.
 The identification and interpretation of indications requires high degree of skills and experience.

Table. Indications of some defects

S.No Name of Defect Visible Penetrant Fluorescent Penetrant
1. Thin red lines-depth indicated by Thin, greenish yellow lines
Cracks
the degree of spread
2. Series of very small red dots in Series of very small, greenish-
Very tight crack
continuous formation yellow dots
3. Series of red spots spread over Series greenish yellow spots
Porosity
the surface

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4. Shrinkage/ micro Pale red blotches Pale greenish-yellow blotches

shrinkage

Table. Detectable discontinuities and their indications

S.No Types of Defect Description
1. Casting porosity Spherical surface indications
2. Porosity (glass) Spherical surface indications
3. Casting cold shut Dotted or smooth continuous lines
4. Cracks Straight or jagged continuous surface lines
5. Hot tears Ragged line of variable width, numerous branches
6. Sand casting shrinkage Crack indications where part thickness changes
7. Forging lap (AI) Sharp crescent-shaped indications on aluminum
8. Forging lap (partial) An intermittent line indication
9. Rolling lap Continuous line on rolled bar stock
10. Crater crack (Al) Dish-shaped indication with spoke propagation
11. Crater crack (deep) Rounded indication
12. Lamination (rolling) Seams on rolled plate
13. Inclusion (rolling) Broad elongated indications in rolled plate
14. Heat-treat cracks Multiple irregular lines in fired ceramics
15. Thermal cracks (glass) Jagged interconnecting lines fired ceramics
16. Lack of fusion (welds) Broken line of varying width near centerline
17. Fatigue cracks Continuous line in parts that have been in service

Post-Process Cleaning
 The last step in the process is post-cleaning after the examination.
 After the examination, all traces of any remaining penetrant and developer must be thoroughly removed from the
surface before it is being placed into service.
 Also post-cleaning is carried out to avoid corrosion and to facilitate further processing of the test component.
 In general, the cleaning methods employed in post-cleaning are the same as those applied for pre-cleaning

PENETRANT MATERIALS
What are Penetrant Materials?
 The various materials used in the penetrant process are known as penetrant materials
 The penetrant materials can be classified into four groups as
1. Penetrant,
2. Developers,
3. Pre-cleaners, and
4. Emulsifiers and solvent removers.
PENETRANTS
What are Penetrants?
 Penetrant is a liquid capable of wetting the entire surface, and being drawn into fine openings.
 The penetrant material consists of the indicating (tracer) dye and the carrier (vehicle) fluid.
 The indicating dye is used to provide a colour contrast with respect to the surroundings.
Types of Penetrant
The two basic types of penetrants are:
1. Fluorescent penetrants, and
2. Visible penetrants.
1. Fluorescent Penetrants
 Fluorescent penetrants are usually green in colour and they contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce' when
exposed to ultraviolet radiation.
 The sensitivity of a fluorescent penetrant depends on its ability to form indications that appear as small sources of
light in a dark area.
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2. Visible Penetrants
 Visible penetrants contain a red dye that provides high contrast against the white developer background.
 Visible penetrants do not require a darkened area and an ultraviolet light in order to make an inspection.
Fluorescent Penetrant Vs Visible Penetrants

Table. Fluorescent penetrants Vs Visible penetrants

S.No Fluorescent Penetrants Visible Penetrants
1. They contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce They contain a red dye that provides high contrast
when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. against the white developer background.
2. They are more sensitive (because the eye is drawn They are less sensitive.
to the glow of the fluorescent indication).
3. They require a darkened They do not require any darkened area and
area and ultraviolet light for inspection. ultraviolet light for inspection.
4. They are more vulnerable to contamination. They are less vulnerable to contamination.
Characteristics of Good Penetrants (Principal Requirements of Penetrants)
A good penetrant should possess the following important characteristics
1. It should have the ability to penetrate discontinuities quickly and completely.
2. It should be easily drawn into discontinuities by capillary action.
3. It should remain in the discontinuity, but it should be easier to remove from the surface at the component.
4. It should remain in fluid state, so that it can be drawn back to the surface of the component through drying and
developing steps.
5. It should be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce easy to see indications.
6. It should not be harmful to the material being tested or to the inspector
7. It should not exhibit any chemical reaction with the test component.
8. It should not evaporate or dry rapidly.
9. It should be non-flammable, odourless and non-toxic
10.It should possess stability under conditions of storage
11. It should be cohesive, adhesive and relatively low in cost.
Properties of Penetrants
The various properties of penetrants that can affect the result at the penetrant testing include:
1. Wettability (ie, surface wetting capability),
(i) Contact angle, and
(ii) Surface tension
2. Capillarity,
3 Viscosity,
4. Specific gravity,
5. Flash point,
6. Volatility,
7. Penetrant colour and fluorescence, and
8. Removability
1. Surface Wetting Capability (Wettability)
 The most important property of a penetrant is its surface wetting capability.
 Wettability, also known as surface wetting capability, is the ability of the penetrant to freely wet the surface of the
object being inspected.
 The wettability of the penetrant depends on the factors such as contact angle and surface tension.
(i) Contact Angle
 The contact angle is the angle formed by the solid-liquid interface and the liquid-vapour interface measured from
the side of the liquid, as shown in Figure below

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Figure. Measurement of contact angle

 Liquid wet surfaces when the angle is less than 90°
 For a penetrant material to be effective, the contact angle should be as small as possible.
 The contact angle for most liquid penetrant is very close to 0°.
 The wetting ability can be improved by adding a wetting agent which reduces the contact angle drastically.
(ii) Surface Energy (Surface Tension)
 The wetting ability of a liquid penetrant is s function of the surface tension for the surface energy) at the interface.
 The surface tension or surface energy at the interface is a measure of the energy required to form a unit area of
new surface at the interface
 The intermolecular bonds or cohesive forces between the molecules of a liquid cause surface tension.
2. Capillarity
 Capillarity is the ability of the penetrant to fill a void.
 Penetrants are pulled into surface breaking defects by capillary action. The capaillary force driving the penetrant
into the crack is a function of
(i) the surface tension of the liquid-gas interface,
(ii) the contact angle, and
(iii) the size of the defect opening.
3. Viscosity
 Viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow
 The reciprocal of co-efficient of viscosity is called fluidity. Fluidity is a measure of the ease with which a liquid
can flow.
 Viscosity is an important factor in determining the speed with which a penetrant will enter the defect.
 In a nutshell, viscosity has little effect on the ability of a penetrant material to enter a defect, but it does have an
effect on the speed at which the penetrant fills a defect.
4. Specific Gravity
 Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of distilled water at 4°C.
 Specific gravity has no direct effect on the performance of a penetrant.
 Most commercial penetrants have a specific gravity of less than one, primarily because they are made up of
organic materials having low specific gravities.
5. Flash Point
 Flash point is the temperature at which sufficient flammable vapor is given off a liquid to form an explosive
mixture in air over the liquid.
 The flash point does not affect the performance of penetrant.
 High flash points are desirable to reduce the hazard of fire.
6.Volatility
 Volatility is characterized by the vapour pressure or point of a liquid boiling
 It is desirable for penetrants to have a low volatility Lea high boiling point But the viscosity of the penetrant
increases as the boiling point increases
7. Fluorescent Dye Thermal Stability
 The dyes used in fluorescent-dye penetrants lose the brightness or colour when subjected to elevated temperature
This less is also known as heat fade"
 This thermal stability is an important consideration during her air drying before and after developer application.
8. Penetrant Colour and Fluorescence
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 The colour of the penetrant is an important factor in a visible dye penetrant inspection.
 The dye used in the dye penetrant test should give good colour contrast against the developer or the surface to be
inspected.
9. Removability
 A penetrant needs the following two conflicting requirements
(i) the ability to be removed from a surface leaving little or no residual background, and
(ii) resistance to being removed from discontinuities.
 For better removability, the adhesive forces of the penetrant must be stronger than the cohesive forces.

DEVELOPERS
What are Developers?
 Developer is an absorbant material capable of drawing traces of penetrants from the discontinuities back into the
surface.
 The developer works to increase the thickness of the penetrant bleed-out to a level that exceeds the threshold of
visibility
Characteristics of Good Developers (Requirements of Developers)
A good developer should possess the following characteristics or properties:
1. The developer should have good absorption characteristics to maximize blotting of the penetrant.
2. It should be able to uniformly cover the surface with the thin, smooth coating.
3. It should provide a good contrast background for indications when colour-contrast penetrants are used.
4. It should be easily applied to the test specimen.
5. It should be easily wetted by the penetrant at the flaw.
6. It should be inert with respect to the test materials.
7. It should be non-toxic and compatible with the penetrant materials.
Types of Developers
There are four standard types forms of developers used (bused on the method that the developer is applied). They are:
1. Dry powder developers,
2. Water soluable developers,
3. Water suspendable developers, and
4. Nonaqueous developers
1. Dry Powder Developers
 Dry powder developers are white fluffy powders that can be applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number of
ways
 The developers can be applied to a test specimen
(a) by dipping parts in a container of developer,
(b) by using a puffer to dust parts with the developer, or (c) by placing parts in a dust cabinet where the developer
is blown around
Advantages:
i. Inexpensive to use.
ii. Easy to apply
iii. Indications tend to remain brighter and more distinct over time.
iv. Can be easily cleaned from the surface after inspection.
Limitations:
i. Least sensitive to indications.
ii. It does not form contrast background, so it cannot be used with visible systems.
iii. It is difficult to assure entire part surface has been coated.
2. Water Soluable Developers
 As the name implies, water salvable developers consist of a group of chemicals that are dissolved in water and
form a developer layer when the water is evaporated away.
Advantages:
i. Ease of coating the entire part.

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ii. It can be easily cleaned from the surface after inspection.

iii. Fast and effective method of application
iv. It can be easily and completely removed after inspection by simple water rinsing.
Limitations:
i. Coating is translucent and provides poor contrast, which is not recommended for visual systems.
ii. Indications for water-washable systems are dim and blurred.
3. Water Suspendable Developers
 Water suspendable developers consist of insolvable particles suspended in water.
 Water suspendable developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep the particles from setting out of
suspension.
 Water suspendable developers are applied to test specimen in the same manner as water solvable developers.
Then the test specimens are dried using warm air.
Advantages:
(i) Ease of coating the entire part.
(ii) Indications are bright and sharp.
(iii) White coating for good contrast can be produced which Works well for both visible and fluorescent systems.
Limitations:
(i) It requires frequent stirring or agitation.
(ii) Indications weaken and become diffused after time.
4. Nonaqueous Developers
 Nonaqueous developers suspend the developer in a volatile Solvent.
 Nonaqueous developers are typically applied by a spray gun on aerosol can.
Advantages:
i. It is the most sensitive form of developer.
ii. Easy to apply and ready to access surface.
iii. Very portable .Indications show up rapidly and are well defined.
iv. It does not require forced drying.
Limitations:
i. It is difficult to apply evenly to all surfaces.
ii. It is more difficult to clean test specimen after inspection.
EQUIPMENT FOR LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
(Test Stations Used In Penetrant Testing)
The various stations/subunits used in a typical penetrant line Arrangement are:
(i) Draw and/or dwell stations
(ii) Penetrant and emulsifier stations,
(iii) Pre- and post-wash stations,
(iv) Drying stations,
(v) Developer stations,
(vi) Inspection stations, and
(vii) Cleaning stations.

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PENETRANT TESTING METHODS

(PENETRANT TECHNIQUES)
The methods/techniques of penetrant testing commonly used Are:
1. Water-washable penetrant technique,
2. Post-emulsifiable, penetrant technique, and
(a) Post-emulsifiable, lipophilic, and
(b) Post-emulsifiable, hydrophilic.
3. Solvent-removable penetrant techniques.
Water-Washable Penetrant Technique
What is it?
 This technique uses a water-washable penetrant that can be used with either dry, aqueous, or non-aqueous
developers.
 Water-washable penetrant, also known as self-emulsifying penetrants, can be removed from the test specimen by
rinsing with water alone.
 These water-washable contain an emulsifying agent (detergent) that makes it possible to wash the penetrant from
the test surface with water alone.
Process Flow Chart

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Applicability
The water-washable penetrant technique is generally used in the following situations:
(i) When large surface areas or a large number of test parts are to be inspected;
(ii) When test parts to be examined have intricate and complex Configurations; and
(iii) When discontinuities that are not broad or shallow are anticipated.

Advantages
(i) Higher sensitivity.
(ii) Less costly.
(iii) Easy removal of excess penetrant.
(iv) Adjustable for inspection of large surfaces and large quantity of small parts.
Limitations
(i) Insensitive to shallow discontinuities.
(ii) Requires a darkened area for evaluation.
(iii) This technique is not portable.
(iv) Water contamination can degrade the quality of penetrants.
(v) Under- or over-removal of penetrant material is possible.
Post-Emulsifiable Penetrant Technique
What is it?
 This technique was a post-emulsifiable penetrator, or lipophilic or hydrophilic emulsifier, and dry, aqueous or
non-aqueous developers.
 The post-emulsifiable penetrants are not directly water washable and they require the use of an emulsifier (oil or
water base).
 Based On The type of emulsifier employed, the Post-emulsifiable method can be classified into two types:
(a) Post-emulsifiable lipophilic method, and
(b) Post-emulsifiable hydrophilic method.
 In post-emulsifiable lipophilic method, the oil-based emulsifier is used to remove the excess penetrant from the
test surface.
 In post-emulsifiable hydrophilic method, the water-soluable detergent based emulsifier is used to remove the
excess penetrant from the test surface with a water wash.

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Process Flow Chart

Applicability
The post-emulsifiable technique is generally used in the following situations:
(i) when a large quantity of test parts are to be inspected;
(ii) when discontinuities that are broad or shallow are Anticipated; and the detection of small discontinuities and
stress cracks.
Advantages
(i) High sensitivity for the detection of smaller discontinuities
(ii) Sensitive to broad and shallow discontinuities.
(iii) Adaptable for inspector of large quantity of small parts.
(iv) Unaffected by acids easily.
Limitations
(i) This technique requires an emulsifier
(ii) Requires more time, due to the emulsifiable time.
(iii) Ineffective for complex and rough surfaces.
(iv) It is not portable.

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Solvent Removable Penetrant Technique

 This technique uses a solvent-removable penetrant, a solvent cleaner/remover, and a non-aqueous developer.
 In the solvent-removable method, the excess penetrant is removed by wiping with clean, lint-free material
moistened with a solvent remover.
Applicability
This solvent-removable technique is generally used in the following situations:
(i) When removal with water is not desirable due to part size, weight, surface condition, and water
availability; or
(ii) When a heat source is not readily available for drying.
Advantages
(i) Can be used for spot examination or large parts.
(ii) This method is effective when water removal fails.
Limitations
(i) Limited to smaller surface areas.
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(ii) Black light and dark environment are required.

(iii) Sensitivity reduces if excessive remover is applied.
(iv) Background indications may be generated.
Process Flow chart

APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING

Typical applications of liquid penetrant testing include:
(i) Inspection of tools and dies.
(ii) Inspection of tanks, vessels, reactors, piping, dryers, and pumps in the chemical, petrochemical, food,

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paper, and processing industries.
(iii) Inspection of diesel locomotive, truck, and bus parts (such as axles, wheels, gears, crankshafts, cylinder
blocks, Connecting rods, cylinders, transmissions and frames).
(iv) Inspection of field drilling rays, drill pipe, castings, and drilling equipments.
(v) Inspection of aircraft engine parts, propellers, wing fittings, Castings and so on.
Illustration of Some Applications of Liquid Penetrant Testing
Leakage Testing using Liquid Penetrant
The liquid penetrant method is used not only for the detection of surface discontinuities but also to find leaks in a
component or product.

Figure. Leakage testing using dye penetrant

The above figure illustrates the leakage testing of an open tank, which is self-explanatory. It involves
(a) Cleaning, grease removal and drying of the component
(b) Penetrant is applied to one side of the component
(c) The developer is applied to the other side
(d) Inspection for indications on the developer side
Weld Inspection using Liquid Penetrant Testing
 The liquid penetrant testing method is widely used to detect the presence of surface flaws in a work piece, for
example in the weld inspection applications.
 The weld inspection using liquid penetrants is carried out in rail tankers which carry chemicals, pressured gases,
and toxic or corrosive liquids.

Figure. Weld Inspection using Liquid Penetrant Testing

 The figure illustrates a typical sequence of operations for liquid penetrant inspection to detect the presence of surface
.flaw in a weld workpiece.
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MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING (MT)
INTRODUCTION
 Magnetic particle testing (MT) is a non-destructive testing to locate surface and subsurface discontinuities in parts
made by ferromagnetic materials.
 Magnetic particle testing is governed by the laws of magnetism and is therefore restricted to the inspection of
materials that can support magnetic flux lines.
 Non-magnetizing materials like austenitic stainless steel (paramagnetic) and gold, antimony, bismuth (diamagnetic)
are difficult to identify defects by this method. Only those metals Classified as ferromagnetic (e.g., iron, nickel,
cobalt) can effectively inspected by magnetic particle testing.

PRINCIPLE OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

 In a Magnetized material, Surface and subsurface Discontinuities like cracks and seams, cause a break in the
Magnetic uniformity or sudden change in the permeability These breaks in magnetic uniformity set up a minute
magnetic Poles and leakage flux paths attract fine magnetic powder Particles to the discontinuity forming a reliable
visual Indication of the discontinuity.

Figure. Basic Principle of magnetic particle testing

 In a magnetic material, there will be magnetic field in and around the material and the magnetic line of force exits
the magnet from north pole and enters the south pole. When the magnetic field encounters a break in the magnetic
field due to crack or inclusion, magnetic field disturbances are produced.
 This variation in the magnetic field can be identified by sprinkling magnetic particles on the surface of the part to
be inspected. The particles will be attracted at the edges of crack. Critical investigation will reveal the pattern of
defect in the Surface or subsurface of the part.
Advantages of Magnetic Particle Testing
Some of the advantages of magnetic particle testing are as follows:
(i) High sensitive and complex parts can be inspected rapidly.
(ii) Elaborate surface preparation is not required.
(iii) Low cost testing method and equipment are relatively inexpensive.
(iv) Portable (can be adapted for site or workshop).
(v) Large or small objects can be examined.
Limitations of Magnetic Particle Testing
Some of the limitations of magnetic particle testing are given below:
(i) Only ferromagnetic materials such as iron, steel, cobalt, nickel can be inspected.
(ii) Proper alignment of magnetic field is important to achieve good results.
(iii) Large currents are needed for very large parts
(iv) Only surface and near surface defects can be detected.
(v) This method cannot be used if a thick paint coating is present.
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MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING PROCESS (Procedure of Magnetic Particle Testing)
To ensure satisfactory identification of surface and subsurface defects, following steps are essential in magnetic
particle testing
Step 1: Cleaning,
Step 2: Demagnetization,
Step 3: Magnetizing,
Step 4: Addition of magnetic particles,
Step 5: Illumination,
Step 6: Interpretation, and
Step 7: Documentation and reporting.

Figure. Various steps involved in magnetic particle testing

Step 1: Cleaning/Surface Preparation
 In order to identify the defects, it is necessary to remove rust Flakes and grease from the surface of inspection.
 If the surface is not cleaned thoroughly, it will restrict the free movement of the magnetic particles and being
captured at the leakage area.
 Mechanical cleaning is carried out by using wire brushes of Sand blasting and degreasing is possible by using
solvents.
Step 2: Demagnetization
 The parts used in magnetic field are susceptible to magnetize by continuous usage, then it is necessary to
demagnetize it to eliminate poles.
 If it is not demagnetized, the residual magnetism in the part may mislead the .
Step 3: Magnetization
 To identify defects, the part to be examined must magnetized.
 Two different forms of magnetization methods are followed reveal the defects in the best possible manner. The
method are:
(a) Longitudinal magnetization, and
(b) Circumferential magnetization.
 The magnetization is ensured by selection of current strength There are no precise rules to select current strength
during magnetic particle inspection, but generic guidelines are followed.

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 To inspect cylindrical objects, the current required is given by
l = 20 D
Where I = Current in amperes, and
D= External diameter of the cylindrical objects in millimetres.
 To inspect large surfaces by local electrode magnetization, about 4 amperes/centimetre electrode spacing is
required.
Step 4: Addition of Magnetic Particles
 After magnetizing the part, magnetic particles are applied on the surface of inspection.
 The magnetic particles to be used must be available in powder Form, hence called as magnetic powder.
 Two types of magnetic particles powder carrier agent as:
(a) Dry powder (particles are carried by jet of air), and
(b) Wet powder (particles are suspended in liquid).
Step 5: Illumination
 To identify magnetic particles attracted near the defects illumination is necessary.
 Ordinary day light is sufficient, but it is possible to manage with artificial light like strong lamp which can be
moved around to illuminate the surface of the object.
 When coloured or fluorescent powder is used, a sufficiently Strong ultraviolet light is used to achieve maximum
sensitivity During inspection.
Step 6: Interpretation
 After magnetization and spreading of powder, indications are appeared on the surface of inspection due to piling
up of magnetic powders at the defective area. It is the task of the examiner to evaluate the cause of the indications.
 A crack which is open to surface is easy to detect but in questionable situations, light polishing and magnifying
glass can be helpful to determine the existence and type of defects.
Step 7: Documentation and Reporting
 Photographs are useful as a permanent record of the appearance of the defect.
 Another way of permanent record is taking tape impressions.
 When making tape impressions the defects are transferred to a report sheet by means of tape which is pressed against
the top of each defective indication.
 A magnetic particle examination is of no value without a written report.

DRY AND WET PARTICLE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES

 Based on the types of magnetic particles used, magnetic particle testing techniques can be of two types:
1. Dry particle inspection technique, and
2. Wet particle inspection techniques
Dry Particle Inspection (or Dry Magnetic Particle Testing)
 In this technique, dry particles are applied onto the surface of the test object as the item is magnetized.
 Dry particle inspection is well suited for the inspections Conducted or rough surface.

Figure. Dry powder inspection

Steps involved in dry particle inspection are as follows:
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Step 1: Cleaning/surface preparation
Step 2: Demagnetization
Step 3: Magnetization
Step 4: Application of dry magnetic particles
Step 5: Blowing off excess powder
Step 6: Terminating the magnetizing force
Step 7: Inspection/interpretation
 The steps such as Cleaning, Demagnetization, Magnetization, Application and Inspection/Interpretation consist of
exactly the same procedure as that of magnetic particle testing presented.
 In step 5 (i.e., blowing off excess powder), the excess powder is removed from the surface with a jet of air when
the part is in magnetized condition.
 In step 6 (i.e., terminating the magnetizing force), the electromagnetic field used to generate magnetic flux should
be terminated. This is achieved by switching off the power supply. If permanent magnets are used, they can be
lifted from the surface of the part to terminate the magnetizing force.

Advantages:
Some of the advantaged of dry particle testing are as follows:
(i) Superior to the wet technique for detection of near surface discontinuities.
(ii) Highly suitable to inspect large objects when using portable equipment for local magnetization. (iii) Superior
particle mobility is obtained for relatively deep seated flaws.
(iii) Easy to remove after inspection.
Disadvantages:
Some of the limitations of dry particle testing are given below:
(i) Cannot be used in confined areas considering safety.
(ii) Less accuracy in detection of fine surface discontinuities Compared to wet technique.
(iii) Difficult to use in overhead magnetizing positions.
(iv) Complete coverage of part surface is difficult as compared with wet technique.
Wet Particle Inspection (or Wet Magnetic Particle
 In wet particle inspection technique, the particles are applied while they are suspended in a liquid carrier.
 This technique is commonly performed using stationary, wet horizontal inspection unit.

Figure. Wet Particle Inspection

 Suspension filled spray cans are also used with electromagnetic yokes.

The steps involved in wet particle inspection are as follows:

 Step 1: Cleaning/surface preparation
 Step 2: Demagnetization
 Step 3: Application of suspended magnetic particles
 Step 4: Magnetization
 Step 5: Inspection/interpretation
The above steps are already presented
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 In step 3 (i.e., applications of suspended magnetic particles the suspension is gently sprayed or flowed over the
surface the part. Normally, a stream of suspension is diverted from th part just before the magnetizing field is
applied.
Advantages: Some of the advantages of wet particle testing are given below:
i. Surface of the part can be easily covered by the particle suspension.
ii. Liquid carrier provides mobility to the particles.
iii. Best results are possible in detection of very small cracks On smooth surfaces.
OVERVIEW OF MAGNETISM
Theory of Magnetism
 The material or object that produces a magnetic field is called magnets. The magnetic field can be described by
imaginary lines and is responsible for the most important properties of magnet.

Figure. Magnetic lines of force and a current loop

 If a magnetic piece (ferromagnetic material) is cut into smaller pieces, each piece is a magnet with a north (N) or
south (S) pole, Therefore a magnet can be said to be made of lots of ‘tiny’ magnets all lined up with their N poles
pointing in the same direction.

Figure. Aligned domains showing same direction of poles

Magnetic Properties and Hysteresis Loop
 When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, it will not relax back to zero magnetization even
after the imposed magnetizing field is removed.
 If an alternating magnetic field is applied to the material, its magnetization will trace out a loop called a hysteresis
loop.
 The lack of retraceability of the magnetization curve is the Property called hysteresis and it is related to the
existence of Magnetic domains in the material.
 The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material while the magnetizing force is
changed.
 A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing
force (H).
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Figure. Hysteresis loop

From the hysteresis loop following observation can be made:
 The dashed line will follow a non-linear magnetization curve as H is increased. (As the line demonstrates, the
greater the amount of current applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the component (B+).
 At point ‘a’ the material is magnetized to saturation by alignment of domains.
 When applied current (H) is reduced to zero, the curve will move from point ‘a’ to ‘b’. (At point ‘b’ some magnetic
flux remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero; some residual magnetism present in the
material).
 As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve move to point ‘c’. The magnetic flux has been reduced to zero and
the point is called point of coercivity on the curve.
 As the magnetizing force is increased in negative direction, the material will again become magnetically saturated
but in opposite direction at point ‘d’.
 Reducing applied current (H) to zero brings the curve at point ‘e’. Some residual magnetic present in the material
but in opposite direction.
 Increasing applied current (H) in the positive direction Will return B to zero.
 From the curve it is evident that, the curve will take different path from the original because some force is required
to remove residual magnetism.
Primary magnetic properties determined from the hysteresis loop are given below:
(i) Retensivity: It is a material’s ability to retain a certain Amount of residual magnetic field, when a
magnetizing Force is removed.
(ii) Residual magnetism: The magnetic flux density that remains in a material when the magnetizing force is
zero.
(iii) Coercive force: The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic material to make
the magnetic flux return to zero.
(iv) Permeability: A property of a material that describes The ease with which a magnetic flux is established
inthe component.
(v) Reluctance: It is the resistance in the establishment of magnetic field in ferromagnetic material.
MAGNETIC FIELD ORIENTATION IN MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
 In magnetic particle testing, the orientation of magnetic line of force is important in detection of cracks or other
defects
 There are two general types of magnetic fields that can be established within a component. They are:
1. Longitudinal magnetic field, and
2. Circular magnetic field.
Longitudinal Magnetic Field
 A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run parallel to the long axis of the part.

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 Longitudinal magnetization of a component can be accomplished using the longitudinal field set up by a coil or
solenoid. It can also be established by permanent magnets or electromagnets.

Figure. Longitudinal magnetic field

Circular Magnetic Field
 A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run circumferentially around the perimeter of a part.
 A circular magnetic field is induced in the component by either passing current through the component or by
passing current through a conductor surrounded by the component.

Figure. Circular Magnetic Field

Flaw Detectability
 Magnetizing the part in two directions is important because the best detection of defects occurs when the lines of
magnetic force are established at right angles to the longest dimension of the defect.
 The orientation creates the largest disruption of the magnetic field within the part and the greater flux leakage at
the surface of the part.
 Defects may occur in various and unknown directions. Each Part is normally magnetized in two directions at right
angles to each other.
EQUIPMENT USED IN MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
The main categories of equipment used in magnetic particle Testing are:
1. Magnetization equipment,
2. Portable power supplies, and
3. Lighting equipment.
Magnetization Equipment in Magnetic Particle Testing
 The primary requirement for detecting a defect in a ferromagnetic material is that the magnetic field induced in the
part must intercept the defect at 45 to 90degree angle.
 Flaws that are 90 degrees to the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications because they disrupt more of
the magnetic flux.
 Magnetic particle testing equipments are broadly classified on the basis of portability as:
1. Portable magnetization equipment, and
2. Stationary magnetization equipment.
Portable Magnetization Equipment
 Portable magnetization equipment are suitable for inspection in the field.
 Typical portable magnetization equipment used are:
(i) Permanent magnet,
(ii) Electromagnetic yokes,
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(iii) Prods, and
(iv) Portable coils.
Permanent magnet
 Permanent magnets, like bar magnets or horse shoe magnets, can be used for magnetic particle inspection as the
source of magnetism
 Permanent magnets can be made small enough to fit into the tight areas where electromagnets might not fit.
 Permanent magnets are sometimes used by divers for inspection in underwater environments or other areas, where
electromagnets cannot be used for safety considerations.

Figure. Permanent magnet producing magnetic field

(ii) Electromagnetic Yokes
 Higher portability can be achieved by using electromagnetic yokes. This unit can be used with AC and is also
available in DC from a battery pack.
 This type of magnets generates a very strong magnetic field in a local area where the poles of the magnet touch the
part being inspected.
 Many yokes have adjustable legs to facilitate various inspection area profiles.
 Figure shows the AC yoke used in inspection of part by producing longitudinal magnetic field to detect transverse
crack.
Figure. Portable electromagnetic yoke in detection of transverses crack
(iii) Prods
 Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the surface of the component to be tested. The current passing
between the prods creates a circular magnetic field around the prods, which is used to detect the defects.
 Prods are typically made from copper and have an insulated handle to help protect the operator.
 Prods are provided with a trigger switch to control the current supplied. If two prods are connected by an insulator,
then the device is called dual prod and is extensively used for weld inspection.
 While using prods, caution is required to avoid electric arcing to prevent damage to the surface of the component.

Figure. Prod used in detection of defects

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(iii) Portable Coils
 Portable coils are used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field within a component.
 The magnetic field in parallel to the axis of the component. When a preformed coil is used, the component is placed
inside the surface of the coil. The component becomes the core of Electromagnet and is magnetized by induction
from the magnetic field created in the coil.
 Coils are normally have three to five turns of copper cable within the moulded frame. A control switch is used to
energize the coil.

Figure. Portable coil in detection of cracks

2. Stationary Magnetization Equipment
 Stationary magnetic particle inspection equipment is designed for use in laboratory or production environment.
 The most common stationary system is the wet horizontal unit. This unit is provided with a fixed head-stock and a
sliding tail-stock.
 The part is placed between the head-stock and tail-stock and Gripped by pneumatic chuck to permit current to flow,
thereby producing a circular magnetic field.

Figure. Stationary unit

 The wet magnetic particle solution is collected and held in a tank. A pump and hose system is used to apply the
particle solution to the component being inspected.
 To inspect a part, the part is clamped between head-stock and tail-stock with the help of electrical contact pads. The
magnetic solution, called bath, is then flowed over the surface of the part.
 The bath is then interrupted and a magnetizing current is applied to the part for a short duration (0.5 to 1.5 seconds).
A circular field flowing around the circumference of the part is created.
 Magnetic particles attracted around the leakage field area Indicate defects on the surface.
 Some of the units are capable of producing longitudinal fields and demagnetization of the parts.
Portable Power Supplies
 Portable equipment like prods, coils and cables need Supply to energize it during inspection of components.
 Power supplies are available in different sizes according to the requirement
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 Small power supplies generally provide upto 1500 A. The Power supplies can be operated both AC and DC.
 When higher power is required, mobile power supplies are used. These are capable of operating with 120 V or
240 V can provide upto 6000 A.
Lights in Magnetic Particle Inspection
 Magnetic particle inspection is basically a visual inspection Method after magnetizing and application of metal
powder Therefore, sufficient lighting is important to identify the defects.
 The lighting requirements are different for inspection with Colored or fluorescent particles.
i. Lighting for visible coloured particles
 When coloured particles are used, ordinary day lighting is Enough. But natural day lighting changes
from time to time, the use of artificial lighting is recommended results get better result.
 To manage with artificial light, a strong hand lamp which can be moved around by hand to illuminate
the object. Halogen lamps are widely used to produce white light.
ii. Lighting for fluorescent particles
 When magnetic particle testing is carried out with fluorescent Particles, sufficiently strong ultraviolet
light must be available. Mercury vapour lamps with filters are used to fluoresce the particles.
 A filter is used to filter the unwanted white light and harmful UV radiation and allows the harmless
portion ultraviolet spectrum with a wavelength of 365 nanometers (nm). The condition of the filter must
be regularly checked to ensure filtration of harmful UV and white light.
EQUIPMENT USED IN DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH AND DIRECTION
 The strength of the magnetic field and direction is important in magnetic particle testing.
 To check the adequacy of field strength and direction various equipment are used.
 Some of the main equipment used in determination of Magnetic field strength and direction are:
1. Hall-effect (or Gauss meter),
2. Pie gauge,
3. Quantitative quality indicator (QQI), and
4. Slotted strips.
(1) Hall-Effect meter (Gauss Meter)
Gauss meter is generally used to measure the tangential field strength on the surface of the part.
Most commonly used Hall-effect meters are:
(1) Transverse probe, and
(2) Axial probes.
Transverse probes: Transverse probes have the Hall. Effect element mounted on a thin, flat stem and they are used to make
measurements between two magnetic poles.
Axial probes: Axial Hall-effect probes have the sensing element mounted such that the magnetic flux in the direction of
the long axis of the probe is measured.
 The Hall-effect voltage is a function of the angle which the magnetic lines of flux pass through the sensing element.
 When the line of flux pass perpendicularly (90 degrees) through the sensing element, highest Hall-effect voltage
can be recorded.

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Figure. Hall effect gauss meter with probes
(2) Pie Gauge
 The pie gauge is octagonal shaped disk made by highly permeable low certain speed segments, joined together by
brazing. One side of the octagonal flat plate is plated with copper to hide the joint lines.
 The gauge is placed on the test specimen during magnetization, with its copper face up.
 The particles are applied to this face and the orientation of the resultant field is displayed by the indications
produced at the Joint lines.
 Pie gauges are widely used on flat surfaces like steel casings and weldments where dry powder is used with yoke
or prods.

Figure. Pie Gauge

(3) Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI)
 The quantitative quality indicator (QQI) is an artificial flat standard used for calibration of magnetic field strength
direction.
 It is made up of thin steel strip with a thickness of 0.05 to 0.1 mm and specific patterns are etched on the surface.
 To ensure intimate contact with the part being inspected, the QQI is taped or glued with etched side down.
 By spreading magnetic particles over the component, the particles get adhered on the part surface provides
information about the Field direction.
 For better results, the part surface must be clean and dry.

Figure. Quantitative quality indicators

(4) Slotted Strips
 Slotted strips, also known as Burmah-castrol strips, are pieces of highly permeable ferromagnetic material with
slots of different widths. They are placed on the object and magnetic field is established.
 The indicators produced on the strips give the idea of the field strength. These strips can be used with wet or dry
method.

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Figure. Slotted strips

MAGNETIC PARTICLES
 Magnetic particle testing is performed by inducing magnetic field in ferromagnetic material and covering the surface
with magnetic particles. Hence magnetic particles are key ingredient in magnetic particle testing and shows the
defects on the surface when the flux leakage is occurred.
Characteristics Magnetic particles must possess the following characteristics:
1. High permeability (maximum response in flux leakage field).
2. Low retentivity (will not be remain magnetized when the magnetic field is removed).
3. Shape should be smooth and have high degree of mobility.
4. Non-toxic, free from rust, grease and dirt.
5. No hazard potential with regard to flammability and Toxicity.
Types: The three types of magnetic particles are:
1. Iron oxide particles,
2. Pure iron particles, and
3. Fluorescent particles.
1. Iron Oxide Particles
 Iron oxide particles are finer and lighter and can be used to detect small and critical discontinuities.
 Shape of the iron oxide particles can be controlled by the oxidation and reduction process.
 The iron oxide will remain in the discontinuity more effectively than pure iron particles and stay in
suspension with Simple agitation.
 Iron oxide particles are highly suitable for wet particle inspection method.
2. Pure Iron Particles
 The pure iron particles are larger in particle size and can be used to detect medium to large discontinuities.
 These particles are made by milling process and reduced to required size in various stages of machining
processes.
 The geometry and size of these particles will render a much brighter particle than the iron oxide particle.
 A coloring agent like paint also bonded to the surface of the particles for better visibility during inspection.
 These pure iron particles will migrate quicker to the discontinuity than the iron oxide and they are suitable
for dry particle inspection technique.
 The iron particles will not stay in suspension as easy as the iron oxides and requires a more aggressive
constant, agitation, if it is used in wet particle inspection.
3. Fluorescent Magnetic Particles
 Fluorescent magnetic particles are used when higher possible sensitivity is required during inspection.
 It is actually just ordinary magnetic powder where thin layer of fluorescent material has been applied to the
individual particle.
 When the object is observed under suitable lighting, the defects will be visible as bright indicators.

DEMAGNETIZATION
 When ferromagnetic materials are subjected to magnetic particle testing, there will be a certain amount of
magnetism retained with the part even after removal of magnetic current. This magnetic is called as
"residual magnetism".
 The residual magnetic field is considered harmful when it interferes with subsequent machining operations

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due to attracted magnetic particles on the surface which will increase friction and wear.
 Demagnetization can be accomplished by several ways. Two methods of demagnetizations that are being
generally followed are:
1. Reversing the polarity with lower level field strength, and
2. Heating the material above curie temperature.
Reversing the Polarity
 Demagnetization can be achieved by reversing the current application i.c., opposite direction to the
previously applied force and will be at lower level. It should be below the saturation point, but must be
above that required to produce a higher flux field than the retained magnetism.
 The most satisfactory method of demagnetization using AC is to gradually reduce the applied current to
zero. AC demagnetization is preferred, due to its inherent reversing nature.
Heating the Material
 Complete demagnetization is possible by heating the part to a temperature above its curie point and allowing
it to cool without any magnetizing force acting upon it.
 Curie point is the temperature at which steels lose their permanent magnetic properties.
 If this can be accomplished, the residual field will be totally removed and the part will be totally
demagnetized. The curie point for steels various from 720°C to 800°C.
 But this method is not convenient to heat the material above its curie temperature by considering the size
of the part and subsequent production stages.
APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
 The magnetic particle test method is effective for the detection of surface and subsurface defects on
ferromagnetic parts.
 Using magnetic particle testing, surface defects can be detected safely even along complex geometries of
the casting, forging and welded parts.
 Due to simplicity, the magnetic particle testing shows a very high potential to inspect parts during
production and in service.
 Magnetic particle inspection found wide applications during manufacture of parts. Discontinuities detectable
during manufacturing are:
1. In metal forming:
 Forging bursts (cracks)
 Rolling seams
 Casting hot tears
2. In heat measurement:
 Quenched and heat cracks
3. In machining:
 Grinding cracks Machining tears
4. In welding:
 Longitudinal and transverse crack in welding
 Lack of fusion
 Incomplete penetration
 Inclusions
 Entrapped slag

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UNIT III THERMOGRAPHY AND EDDY CURRENT TESTING (ET)
Thermography- Principles, Contact and non-contact inspection methods,
Techniques for applying liquid crystals, Advantages and limitation - infrared radiation
and infrared detectors, Instrumentations and methods, applications. Eddy Current
Testing-Generation of eddy currents, Properties of eddy currents, Eddy current sensing
elements, Probes, Instrumentation, Types of arrangement, Applications, advantages,
Limitations, Interpretation/Evaluation.

INTRODUCTION
Thermography testing is a non-destructive testing (NDT) imaging technique that allows the
visualization of heat patterns on an object.
It is also called as thermal imaging, infrared (IR) thermography or simply thermography.

PRINCIPLE
This testing method is based on the fact that most components in a system show an increase in
temperature when malfunctioning or due to variation in temperature difference at the sub surface
detects. This temperature differences (DT) observed on the investigated surface during inspection will
be monitored by an infrared camera.
The principle, techniques, instrumentation, advantages, limitations and applications of
thermography testing are discussed in the following sections.

BASICS OF INFRARED THEORY

Heated object radiates electromagnetic energy. The amount of energy is related to the objects
temperature. The energy from a heated object is radiated at different levels across the electromagnetic
spectrum.
In most industrial applications it is the energy radiated af infrared wavelengths which is used
to determine the object temperature.
The electromagnet spectrum includes X-rays, ultrasonic, infrared (IR) and radio. They are all
emitted in the form of a wave and travel at the speed of light. The only difference between them is their
wavelengths which are related to frequency.

INFRARED RANGE WITHIN THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Infrared radiation is that part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is immediately adjacent to
the red light approximate 760 nm on the long wave side of the visible spectrum and extends to a
wavelength of approximate 1 mm. This range of wavelength corresponds to frequency at approximately
430 THz down to 300 GHz. range of
In this respect, the wavelength range of upto approximate 20 μm is of importance to identify
temperature distribution due to cracks and sub-surface defects.
Characteristics of Infrared
Some of the important characteristics of infrared are as follows:
(i) It is not visible as its wavelength is larger than the visible light.
(ii) It is radiated naturally from all objects having the temperature of absolute 0°K or higher,
hence it is applicable to all kinds of field.
(iii) It has characteristics of heating an object, hence it is sometime called as "heat ray".
(iv) It is a kind of electromagnetic wave and it can travel through vacuum.
(v) Infrared energy and temperature of an object are co-related, therefore temperature distribution
can be observed.
WAVELENGTH AND FREQUENCY
1. Wavelength
Wave length is the distance between successive crest of a wave, especially in an
electromagnetic wave.
2. Frequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time or simply number
of oscillations per second.

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Figure. Frequency
The relationship between wavelength and frequency electromagnetic wave is:
λV=C
where
λ = Wavelength,
V = Frequency, and
C = Speed of the light
HEAT TRANSFER AND EMISSIONS
1. Emission
A type of heat transfer where the heat is transferred directly from the surface of an object as an
infrared energy
2. Convection
A type of heat transfer where the heat is transferred by the heated part of gas or liquid moving
upward
3. Conduction
A type of heat transfer mainly through a solid object.

Figure. Emission , Convection and Conduction

4. Emission, reflection and transmission of infrared
An object which absorbs infrared well emits infrared well.
W = Transmission + Absorption + Reflection

Figure. Emission, reflection and transmission of infrared

If transmission = 0, then
W = Emission + Reflection

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Figure. Emission, reflection

5. Emissivity
 The amount of energy radiated from an object is dependent on its temperature and its emissivity.
 An object which has the ability to radiate the maximum possible energy for its temperature is known
as black body.
 In practical applications, there is no perfect emitter and surfaces tend to radiate somewhat less energy
a black body. why objects are not perfect emitters of infrared energy. A smaller quantity of energy
is reflected back inside and never escapes by radioactive means. Evident that only 70% of the
available emitted.

Figure. Emissivity
 Emissivity (e) is defined as the ratio of heat radiated by a re object (Hobiect at a given temperature
to the heat that who have been radiated by an ideal black body (Hblack body) at the same
temperature.
 Mathematically,
€=Hobject /Hblack body

 Thus € 1 signifies that the body is a perfect black body, materials like lamp black, are having € 0.95
and a considered to be a black body for all practical purposes.
 One common way of converting a non-black body to a black body is to apply a thin layer of black
paint on it. The thin layer paint, being in contact with the body, will have the same temperature as
that of the body. So overall the object will act like a black body.
6. Effects of Emissivity
If a material of high emissivity and one of low emissivity were placed side by side in the furnace
and heated to exactly the same temperature the material with low emissivity would appear to the eye
much duller. This is due to the different emissivity of the materials causing them to radiate at different
levels.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING
Principle
 The principle of infrared thermography testing is based on the physical phenomenon that any body
of a temperature above absolute zero (-273.15°C) emits electromagnetic radiation. There is a clear
correlation between the surface of a body and the intensity and spectral composition of its emitted
radiation
 By determining its radiation intensity the temperature of an object can be determined in a non-
contact way.

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Figure. Principle of Thermography Testing

 Thermography testing uses an infrared camera containing large number of infrared sensors which
can detect and measure small temperature differences. The image showing the temperature
differences can be processed and displayed as a colour or grey scale map.
ADVANTAGES OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING
Some of the advantages of thermography testing are as follows:
(i) This technique is highly effective and very easy to use.
(ii) Compared to many other inspection techniques, it is fast and it can create a thermal image.
(iii) Large areas can be scanned fast, hence major savings in time, people, work and machinery.
(iv) Thermographic device is risk free as it does not emit any radiation.
(v) Thermographic testing may be performed during both day and
night time hours.
(vi) Thermographic testing is a technique (No couplant is needed as in the case of ultrasonic
testing)
(vii) Results are relatively easy to interpret.
(vii) Unique inspection method to identify open micro cracks in thermally sprayed coatings
difficult to inspect with other NDT methods.
(ix) Relative comparison of distribution of surface temperature can be used over a wide area.
LIMITATIONS OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING
Some of the limitations of thermography testing are given below.
(i) Due to the fact that it uses infrared technology it is not possible to penetrate in extended depths
(only few millimeters).
(ii) Thermal losses by convection and radiation that might induce spurious contrasts affecting the
reliability of the interpretation.
(iii) Surface painting is required in low emissivity materials toincrease and equalize emissions.
(iv) Active thermography equipment is more expensive than ultrasound devices.
(v) Capability to detect only defects resulting in a measurable change of the thermal properties
from the inspected surface.
(vi) Reflective surfaces that cannot be made more emissive, the subsurface condition may not be
resolved.
CLASSIFICATION OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING
Thermography testing can be broadly classified as follows:
(a) On the basis of approaches
(i) Passive
(ii) Active
(b) On the basis of configuration
(i) Static
(ii) Dynamic
(c) On the basis of modes
(i) Transmission
(ii) Reflection
(iii) Internal
(d) On the basis of scanning
(i) Point

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(ii) Line
(iii) Surface
(e) On the basis of sources
(i) Optical
(ii)Mechanical
(iii) Inductive

(f) On the basis of waveforms

(i) Modulated
(ii) Pulse
(iii) Square pulse
(iv) Step
THERMOGRAPHY TESTING - ACTIVE APPROACH
In active thermography approach, an external stimulus is needed to produce a thermal contrast
in the object surface. When external source of heat is applied the thermal state of the object to be
inspected is destabilized.
Internal defects in the object like voids, cracks, delaminating, foreign material inclusion etc
causes thermal disequilibrium and resulted in distinctive surface thermal patterns between the defects
and sound material.

Figure. Thermography Testing - Active Approach

The active approach of thermography testing. In this technique, the sample is heated by an
external source (optical, mechanical, electromagnetic or other). Controlled heat source and its surface
temperature is monitored as a function of time through changes of emitted infrared radiation.
The specific thermal properties of material under test influence transport of heat thus causing
surface temperature to change with respect to areas with different thermal properties. Due to the thermo
physical properties of the testing material defective and non-defective surface produces a measurable
thermal constant.
IR camera acquires data on thermal emissions and is displayed in the computer. The appearance
of subsurface defect is proportional to its depth. The time of application of the external heat source can
be synchronized with the acquisition system; quantitative data analysis is possible by this method.
ADVANTAGES
Some of the advantages of active thermography testing are as follows.
(i) Possibility to perform one-sided inspection.
(ii) Real time data acquisition is possible.
(iii) Appropriate on most multi-layer structure and porous material used in industries.
(iv) Inspection of large surface is possible.
(v) Relatively unaffected by the object's geometry.
LIMITATIONS
Some of the limitations of active thermography testing are given below.
(i) Sensible to duration of heating source.
(ii) Expensive (as the Response time is very fast in case of metals hence faster data acquisition
system is required).
APPLICATIONS

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The typical applications of active thermography include:
(i) Structural evaluation of Glass Reinforced polymer (GRP pipes.
(ii) Assessment of damage on Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plast(CFRP) panels.
(iii) Checking sand witched panels of aircrafts.
(iv) Identification of sub-surface defects like cracks, blowhole porosity and inclusions in metals.
ACTIVE THERMOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
(Types of Active Thermography Testing)

Figure. Active Thermography

PULSED THERMOGRAPHY (FLASH THERMOGRAPHY)

Concept
In this technique, energy sources (xenon flash tubes) are used to pulse-heat the specimen
surface. The duration of the pulse may vary from a few microseconds by using flashes to several seconds
by using lamps.
The duration and energy source depends on the thermo physical properties of both, the
specimen and the flaw. Depicts the principle of pulsed thermography.

Figure. Pulsed Thermography

Modes of thermography: The specimen is heated from one side while thermal data is collected either
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from the same side (reflection mode) or from the opposite (transmission mode).
(i) Reflection mode: In this mode, inspecting defects closer to the heated surface.
(a) Depicts the principle of reflection mode pulsed thermography.

Figure. Block diagram of pulsed (reflection mode) thermography

(ii) Transmission mode: In this mode, inspecting defects closer to the non-heated surface
(Deeper defects). depicts the principle of transmission mode pulsed thermography.

Figure. Block diagram of pulsed (Transmission mode) thermography

Detective zones will appear at higher or lower temperature with respect to non-defective zones
on the surface, depending on the thermal properties of both the material and the defect. The temperature
evolution on the surface is then monitored using an infrared camera.
When observing the thermal wave on the surface of the material during this period, defects such
as impact damages, voids, foreign material inclusion, disbands and water inclusions manifest
themselves with their varying thermo physical properties compared to the intact or defect free material.
The thermo-physical differences create disturbances or interferences in the surface thermal waves, are
recorded by thermal camera. These image sequences can contain up to multiple hundreds of thermal
images. The analysis software then calculates a result image that based on the applied algorithm.

THERMOGRAPHIC SIGNAL RECONSTRUCTION

 Pulsed (flash) thermography is most readily applicable to situations where the diameter of a
subsurface defect is greater than its depth beneath the surface. As the defects aspect ratio
approaches unity or less, the maximum temperature difference between a defect and the
surrounding intact areas decreases, P often to level comparable to the noise level of the IR camera,
and is not detectable in the raw camera data. For these low d aspect ratio applications, or for
quantitative measurement of physical properties, additional signal processing is required. In these
cases, the Thermographic Signal Reconstruction (TSR) method provides a significant degree of
improvement in terms the of sensitivity, reduction of blurring and depth range compared to contrast
analysis.
 In the thermographic signal reconstruction (TSR) process, several hundred frames of raw data
representing the time - history of each pixel are reduced to a set of equations.

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Figure. The difference between raw data and thermography reconstructed signals
 The conversion process typically requires a few seconds. The fact that the TSR information is
presented mathematically in a closed form allows advanced manipulation, such as differentiation,
calculation of inflection points or Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) to be performed quickly, and
without adverse noise effects.
DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYZING TECHNIQUES OF PULSED THERMOGRAPHY
In pulsed thermography (PT), the specimen surface is submitted to a heat pulse using excitation
source such as photographic flashes. Heat pulse produced by flash lamp is a periodic wave with different
frequencies and amplitudes. After the thermal front came into contact with the specimen's surface, it
travels from the surface through the specimen.
As time elapses, the surface temperature will decrease uniformly for a piece without internal
flaws. On the other side. surface discontinuities (e.g., porosity cracks, inclusions, disband etc.,) can be
acted as resistances to heat flow that produce abnormal temperature patterns at the surface, which can
be detected by IR camera. The distribution of heat in a given region over time can be expressed by the
heat equation as follows.
Effusivity (Heat penetration co-efficient (kpc)¹2). Thermal changes in the surface of the
specimen is recorded by IR camera with the help of synchronization unit to control the time between
the launch of the thermal pulse and recording of
Data is stored as a 3D matrix and temperature profile for defective and non-defective areas as
shown in the Figure.

Figure. Data Processing and Analyzing Techniques

ADVANTAGES OF PULSED THERMOGRAPHY
(i) Pulsed thermography is a faster technique and easy to deploy.
(ii) Numerous processing techniques are available.
(iii) Highly suitable to detect voids and inclusions.
(iv) Quantitative assessment of detect is possible.
LIMITATIONS OF PULSED THERMOGRAPHY
(i) Affected by non-uniform heating, emissivity variations, environmental reflections and surface
geometry.
(ii) Surface preparation is required for low emissivity materials.
(iii) Thermal losses by convection and radiation may affect the interpretation of result/output.
APPLICATIONS OF PULSED THERMOGRAPHY
(i) Locating anchoring points (through skin sensing) beneath the outer skin of aircraft to facilitate
drilling and fixing.
(ii) Defect detection under multiply composite.
(iii) Determination of impact damages on CFRP panels.
(iv) Measurement of drilling induced defects on laminates.
(v) Identification of the cracks in turbine components.
(vi) Detection of water accumulation, corrosion in aircraft passes.
VIBRO THERMOGRAPHY TESTING
Vibro thermography (VT), also known as ultrasound thermography or thermosonics, utilizes
the mechanical waves to directly simulate internal defects and without heating the surface as in optical
methods (pulsed thermography or lock in thermography).
Principle
In vibro thermography, ultrasonic waves will travel freely through a homogeneous material,
whereas internal defect will produce a complex combination of absorption, scattering, beam spreading
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and dispersion of waves, whose principal manifestation will be in the form of heat. Heat then will travel
by conduction in all directions; an IR camera is used to capture the defects in the specimen.
Defect detection is independent from its orientation inside the specimen; both internal and open
surface defects can be detected.
There are basically two configurations for vibro thermography. They are:
1.Brust vibro thermography (similar to pulsed thermography), and
2. Lock-in vibro thermography (similar to optical lock-in thermography)
Burst Vibro Thermography
In burst vibro thermography, a burst of ultrasonic waves are injected into the test specimen for
a short time and it varies from milliseconds to few seconds.
In this method of testing, the ultra sound wave is produced by a transducer made of a stack of piezo
elements and concentrated in a titanium horn that acts like a hammer. Hence, the part being inspected
should be firmly immobilized (without damaging the specimen) to avoid cantilever effects, clapping
and sliding of the transducer.

Figure. Burst Vibro Thermography

Insertion of a coupling material like a piece of fabric, water based gel or aluminium between
the transducer and the specimen will reduce losses. A bad coupling implies a poor ultrasound
transmission, but more seriously it creates unwanted heat in the vicinity of the ultrasound injection point
after the mechanical sound waves (ultrasonics) are injected to the specimen, they travel through the
material and dissipate their energy mostly at the defects so heat is locally released. The thermal waves
then travel by conduction to the surface, where they can be detected with an IR camera. Then the data
is processed and displayed in the computer, defects are identified.

Lock in Vibro thermography

Lock-in vibro thermography, also called as amplitude modulated Vibro Thermography, is
similar to optical lock in thermography with a difference in excitation source. In this technique
mechanical elastic wave at higher frequency is injected to the specimen.
This equipment consists of ultrasonic vibration source, IR camera, control unit, computer with
processing software and display unit.
Sonic waves propagate in the material and when they find internal defect they trigger the
dissipation of vibration energy into heat mainly by friction between the contacting surfaces of the defect.
Subsequently heat is conducted to the surface where it can detected by IR camera.
The frequency and shape of the response curves are preserved; the change is amplitude and
phase delay is processed and recorded for analysis.
APPLICATIONS OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING
Thermography testing is an effective tool for inspection of motors, rotating equipment, steam
traps, refractory (passive approach) welded joints and surface cracks (active approach).
Most of the applications are qualitative in nature, often comparing the current thermal image to
a previous one and understanding the cause and extend of any changes.
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Mechanical Applications
In mechanical parts having relative motions (rotary or sliding) excessive friction produces heat.
This may be due to insufficient or over lubrication. Increased surface temperatures can be the result of
internal faults like bearings wear, misalignment or inadequate lubrication. In the above circumstances,
thermographic testing is conducted to record the current thermal image to previous one and to
understanding the extent of any changes. Abnormal heating of a misaligned coupling usually precedes
a measurable vibration pattern. This change in vibration signature left unresolved leads to compound
problems of other parts like bearing and impellers.
In automotive industry, mass production requires short cycle times and automated processes.
In this environment, ultrasound exited thermography (UET) is used as a simulation source for crack
detection in automotive components like cylinder block, cylinder head and other parts made by pressure
casting process.

EDDY CURRENT TESTING (ECT)

INTRODUCTION
Eddy current testing (ECT) is one of the electromagnetic non-destructive methods.

Principle:
The ECT works on the basis of electromagnetic induction. Eddy currents are induced in a test
object using alternative electromagnetic field. Flaw in the tested object causes changes in the eddy
current and flow pattern is observed. This change in the current field is useful to identify the defect.
ECT is usually used for the detection of surface and sub surface defects in conducting materials.
This method is complementary to ultrasonic testing for detecting defects close to the surface.
It is also complementary to the liquid penetrant inspection, which cannot reveal sub-surface
defects.
The limitation of ECT method is that it cannot be used on non-conducting materials.
The principle, techniques, instrumentation, advantages, limitations and applications of eddy
current testing are presented in the following sections.

BASICS OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Terminologies Used in Eddy Current Testing presents the summary of various terminologies used in
the study of eddy current testing.
Terms used in eddy current testing
1. Electricity: Movement of electrons in a particular direction through a conductor is called as
electricity.
2. Conductivity: Conductivity is the relative ability ofmaterial's atom to conduct electricity.
3. Resistivity: Resistivity is the opposition of a material's atoms to the flow of electricity; it is the
inverse of conductivity.
4. Conductance: It is the ability of particular componentto conduct electricity.
5. Permeability: Permeability defines a material's ability to be magnetized. Permeability has a
dominant effect on eddycurrents.
6. Ampere: It is the measure of flow of current.
7. Volt: It is the measure of electromotive force and is defined as electrostatic difference between two
nodes,
8.Ohm's law: It is the basic law of electricity and it relates 8. Fundamental electrical quantity voltage
and current.
V= I* R
where
V = Voltage (volts),
I = Electrical Current (ampere),
R= Resistance (ohms).
9. Current density: It is the current per unit area of the specimen.
10. Induction: It is the process of establishing an electric current in a conductor by placing it in a zone
of changing magnetic field. This process is also called as electromagnetic induction.
11. Electromotive force: It is a force, which directs the electrons to move in a prescribed format in
certain direction within a conductive material.
12. Electrical impedance: It is the total opposition offered by conductor to alternating current.
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13. Inductance: It is the effect produced on flowing current by induction in an electrical circuit.
14. Lenz's law:
Lenz's law states that an induced current has a direction such that its magnetic field opposes the
changing magnetic field that induced the current.
This means that the current induced in a conductor will oppose the change in current that is
causing the flux to change.
Lenz's law is important in understanding the inductive reactance, which is one properties is
measured in eddy current testing.
What are Eddy Currents?
Whenever relative motion occurs between a metal conductor and magnetic lines of force (the
motion is produced by movement of the metal conductor or movement of the magnetc lines), electric

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currents are induced in the surface of the metal conductor. These induced electric currents are
commonly referred to as "eddy currents"

Properties of Eddy Currents

Some of the main properties of eddy current are as follows:
(1) Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular to the
magnetic flux.

(i) They normally travel parallel to the coil's winding and the flow is limited to the area of the
inducing magnetic field and perpendicular to the axis of the coil's flux field.
(ii) Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth. This phenomenon is known
as theskin effect.

Generation of Eddy Currents

A probe is used to generate eddy currents for an inspection. Inside the probe is the length of
electrical conductor which is formed into a coil. Alternating current is allowed to flow in the coil at a
frequency according to the type of test involved.
A dynamic expanding coil collapsing magnetic field forms in and around the coil as the
alternating current flows through the coil. When an electrically conductive material is placed on the
coil's dynamic magnetic field, electromagnetic induction will occur and eddy currents will be induced
in the material.
Eddy currents flowing in the material will generate their own "secondary" magnetic field which
opposes the coil's "primary" magnetic field.
This entire electromagnetic induction process to produce Eddy currents may occur from several
hundred to several million times per second depending upon inspection frequency.
Fig shows the generation of eddy currents for different types of coil (probe) arrangement.

Figure. Generation of Eddy Currents

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Basic Principle
Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction. When alternating
current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the
conductor.
This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to the maximum and collapses as
the current is reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the close to this changing
magnetic field, current will be induced in this second conductor. Eddy currents are induced proximity
electrical currents that flow in a circular path. They set their name from "eddies" that are formed when
a liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles when conditions are right.
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When a flaw is introduced in the conductive material to be tested, the eddy currents are
disrupted and is sensed through suitable instrumentation.

Figure. Basic eddy current testing system

Eddy current testing can detect very small cracks of any Figure. Basic eddy current testing
system physical complex geometry with minimal surface preparation.
Eddy Current Test Sequence
Stage 1
A dynamic expanding and collapsing magnetic field (known as primary field) forms in and
around the coil.

Stage 2
The primary field induces eddy current in the test piece nearer to the coil.

Stage 3
Eddy current flowing in the material will generate their own "secondary" magnetic field which
will oppose the coil's "primary magnetic field, which has an effect to the coil impedance.

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Stage 4
When a discontinuity is introduced to the conductive test piece, the eddy currents are disrupted
and are read by suitable instrumentation.

ADVANTAGES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING

Some of the main advantages of eddy current testing are below.
1. High speed testing.
2. Accurate measuring of conductivity.
3. Discontinuities (defects) at or near surface can be r detected.
4. This technique can be automated.
5. It can detect flaws through surface coatings.
6. No physical contact required.
7. It provides immediate results of inspection.
8. Low cost.
9. Portable.
10. Complex shape can be inspected.
LIMITATIONS OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING
Some of the limitations of eddy current testing are given below.
1. Limited penetration into test piece.
2. Only suitable for testing conductive materials.
3. Discontinuities are qualitative not quantitative indications.
4. Not suitable for large areas.
5. Highly skilled persons are required to perform inspection.
6. False indications can result from edge effects and parts geometry.
7. Maintaining distance between the probe and test specimen is essential.
8. No permanent record is possible.
9. Interpretation of signal is required.
EDDY CURRENT TESTING INSTRUMENTATION
The basic instruments involved in eddy current testing. Any eddy current test system consists
of the following instruments:
(i) An oscillator,
(ii) Test coil,
(iii) Signal processing and filtering,
(iv) Display.

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Figure. Eddy Current Testing Instrumentation

1. Oscillator
The oscillator provides an alternating current of the required frequency to the test.
2. Test Coil (Probe)
The test coil serves as the main link between the test instrument and the test subject.
Object and feeds the information to the signal analysis system.
It establishes a varying electromagnetic field, which induces eddy current in the test
object and increases the magnetic effect the in magnetic materials.
It also senses the current flow and magnetic effect within the test. Basic types of coils
are:
(i) Encircling coil,
(ii) Coil inside the test object, and
(iii) Surface coil.
3. Single Processing And Filtering
Lift-off and the structures attached with test object. This results in unreliable detection and
inaccurate characterization of defects. Hence, signal processing is one of the most important
components of a data acquisition system.
Filters are used in eddy current testing to eliminate unwanted frequencies from the receiver
signal.
Correct filter settings can significantly improve the visibility of the defect signal, whereas
incorrect settings can distort the signal presentation.
Two standard filters that are commonly used in impedance plane display instruments are:
(a) High pass filter (HPF), and
(b) Low pass filter (LPF).
The main function of the low pass filter (LPF) is to remove high frequency interference
noise. This noise can come from a variety of sources including the instrumentation and/ or the probe
itself.
The high pass filter (HPF) is used to eliminate low frequencies which are produced by slow
changes, such as conductivity shift with in material or out of round holes in fastener hole inspection.
4. Displays
Displays can range from single LED and meter readouts to multi-frequency presentations on
display screens.
(i) Dedicated display instrument
Dedicated instruments are designed for a specific application and are usually able to perform
that application efficiently.
Examples of dedicated instruments are crack detectors, coating thickness gauges, and
conductivity meters. These type of instruments, do not provide the quantity of information, and can
mislead the unskilled operators.
Impedance plane display instrument
In impedance plane display instrument, each type of material condition deflects the display dot
in a characteristic manner, facilitating separation of variables and interpretation of signals.
Impedance plane display instruments show variation of both inductive reactance and resistance
during testing.
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FACTORS INFLUENCING EDDY CURRENT

(Parameters of Eddy Current Testing)
A number of factors, apart from flaws, will affect the eddy current response from a probe.
Successful assessment of flaws or any of these factors relies on holding the others constant, or
eliminating their effects on the results. Factors influencing eddy current testing are as follows:
1. Material conductivity,
2. Permeability,
3. Frequency,
4. Design/geometry of the coil,
5. Proximity/lift off, and
6. Skin effect/depth of penetration.
1. Material Conductivity.
The conductivity of a material has a very direct effect on the eddy current flow. The greater
the conductivity of a material the greater the flow of eddy currents on the surface. Conductivity if often
measured by an eddy current technique and inferences can then be drawn about the different factors
affecting conductivity, such as material composition, heat treatment, work hardening etc.
2. Magnetic Permeability
This variable applies only to ferromagnetic materials. Permeability may be defined as the ease
with which can be magnetized.
As material permeability increases, noise signals resulting from permeability variations
increasingly mask eddy current signal variations. This effect becomes more pronounced with increased
depth.
Permeability thus limits effective penetration of eddy currents, Magnetic permeability of
various materials which affect the eddy current testing is given below. Para magnetic materials, such as
aluminium has a relative magnetic permeability slightly greater than one (μ ≥ 1).
Diamagnetic materials like copper and lead create a magnetic field in opposition to an
externally applied magnetic field, thus causing repulsive effect. Magnetic permeability is less than one
(μr ≤ 1).
Ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys are strongly attracted by
magnetic fields and concentrate the flux of magnetic fields. Their relative permeability is much greater
than are (ur>> 1). One hundred to several hundred are typical values of relative permeability.
3. Frequency
Eddy current response is greatly affected by the test frequency selected. ✓ Eddy current testing
is performed within a frequency range of approximate 50 Hz to 10 MHz.
 As test frequency is increased, sensitivity to surface discontinuities increases, permitting
increasingly smaller surface discontinuities to be detected.
 As frequency decreased, eddy current penetration into the material increases.
 In addition, as frequency is decreased, the speed of coil motion must be decreased in order to
obtain full coverage. The optimum frequency is best determined by experimentation.
4 Design/Geometry of Coil
 In real testing, geometrical features such as curvature, edges, grooves etc., will exist with the
part to be tested and will affect the eddy current response.
 Sensitivity to small surface discontinuities requires that the eddy current field be sufficiently
compact so that it will be adequately distorted by the discontinuity. Also penetration requires
that the eddy current field extend to the required depth of specimen.
 The thumb rule is that eddy current penetration limited to a depth equivalent to the coil
diameter.
5. Proximity/Lift off
 The distance between a surface coil and the test surface is called as proximity or lift off.
 Since flux density decreases exponentially with distance from the test coil, the amount of lift
off or separation between the coil and test specimen has a significant impact on sensitivity.
 The closer the coupling between coil and test specimen, the denser the eddy current field that
can be developed, and thus the more sensitive the test to any material variable.
6. Skin Effect/Depth of Penetration
 Eddy current concentrate near to the surface adjacent to on excitation coil and their strength

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decreases with distance from the coil. Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth.
This phenomenon is known as the skin effect.
 Skin effect arise when the eddy currents flowing in the test object at any depth produce
magnetic fields which opposes the primary field, thus reducing the net magnetic flux and
causing a decrease in current flow as the depth increases,
 Alternatively, eddy currents near the surface can be viewed as shielding the coil's magnetic
field, there by weakening the magnetic field at greater depths and reducing induced currents. It
is mathematically convenient to define the "Standard depth of penetration" where the eddy
current is 37% of its surface value,
EDDY CURRENT TESTING PROBES
Eddy Current Testing Probes on the Basis of Mode of Operation
 Eddy current probes are classified on the basis of modes of operation i.e., the way by which
eddy current instruments interfaces with the test specimen. Four general categories are:
1. Absolute probes,
2. Differential probes,
3. Reflection and probes and
4. Hybrid probes.
1. Absolute Probes
Absolute probe, also called as single coil probe, in which any change in material geometry
(defects) can be detected by excitation coil as a change in coil impedance. Absolute probes can be used
for flaw detection, conductivity measurement, and thickness measurements.
The simplest coil comprises a ferrite rod with several turns of wire wound at one end and which
is positioned close to the surface of the product tested. When a crack, for example, occurs in the product
surface the eddy currents must travel farther around the crack and this is detected by the impedance
change.

Figure. Arrangement of sensing element of the eddy current testing

 Below figure shows the eddy current sensor generating eddy current in operation.

Figure. Eddy current sensor generating eddy current in operation

Primary functional element of the eddy current probe is the sensing coil. This is a coil of wire
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near the end of the probe. Alternating current is passed through the coil which creates an alternating
magnetic field and this field is used to sense the defect in the target. The coil is encapsulated in plastic
and epoxy and installed in stainless steel housing.
2. Differential Probes
 Differential probe consists of two active coils and are arranged in pairs, generally called
a driven pair, and this arrangement can be used with the coils connected differentially.
 When a flawless test specimen is tested using this probe, no differential signal is developed
between these two active coils. However when one coil is over flawed part of a test specimen
and the other one is over flawless part of the same specimen, a differential signal is produced.

Figure. Differential Probes

3. Reflection Probes
 Reflection probes combine the features of both absolute and differential probe. Here one coil
is used to generate eddy current and other one is coupled to a reference standard, which
evaluates the change in test specimen whenever indications from test specimen differs from
the standard.
 This type of probe is with 3 windings i.e., primary and two secondary windings, hence it is
also called as probe with transformer type coil.

Figure. Reflection Probes

4. Hybrid Probes
 Hybrid probe consists of a driver coil working on reflection mode and surrounded by two
sensing coil working on differential mode. These probes are very sensitive to surface defects
only.
Eddy Current Testing Probes on the Basis of Applications
Different types of eddy current probes are used for various applications. That are:
1. Surface probes, 2. Rotating scanner probes, 3. Manual bolt hole probes, 4. Bobbin probes,
5. Spot probes, 6. Weld probes, 7. Sliding probes, 8. Doughnut probes, 9. Encircling probes, and
10. Pencil probes
1. Surface Probes
Surface probes have smaller diameter housing and coils built for higher frequencies.
Applications are usually limited to surface flaws because of the higher frequency and smaller coil size.
Right angle surface probes and flexible surface probes are modified form of surface probes,
which are designed to reach areas inaccessible to the standard straight surface probes.

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Figure. Surface Probes

2. Rotating Scanner Probes
Rotating scanner probes are used with mechanical devices for automatically rotating the probe
in the hole.
These types of probes are provided with differential coils and maintain close tolerance yielding
reliable results. Fig shows the arrangement of rotating scanner probe.

Figure. Rotating Scanner Probes

3. Manual Bolt hole Probes
Manual bolt hole probes have coils located at right angles to the probe direction, and are rotated
by hand with the fastener removed.

Standard and custom size diameters are available with absolute and differential coils.

Figure. Manual Bolt hole Probes

4. Bobbin Probes
Internal bobbin probes are meant for hallow circular sections especially used in inspection of
heat exchanger tubes.

Figure. Bobbin Probes

5. Spot Probes
Spot probes are used for both surface and subsurface. The diameter of the probes is usually
large for accommodation lower frequencies or scanning larger areas. Because of the larger diameter
coil the detectable flaw size also increases.

6. Weld Probes
Weld probes are designed to inspect ferrous welds. They provide a cost-effective alternative to
magnetic particle inspection, which requires the part to be cleaned prior t inspection.

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Figure. Weld Probes

7. Sliding Probes
Sliding probes are designed to inspect aircraft fastener holes with fastener in place, at higher
scan rates than spot probes.
Standard sizes and frequencies using the reflection coil techniques are often applied in major
air frame inspection requirements.

Figure. Sliding Probes

8. Doughnut Probes
Doughnut probes are designed to fit above the rivet or bolt hole and inspect for any defect.

Figure. Doughnut Probes

9. Encircling Probes
In this type of probes, the coil encircles the test specimen from outside and are used for testing
of rods, wires, pipes, tubes etc.
As test specimen is surrounded by coils from outside, inspection of entire circumference will
be done with equal sensitivity.

Figure. Encircling Probes

10. Pencil Probes
Pencil probes are highly portable and it is held between the fingers like pencil to conduct
inspection of test specimen to identify the defects.
They are available with a straight or bent shaft which facilitates the inspection of small diameter

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bores.

Figure. Pencil Probes

MAGNETIC SENSORS IN EDDY CURRENT TESTING
The selection of the most suitable sensor type for eddy current testing depends on some
parameters, including the magnetic field range, the operating frequency band and the dimensions.
Few of the magnetic sensors used in eddy current testing are:
1. Magneto resistive sensors,
2. Hall effect sensors, and
3. Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDS).
1. Magneto Resistive Sensors
Magneto resistive sensors are magnetic field transducer that exhibits a linear change in
electrical resistance under an external magnetic field.
Two types of magneto resistive sensors used in eddy current testing are:
1. Spin Valve (SV) sensor, and
2. Magnetic Tunnel Junction (MJT) sensor.
3. SV magnetometers are spin-valve transistors used as magnetic field sensors and have a
ferromagnet semiconductor hybrid structure.
4. The magnetic tunnel junctions are based on a spin dependent tunnelling effect.
5. Magneto resistive sensors can be used in eddy current testing to detect the secondary
field from the eddy currents. These sensors provide high sensitivity over frequencies up to
100MHzand high resolution due to miniaturization.
6. The main disadvantage of magneto resistive sensors is the high temperature co-efficient.

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2. Hall Effect Sensors
1. Hall effect sensors can detect magnetic fields from eddy currents and can be used in eddy current
testing.
2. Hall voltage is proportional to the current flowing through the conductive rectangle and
perpendicular to the conductor. The magnetic induction
3. The Hall devices are used mainly in the mT range (mT - milli Tesla; unit of flux density) and can be
easily miniaturized and integrated within microelectronic circuits.

Figure. Hall Effect Sensors

The main disadvantages of the Hall effect sensor are limited sensitivity to silicon and the
relatively large offset. The measuring accuracy is much lower than magneto resistance based sensors.

3. SQUID Devices
Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDS) are very sensitive magneto meters
designed to measure extremely weak magnetic fields. SQUIDS are based on super conducting loops
that contain Josephson junctions. Josephson junction is a type of electronic circuit capable of switching
at very high speeds when operated at temperatures approaching absolute zero. SQUIDS are sensors that
can measure extremely low magnetic induction levels.
Figure shows the principle of SQUID magnetometer as an eddy current sensor.
In this magnetometer, two Josephson junctions form a super conducting ring. The output
voltage is a function of applied flux. A tiny flux signal produces a corresponding voltage swing across
the SQUID, which can be measured by a suitable electronics circuitry.

Figure. Principle of SQUID magnetometer

In conventional eddy current systems, where the magnetic field produced by the eddy currents
is detected by means of an induction coil, the typical field noise is about – In T √Hz at eddy current
frequencies of about 100 kHz.
In some cases, this field noise is too high for certain applications such as the detection of tiny
oxide particles, especially if the test materials are highly conductive, such as copper or aluminium. In
these circumstances, SQUID magnetometers must be used instead of coil probes. The combination of
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high sensitivity, even in unshielded environments, high spatial resolution and flat frequency response
upto 1 MHz offered by SQUIDS mean that they are powerful sensors for eddy current evaluation.
SELECTION OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING PROBESIMAGNETIC SENSORS
The selection of the most suitable sensor type for eddy current testing is based on some parameters like:
(i) Magnetic field range,
(ii) Operating frequency band,
(iii) Dimensions, and
(iv) Structure.
1. Probes
Coil probes provide high sensitivity to defects when eddy current flow is drastically changed.
Short and small diameter encircling coil probes provide higher sensitivity to small cracks than
long and big diameter probes.
Differential encircling probes are suitable to detect discontinuities when a long crack that is
parallel to the major axis enters and leave the probe.
Pancake-type rotating probes are used to detect long discontinuities over their full length and
able to detect as small as 50 jum. They are more sensitive than encircling coils. But pancake-type
rotating probes are not suitable for automatic inspection due to their complexity in rotating systems.
Segment coil probes are specifically designed for controlling the weld seam of welded pipes.
The sensitivity of segment probes is higher than encircling probes as they limit the scanning surface to
the weld area, where as encircling probes can scan 360 degrees.
Horse shoe-shaped coils are useful in the detection of laminar flaws that pancake type coils
cannot detect. Spiral coils provide high sensitivity and arrays of coils permit high speed inspection and
obtain high space resolution, reducing the coil size.
Advantages and disadvantages of coil probes:

Advantages Disadvantages

 Simple in construction.  High induction voltage at the start of

 High dynamic range. the signal.
 Easy to focus on detective area  Difficult to make smaller.
 Low cost

2. Magneto Resistive Sensors

Magneto resistive sensors are more attractive for eddy current testing because of their micro
size, high frequency operation and high sensitivity in many areas ignoring the high cost.
Table. presents the advantages and disadvantages of magneto resistive sensors.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Very low field noise to the range.  Dynamic range is not large enough for
 Micro size. few applications
 High frequency operations possible.  Expensive.
 High sensitivity.  Complex in construction.

3. Array Probes
An eddy current array is in its simplest form a series of singe elements arranged in a row,
allowing users to cover a larger area in a single pass than conventional, single-coil probes,
In array probes several individual coils grouped together in one assembly.
Eddy Current Array (ECA) technology provides the ability to electronically drive multiple eddy
current coils placed side by side in the same probe assembly. Data acquisition is performed by
multiplexing the eddy current coils in a special pattern to avoid mutual inductance between the
individual coils.
Multiplexing involves activating and deactivating coils in specific sequence to leverage the
probe's width. Due to multiplexing the interference between coils is minimized and maximizes the
resolution of the probe.

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Figure. Arrangement of eddy current array probe

Advantages of Eddy Current Array (ECA) probes include:
(i) Larger area can be scanned in a single probe pass while maintaining a high resolution and
faster inspection.
(ii) Less operator dependant, array probe yield more consistent results compared to manual raster
scan.
(iii) Improved flaw detection and sizing.
(iv) Can be easily designed to be flexible or shaped to specification to inspect complex shapes.
Easy to inspect hard to reach areas.
(v) Easy to analyze because of simpler scan patterns.
Pancake Type Probes
In pancake probes, the coil is arranged in such a way whose axis is perpendicular to the surface
of the test piece.
Pancake probes can be either air core coils or ferrite core coils. Ferrites have high permeability
and the initial coil impedance is higher than the permeability air core coils.
Pancake type probes are very sensitive to lift off and inclination with respect to the flat surface.
These types of probes are used in flat surface inspection.
Pancake type probes are not suitable for detecting laminar flaws as current flow parallel to the
surface and they are not strongly distorted.
Pancake probes can be used in either manual automatic eddy current testing. Manual probes
are designed especially for testing the surface defects of parts that require supervision and are
particularly suitable for the maintenance of aeronautic parts.
When crack occurs on the surface, current flow is strongly altered and the crack can be detected.
APPLICATIONS OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING
Eddy current testing is a fast, accurate, and highly reliable method for determining
compositions, surface detects of various components and thickness measurement applications.
Typical applications of ECT include:
1. Material property determinations
(a) Heat treatment evaluations
(b) Hardness
(c) Impurities
(d) Chemical compositions
(e) Corrosion damage
2. Thickness measurements
(a) Thin sheet metal
(b) Foil
(c) Paints
(d) Anodic coatings
(e) Thin insulation
(f) Rocket motor lining
3. Flaw detection
(a) Testing of casted, welded, forged and rolled products.
(b) Detection of cracks or discontinuity in bolts, nuts, holes.

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(c) Inspection of railway components.
(d) Determining defects in aerospace parts.
(e) Inspection of tubes of heat exchanger, boiler etc.
Some Practical Applications of Eddy Current Testing
1. Detection of Surface Breaking Cracks/Discontinuities
Eddy current testing is an excellent method for detecting surface and near surface detects.
Detects such as cracks are detected when they disrupt the path of eddy currents and
Weaken their strength.
The sensitivity of eddy current inspection to detect surface discontinuities depends on factors
such as type of material, surface finish and condition of the material, the design of the probe.
For surface flaws, the frequency should be as high as possible for maximum resolution and high
sensitivity
For subsurface flaws, lower frequencies are preferred to set the required depth of penetration
and these results in less sensitivity.
Highly conductive or ferromagnetic materials require the use of an even lower frequency to
arrive at some level of penetration.
The basic steps involved in application of identifying surface breaking cracks are presented below:
Step 1: Selection of Instrument and Probe
The eddy current testing instrument includes the basic devices such as an oscillator, probe/test
coil, signal processing and display.
To test surface cracks, pancake probe or surface probe is preferred.
Step 2: Selection of Frequency to Produce the Desired Depth of Penetration
In eddy current testing, depth of penetration depends on frequency, conductivity and
permeability. The only variable is frequency and other two parameters are defined by the 3.81 specimen
material to be tested.
High frequency is used for surface cracks and low frequency is used to locate deeper cracks. ✓
General guideline for frequency selection is shown in

Figure. General guidance for selection of frequency

Step 3: Using Calibration Standard to Adjust Instrument to Recognize the Defect Easily
Reference standards are employed to establish quality control checks for uniformity of
response, which can be related to the minimum size of the crack/defect to be detected.
Calibration standard material should have almost the same composition as the test component.
Slots are machined by EDM process to different depth ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 mm. The slot width is
standardized to 0.1 mm.

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Figure. Type of standard reference

Step 4: Placing the coil Probe and setting the Instrument to Null Point

Place the coil (probe) on the surface of the component to be tested and set the instrument to
null point.

Step 5: Scanning the Surface by Moving the Probe in a Pattern

When the probe is moved over the surface of the specimen, eddy current strength is altered due
to presence of crack. Depending on the density and phase lag of interrupted eddy current circulation,
signal response is displayed through impedance plane.
In fact, since a discontinuity of any size will possess some degree of thickness, it will interrupt
eddy currents over a range of current densities and phase lag, depending on the dimensions, shape, and
orientation of the discontinuity. Fig. 3.58 shows the inspection of surface crack on the given plate.

Figure. Surface crack detection by eddy current testing

Step 6: Monitoring the Signal for a Change in Impedance
The impedance diagram shown in depicts the effect of crack depth from the surface. With
increasing depth of crack from the test surface, the Fig. . Impedance diagram impedance locations are:

Figure. Impedance diagram

Surface crack (1) - Nearer to the surface
Surface crack (3) -Crack at greater depth
From the Figure it is evident that a change in impedance includes a change in magnitude as
well as phase. The direction of movement of the signal curve reveals the possible discontinuity in the
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material.
2. Corrosion Detection by Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current testing in corrosion detection is extensively used in aerospace industry, the
material under inspection will be aluminium alloy.
Corrosion in steel tubing also detected with eddy current testing with suitable modifications.
The basic steps involved in corrosion detection by eddy current testing are given below.
Step 1: Selection of Instruments
Instruments with high gain and low drift, preferably operating in the reflection (transmit-
receive) mode is preferred for corrosion detection.
The availability of a low pass filter (LPF) is also a useful feature that reduces the background
noise that appears with some probes and often appears at high gain settings.
Step 2: Selection of Probes
The best probes are usually reflection spot/surface types with small diameters below 12 mm,
although larger sizes are sometimes used to cover larger areas.
Special low noise, high gain reflection models are specially designed for aluminum corrosion
detection.
Step 3: Reference Standards
Calibration can be done using a step wedge type of reference standard of similar conductivity
and thickness as the areas to be inspected. Areas of reduced thickness of 10%, 20% and 30% are the
most common.
Step 4: Placing the Probe and Setting the Instrument
Place the probe on the surface to be inspected for corrosion and the instrument is set for air
point.
Step 5: Scanning the Surface by Moving Probe
When the probe is moved over the surface of the place, eddy current strength is altered due to
thinning of the metal in corroded location.

Figure. Inspection of corrosion on the given plate

Step 6: Identifying Thinning of Metal due to Corrosion by Impedance Plane
Figure shows the typical impedance plane, with the inductive reactance (XL) resistance (R) as
coordinates, with the probe in air, the dot is at the top of the conducting curve, and it moves down along
the curve for increasing material conductivity with point B.
Staring at point B, a reduction in thickness will follow the thickness curve upwards. If there is
a thickness reduction the dot will move from B to C as the probe moves over the corrosion spot.

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UNIT IV ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT) AND ACOUSTIC EMISSION (AE)

Ultrasonic Testing-Principle, Transducers, transmission and pulse-echo method, straight

beam and angle beam, instrumentation, data representation, A/Scan, B-scan, C-scan. Phased Array
Ultrasound, Time of Flight Diffraction. Acoustic Emission Technique – Principle, AE parameters,
Applications.

Introduction
In ultrasonic testing, high frequency sound energy is used to identify surface and sub-surface
discontinuities.
Ultrasonic testing is completely safe method of non-destructive testing and it is extensively used in
many basic manufacturing and service industries. Especially in applications of inspecting welds and
structural metals.
Modes of wave propagation
Sound energy used in flaw detection travels in different wave models based in the direction of the
wave and the corresponding motion of molecules in the test piece.
The most commonly used modes of wave propagations are:
i) Longitudinal waves (ii) Shear waves (iii) Surface waves (iv)Lamb waves
i) Longitudinal waves
In a longitudinal wave, particle motion in the medium is parallel to the direction of the wave front.
Longitudinal waves travel the fast of the wave modes and are commonly used in ultrasonic of metals.

Figure. Longitudinal waves

ii) Shear waves
In a shear wave, particle motion is perpendicular to wave direction. Shear waves have a slower
velocity and shorter wavelength than longitudinal waves of the same frequency.
They are used for most angle beam testing in ultrasonic flaw detection.

Figure. Shear waves

iii) Surface waves
Surface waves, also known as Rayleigh waves, represent an oscillating motion that travels along the
surface of a test piece to a depth of one wave length. Velocity and wavelength are similar to shear waves.
Surface waves can be used to detect surface breaking cracks in a test piece.

Figure. Surface waves

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iv) Lamb waves
Lamb waves are surface waves propagate parallel to the test surface and a have a particle motion
that is elliptical.
The occur when the thickness of test material is only a few wavelengths at the test frequency and
where the test piece is uniform thickness.

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing:

Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make
measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional measurements,
material characterization, and more. To illustrate the general inspection principle, a typical pulse/echo
inspection configuration as illustrated below will be used.
A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as the pulser / receiver,
transducer, and display devices. A pulser / receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage
electrical pulses. Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound
energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there is a
discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw
surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed
on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected signal strength is displayed versus the time from signal
generation to when a echo was received. Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the
signal traveled. From the signal, information about the reflector location, size, orientation and other features
can sometimes be gained.

Figure. Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the advantages of
ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:
 It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
 The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other NDT methods.
 Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
 It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.
 Minimal part preparation is required.
 Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
 Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
 It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw detection.
As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which include:
 Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
 Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
 It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound energy into the test
specimen.
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 Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are
difficult to inspect.
 Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound transmission
and high signal noise.
 Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
 Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the characterization of flaws.

ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS:

Ultrasonic transducers (or probes or search units) are devices to generate and receive ultrasound.
For non-destructive test purposes, piezo-electric elements of suitable dimensions are used to generate the
complete range of ultrasonic frequencies at all levels of intensities. The transducers convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy (vibration) and vice-versa, as explained earlier.
A transducer essentially consists of a case, a piezo-electric element, backing material, electrodes,
connectors and protection for the piezo-electric element from mechanical damage. The figure shows the
essential elements of a transducer assembly.

A casing is the housing within which various elements are contained. It is metallic or molded
plastic. When the piezo-electric element is subjected to electrical impulses, it vibrates or ‘rings’ for a long
time. For non-destructive testing, a long period of vibration is undesirable as it adversely affects defect
resolution capability. To prevent excessive ringing, highly attenuating materials (called backing materials)
are bonded to the back face of the piezoelectric element. Backing materials consist of a mixture of graphite,
powdered metals (e.g. tungsten) and a metal oxide of random grain size. Wear resistance of the crystal can
be increased without sacrificing resolution and sensitivity by the use of a thin layer of aluminum oxide or
boron carbide.

Types of Transducers:
a. Normal Beam Transducers
These transducers are used for contact testing and immersion testing. Transducers generate,
transmit and receive longitudinal waves, normal to the test surface.
In the immersion type of testing, the piezoelectric element is made completely waterproof and a
grounding electrode is provided in the front face.

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b. Angle Beam Transducers

These are contact type transducers that transmit and receive longitudinal waves at an angle to the test
material surface. During the transmission of the wave, the longitudinal wave is mode converted to a shear
or surface wave on entering the material.
During reception, the shear or surface wave is mode converted back to the longitudinal wave. Figure
shows the essential elements of an angle beam transducer. The transducer is similar to a normal beam probe,
except that a wedge cut at an appropriate angle is attached to the normal beam transducer.

c. Dual Element Transducers

In this type, the transmitter and receiver elements are separated with a cork-divider.

d. Focused Transducers
Focused transducers are designed to concentrate acoustic energy into a small area. This improves
intensity, sensitivity and resolution and also reduces the effect of acoustic noise. An acoustic lens of

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predetermined focal length is attached to a normal beam probe. Sometimes it is incorporated in

the transducer facing. The focusing could be cylindrical or spherical. While examining curved
surfaces, cylindrical focusing is used. Spherical focusing concentrates the sound beam into a cone. Spherical
focusingis preferred while examining near surface defects.

e. Noncontact Methods
EMAT (ElectroMagnetic Acoustic Transducer) technology is an alternative method of generating
and receiving ultrasonic energy. These are transducers that are made up of coils that are placed in close
proximity to the test piece. The coils produce a magnetic field that interacts with the metal, producing a
deformation in the surface of the material. This deformation produces the wave of ultrasonic energy.

The advantages of EMAT:

1. There is no need for a couplant. An EMAT is a noncontact transducer.
2. They lend themselves to applications that normally have limitations, such as the examination of
high-temperature components. Because this type of transducer depends on the induction of a field,
the transducer has to work in close proximity to the work surface. The strength of the magnetic
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field is reduced as the distance between the transducer and the component surface increases.
3. The gap between the transducer and the work face need not be composed of air. Examination of
components that have been coated with some protective layer is possible. It is the front surface of
the component material that actually generates the ultrasonic energy.
4. Focusing of the beam is also possible, as is steering the beam at various angles.
5. Horizontally polarized shear wave energy can be produced. The polarity is important in that
horizontally polarized shear waves do not mode convert when striking surfaces that are parallel to
the direction of polarization. This has certain advantages, particularly when examining austenitic
welds and other materials with dendritic grain structure, e.g., certain cast stainless steels.
The disadvantages include:
1. Low efficiency compared with piezoelectric transducers.
2. Relatively large transducer size.
3. Producing ultrasonic energy in nonconductive material is only possible if a conductive layer is
applied to the surface.
f. Phased Array Transducers
These transducers incorporate elements that are arranged in certain patterns for the purpose of
dynamically focusing or steering the energy. Sequentially pulsing the elements, using a combination of
elements in the array, and timing the pulses used to excite these elements, produces a beam focused at
variable depths in the test material.
Multiple wave fronts are combined to form a beam of a particular shape. Element configurations
can be circular or rectangular, depending on the desired beam shape and direction of energy propagation.
Linear array units are more commonly used in the medical field for imaging than in the industrial sector.

Figure. Phased Array Transducers

Various factors influencing the selection of ultrasonic transducers.
i) Material factor
ii) Geometry and surface condition
iii) Frequency
iv) Sensitivity
v) Band width
vi) Waveform duration

Basic Methods of Ultrasonic Testing:

Ultrasonic testing depends on the nature of the product, its manufacturing process, the surface
condition, geometry and accessibility of the scanning area. There are three basic test methods commonly
used in industries: pulse echo, through transmission and resonance.
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1. Pulse echo test method:

Here, short pulses of ultrasonic waves are transmitted in the material under test. These pulses are
reflected from discontinuities in their path or from any boundary of the material.
The reflected waves (or echoes) are received by the same transducer and are displayed on the CRT,
which provides the following information:

 The relative size of the discontinuity in terms of the amplitude of the signal displayed on the CRT
 The depth of the discontinuity on the CRT time base scale, which is appropriately calibrated in
terms of known material thickness
 In this method, a single transducer is used both as transmitter and receiver of the waves. Sometimes
two transducers are used, one as transmitter and the other as receiver

The main advantage of this method is that only one surface of the test object is required for testing and
the method is capable of providing size as well as depth location of the discontinuity.
However, a limitation is that the material immediately below the transducer contact surface, with in
the near zone, cannot be examined unless the appropriate delay shoe is attached to the transducer in contact
testing or a suitable length of water column is provided in immersion testing.

2. Through transmission method:

Two transducers are used here, one as transmitter, the other as receiver. Short pulses of waves are
transmitted into the material. The test method requires access to two nearly parallel surfaces of the test
object. The receiver transducer is aligned properly with the transmitter transducer on the opposite side of
the test object to pick up the ultrasonic waves passing through the material.
The soundness or quality of the test material is evaluated in terms of energy lost as the ultrasound
travels through the material. The presence of a discontinuity is indicated by variations in the energy
amplitude. A significant reduction in energy amplitude indicates a discontinuity.
The main disadvantage of this method is its inability to locate the defect. Misalignment of the search
unit can also create an interpretation problem. An advantage of the through transmission system is better
near surface resolution.

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3. Resonance system:
This system makes use of the resonance phenomenon to measure material thickness and to
determine the bond quality of a test object.
Continuous longitudinal waves are transmitted into the material and the wave frequency is varied
until standing waves are set up within the specimen, causing the specimen to vibrate at greater amplitude.
At resonance, the specimen thickness is equal to one half or multiples of a wavelength.
Resonance is detected by an indicator device and is presented on the CRT screen as a ‘pip’ as
shown in Fig below.
A disadvantage of this system is that the accuracy of the test reduces as the material thickness increases.

EQUIPMENT FOR ULTRASONIC TESTING

 Ultrasonic systems are either battery operated portable units or multi-component laboratory
ultrasonic systems.
 Basically ultrasonic equipment comprise the following components:
1. Pulser /receiver,
2. Ultrasonic transducer,
3. Couplant,
4. Display (Screen)
5. Receiver / Amplifier

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Figure. Basic components of ultrasonic equipment

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1. Pulser/Receiver
 High voltage pulse required by ultrasonic transducer is generated by this circuit. Ultrasonic waves
are produced by large amplitude electric pulses. A short burst of alternating electrical energy is
called as pulse.
 Apart from generation of pulses, this circuit also acts as a receiver of signals coming from
transducer.
2. Ultrasonic Transducer
 Transducer, also called search unit, in ultrasonic inspection is pulsed and sending out an ultrasonic
wave. The subsequent echoes generate a voltage in the transducer, which is sent back to the
pulser/receiver
3. Couplant
 Couplant is used to reduce the air gap between the transducer and surface of the part to be inspected.
 A very thin layer of air will severely retard the transmission of sound waves from the transducer to
the material being inspected
 To avoid the transmission problem couplants are used in both contact as well as immersion
techniques.
4. Display/Oscilloscope
It is a device on which received data/signal is displayed either in video mode or in radio frequency
mode.
5. Receiver/Amplifier
The voltage signals received by receiver from ultrasonic transducer are amplified where amplified
radio frequency are available as an output display on oscilloscope.

Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques:

1. Straight beam ultrasonic inspection method
2. Angle beam ultrasonic inspection method
3. Time of flight diffraction (TOFD) method
4. Phased array ultrasonic inspection method
5. Immersion ultrasonic inspection method

a.Angle beam ultrasonic inspection method:

An ultrasonic beam is transmitted into the test specimen at an angle to the test surface. To achieve
this, the piezo-electric element is mounted on a plastic wedge at the desired angle. The flat edge of the
wedge is placed on the test surface as shown in Figure a.
When the angle of the incident beam is other than normal to the test surface, refracted longitudinal
and shear wave components are produced due to mode conversion. Longitudinal waves are originally
produced in the wedge but it is possible to have either longitudinal or shear waves in the test specimen.
Both may be present at the same time depending upon the angle of the wedge.

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As the angle of incidence is increased to the second critical angle, when the shear wave travels
parallel to the surface, a surface wave mode is developed in the medium. This wave can penetrate the
medium to the extent of one wavelength. This wave pattern is known as ‘surface wave’ or ‘Rayleigh wave’
and its velocity is about 90% of the velocity of shear waves. These waves are used for detecting surface
discontinuities in the contact mode of testing. The waves follow the contour of the test specimen around
fillet radii and other irregular surface features. Figure b illustrates this.

In very thin sheets, the angular incidence of the sound beam and mode conversion at the interface
produces plate or lamb waves. The velocity of these waves depends on the type of material, the frequency,
and the velocity in the wedge material, the angle of the wedge and the plate thickness. Various applications
of these waves are given in Table below

b.Phased array ultrasonic inspection method

Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT) is an advanced nondestructive examination technique

that utilizes a set of ultrasonic testing (UT) probes made up of numerous small elements, each of which is
pulsed individually with computer-calculated timing (“phasing”).
When these elements are excited using different time delays, the beams can be steered at different
angles, focused at different depths, or multiplexed over the length of a long array, creating the electronic
movement of the beam. Phased array probes can be used manually in a free running mode scrubbing the
surface of a component, attached to an encoder to record position, or mounted on a semi-automated or
motorized scanner for optimum productivity.
Using phased array probes in direct contact with the component, whether mounted on a hard
wedge, a water delay line, or even inside a wheel probe, gives inspectors the ability to quickly scan large
areas for corrosion, cracking, and other defects with high resolution.
PAUT can be used to inspect almost any material where traditional UT methods have been utilized
and is often used for weld inspections and crack detection.

c. Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique.

The TOFD technique, first used by M. G.Silk in 1977, uses tip diffraction to identify the top,
bottom, and ends of a discontinuity in one pass. Silk chose to use an angled compression wave for the
TOFD technique rather than a shear wave, for two reasons.
First, the tip diffraction signal is stronger than a shear wave diffraction signal, and second, a lateral
wave is produced that can be used to measure the horizontal distance between the transmitter and receiver.
The tip diffraction signal is generated at the tip of the discontinuity—effectively a “point” source.
According to Huygens, a point source produces a spherical beam.
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Figure a. shows both the lateral wave and a diffraction beam from the tip of a reflector.
Figure b. shows a typical TOFD transducer set-up on a component with a vertical discontinuity.
There are four sound paths from the transmitter to the receiver. Path “A” is the lateral wave path traveling
just below the surface. Path “B” is the tip diffraction path from the top of the discontinuity. Path “C” is the
tip diffraction path from the bottom of the discontinuity, and path “D” is the back wall echo path.
Figure c. shows a typical unrectified trace for the four signals. Note that the phase relationships A
and C are in opposite phase to B and D. The important difference to note is between B and C—the top and
bottom diffraction signals are in opposite phase. This phase difference allows the practitioner to identify
those points.
Assuming that the diffracting tip is centered between the two transducers, the depth of the tip below
the surface can be calculated from

where
BPL = beam path length for the signal in question
HD = beam path length for the lateral wave

The distance measurements taken from the ultrasonic trace must be made from the same part of each
waveform. In the example trace shown in Figure c., the largest half cycle would be selected. For signals A
and C, this is negative, and for signal B, positive.

Figure a. TOFD

Figure b. TOFD

Figure c. TOFD RF signals

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Advances in computer technology have made it possible to carry out all the calculations and for
plotting to be handled automatically and stored for subsequent evaluation. The method that has been chosen
to display this TOFD data presents the information in a special “B-scan” form that is easy to assimilate.

d.Immersion ultrasonic inspection method:

In the immersion method, the test specimen and the leak-proof transducer are immersed in a liquid,
usually water. The liquid acts as a couplant.
This method provides testing flexibility. The transducer can be moved under water at any desired
angle. Further, the transducer does not contact the specimen and is therefore not subjected to wear. Higher
frequencies can be employed, enhancing defect detection efficiency.
Immersion testing is employed for high speed and automatic scanning. Figures a & b illustrate the
immersion pulse-echo normal probe and immersion pulse echo angle probe methods.

It is important to appreciate that shear waves cannot be used in a fluid; therefore, only longitudinal
waves are used and introduced into the medium at an angle, with the help of manipulators.
Longitudinal waves entering the medium get mode-converted as shear waves at an angle. After
reflection from any defect or boundary, the transverse wave gets mode-converted and travels back to the
transducer as a longitudinal wave.
In the through transmission immersion technique, the specimen is immersed in a liquid couplant,
usually water. A separate transmitter and receiver are axially adjusted through manipulators.
Ultrasonic energy is transmitted into the specimen, which is mounted on a special fixture, for easy
adjustment. Any defect in the path of the ultrasonic beam causes a shadow and hence, a reduction in the

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intensity of the beam. Figure c illustrates the test system.

Further, to reduce the difficulty in interpretation, the water path, that is the distance between the
transducer and the front surface of the specimen, should be selected such that the ultrasonic transit time in
the liquid column is greater than the ultrasonic transit time between the front and back surfaces of the test
material.

DATA PRESENTATION
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different formats. The three most
common formats are known in the NDT world as A-scan, B-scan and C-scan presentations. Each
presentation mode provides a different way of looking at and evaluating the region of material being
inspected. Modern computerized ultrasonic scanning systems can display data in all three presentation
forms simultaneously.
A-Scan Presentation

Figure. Data Representation about the defects

The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic energy as a function of time.
The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the vertical axis and the elapsed time (which may
be related to the sound energy travel time within the material) is displayed along the horizontal axis.
Most instruments with an A-scan display allow the signal to be displayed in its natural
radio frequency form (RF), as a fully rectified RF signal, or as either the positive or negative half of the RF
signal. In the A-scan presentation, relative discontinuity size can be estimated by comparing the
signal amplitude obtained from an unknown reflector to that from a known reflector. Reflector depth can
be determined by the position of the signal on the horizontal sweep.

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Figure. A-Scan Presentation

In the illustration of the A-scan presentation to the right, the initial pulse generated by the transducer
is represented by the signal IP, which is near time zero.
As the transducer is scanned along the surface of the part, four other signals are likely to appear at
different times on the screen.
When the transducer is in its far left position, only the IP signal and signal A, the sound energy
reflecting from surface A, will be seen on the trace.
As the transducer is scanned to the right, a signal from the backwall BW will appear later in time,
showing that the sound has traveled farther to reach this surface.
When the transducer is over flaw B, signal B will appear at a point on the time scale that is
approximately halfway between the IP signal and the BW signal.
Since the IP signal corresponds to the front surface of the material, this indicates that flaw B is
about halfway between the front and back surfaces of the sample.
When the transducer is moved over flaw C, signal C will appear earlier in time since the sound
travel path is shorter and signal B will disappear since sound will no longer be reflecting from it.

B-Scan Presentation
The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the test specimen. In the B-scan, the
time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound energy is displayed along the vertical axis and the linear position
of the transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis.
From the B-scan, the depth of the reflector and its approximate linear dimensions in the scan
direction can be determined.

Figure. B-Scan Presentation

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The B-scan is typically produced by establishing a trigger gate on the A-scan. Whenever the signal
intensity is great enough to trigger the gate, a point is produced on the B-scan. The gate is triggered by the
sound reflecting from the backwall of the specimen and by smaller reflectors within the material. In the
B-scan image above, line A is produced as the transducer is scanned over the reduced thickness portion of
the specimen. When the transducer moves to the right of this section, the backwall line BW is produced.
When the transducer is over flaws B and C, lines that are similar to the length of the flaws and at similar
depths within the material are drawn on the B-scan. It should be noted that a limitation to this display
technique is that reflectors may be masked by larger reflectors near the surface.

C-Scan Presentation
The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of the location and size of test specimen
features. The plane of the image is parallel to the scan pattern of the transducer. C-scan presentations are
produced with an automated data acquisition system, such as a computer controlled immersion scanning
system.

Figure. C-Scan Presentation

Typically, a data collection gate is established on the A-scan and the amplitude or the time-of-flight
of the signal is recorded at regular intervals as the transducer is scanned over the test piece.
The relative signal amplitude or the time-of-flight is displayed as a shade of gray or a color for each
of the positions where data was recorded. The C-scan presentation provides an image of the features that
reflect and scatter the sound within and on the surfaces of the test piece.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS of UT:

It is a matter of selecting the test method that offers the most effective approach to solving the
examination problem. When determining whether ultrasonic is the most appropriate test method,
consideration should be given to the following:
1. Part and geometry to be examined
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2. Material type
3. Material thickness
4. Material process—cast, wrought, etc.
5. Type of discontinuities to be detected
6. Minimum discontinuity size to be detected
7. Location of the discontinuities—surface-breaking or internal
8. Orientation of discontinuities (very important when selecting a test technique)
9. Accessibility to areas of interest
10. Surface conditions
11. Type of examination record required
Ultrasonic inspection is ideal for locating small, tight discontinuities assuming the following:
1. The sound energy can be projected at some angle that will respond favorably to the orientation of
the reflector.
2. The relationship between the size of the discontinuity and the material’s grain structure allows for
an acceptable signal to noise ratio.
3. The surface condition is suitable for scanning. A poor scanning surface will not only require a
more viscous couplant but possibly the use of a lower test frequency. This may not provide the necessary
resolution for the test.

The advantages of ultrasonic examination are as follows:

1. Inspection can be accomplished from one surface
2. Small discontinuities can be detected
3. Considerable control over test variables
4. Varieties of techniques are available using diverse wave modes
5. High-temperature examination is possible with the correct equipment
6. Examination of thick or long parts
7. Inspection of buried parts, e.g., shafts in captivated bearing houses
8. Accurate sizing techniques for surface-breaking and internal discontinuities is possible
9. Discontinuity depth information
10. Surface and subsurface discontinuities can be detected
11. High speed scanning is possible with electronic signal gating and alarm system
12. “Go/No-Go” testing of production components
13. Test repeatability
14. Equipment is light and portable
15. Area evacuation of personnel is not necessary
16. Special licenses are not required as with radiation sources
17. Minimum number of consumables
Some of the limitations of ultrasonic examination are as follows:
1. Discontinuities that are oriented parallel with the beam energy will usually not be detected.
Orientation of the discontinuity (reflector) is the most important factor in detecting discontinuities.
2. Discontinuities that are similar to or smaller than the material’s grain structure may not be detected.
3. Thin sections may present resolution problems or require the implementation of special techniques.
4. Uneven scanning surfaces can reduce the effectiveness of the test.
5. Signals can be misinterpreted. This includes spurious signals from mode conversion or beam
redirection, etc.
6. In general, this method requires a high level of skill and training.
7. Permanent record of the examination results is not typical. The records are limited to physical
documentation rather than an actual reproduction of the test, e.g., as is possible with radiography.

Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing:

Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to the generation of transient elastic waves produced by a sudden
redistribution of stress in a material.
When a structure is subjected to an external stimulus (change in pressure, load, or temperature),
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localized sources trigger the release of energy, in the form of stress waves, which propagate to the surface
and are recorded by sensors.
With the right equipment and setup, motions on the order of picometers (10 -12 m) can be
identified. Sources of AE vary from natural events like earthquakes and rockbursts to the initiation and
growth of cracks, slip and dislocation movements, melting, twinning, and phase transformations in metals.
In composites, matrix cracking and fiber breakage and debonding contribute to acoustic emissions.
AE’s have also been measured and recorded in polymers, wood, and concrete, among other materials.

Figure. Acoustic Emission Testing

The AE Process Chain:

A process chain always exists at AE testing. The process chain basically consists of the following
links:
1. Test object and application of load: Produce mechanical tensions
2. Source mechanisms: Release elastic energy
3. Wave propagation: From the source to the sensor
4. Sensors: Converting a mechanical wave into an electrical AE signal
5. Acquisition of measurement data: Converting the electrical AE signal into an electronic data set
6. Display of measurement data: Plotting the recorded data into diagrams
7. Evaluation of the display: From diagrams to a safety-relevant interpretation

As can be seen in figure below, mechanical stress has to be produced within the test object, which
is usually done by applying external forces. The behavior of the material and the starting point of the release
of elastic energy, e.g. by crack formation, are influenced by the material properties and the environment
conditions.

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Figure AE Process chain

The elastic wave propagating through the material is detected and converted into the electrical AE
signal by the AE sensors. The AE System processes the AE signal, converts the received wave packets into
feature data sets, determines the source locations, calculates statistics, and displays them graphically and
numerically. So-called parametric channels measure the environmental conditions as well as the external
load as reference parameters for the detected AE.

AE Signal:
 Basically, there are two types of AE signals, transient and continuous signals.
 With transient AE signals, also called bursts, start and end points deviate clearly from background
noise.
 With continuous AE signals, we can see amplitude and frequency variations but the signal never
ends. In figure below, an example of both types of AE signals are shown.

Figure. Transient (left) and continuous (right) AE signal

 The useful signals for AE testing at large pressure vessels are burst type signals, e.g. originating
from fracture or crack growth. Continuous signals are mostly unwanted (noise) signals such as friction or
flow noise.
 But even burst signals can be interfering signals, e.g. short friction noise or electrical spikes. At the
best the background noise is just the electronic noise of the preamplifier or the sensor.
AE Parameters
In very few cases, AE testing is based on only a few bursts. In general, some hundreds or thousands

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of bursts are recorded for statistic evaluation. Statistical evaluation of waveforms themselves is difficult,
but certain features of waveforms can be evaluated statistically. One has to determine the most important
parameters of each waveform in order to compare the results of the structure under test with those of defect-
free test object and with those of a defective test object. The most commonly used features are shown in
figure below
 Arrival time (absolute time of first threshold crossing)
 Peak amplitude
 Rise-time (time interval between first threshold crossing and peak amplitude)
 Signal duration (time interval between first and last threshold crossing)
 Number of threshold crossings (counts) of the threshold of one polarity
 Energy (integral of squared (or absolute) amplitude over time of signal duration)
 RMS (root mean square) of the continuous background noise (before the burst)

Figure. Features of transient signals

AE bursts are not only produced by the defects we are looking for but can also originate from drop-
ins such as peak values of the background noise, which sometimes exceed a low threshold. Therefore, it
is very important to determine those characteristics that distinguish the wanted from the unwanted bursts.
The peak amplitude is one of the most important burst features. Crack signals show medium to high
amplitudes and have durations of some 10 µ s, depending on the test object’s properties.
In most cases, bursts with less than 3 threshold crossings and durations less than 3 µ s can be regarded
as unwanted signals. Most of the bursts with low amplitudes and long duration are friction noise.
Very short signals may indicate electrical noise peaks, especially, if they arrive at all channels at the
same time. With logical filters one can separate bursts on the basis of those burst features in a flexible
way. This must be done carefully: Always make sure not to miss inadvertently important bursts.

What are the Advantages and Limitations?

Acoustic emission has many advantages over other methods. These include:
 Ability to detect a range of damage mechanisms including, but not limited to, fibre breakages,
friction, impacts, cracking, delamination and corrosion in their early stages, before they become
significant issues
 Can be conducted during operation, during qualification (proof) testing or development testing
 Can locate damage sources and can be differentiate these based on acoustic signatures
 Global monitoring of a structure
 Assesses the structure or machine under real operational conditions
 A non-invasive method
 Operational in hazardous environments, including high temperatures, high pressures and corrosive
and nuclear environments
 Can be conducted remotely
 Can detect damages in defects that are difficult to access with conventional non-destructive testing
techniques

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However, the method does also have some limitations:

 Limited to assessing structural integrity or machine health by locating issues, further inspection is
usually required to fully diagnose issues
 Cannot detect defects that may be present, but that do not move or grow
 Can be slower than other non-destructive testing techniques
Applications
Acoustic emission can be applied to a range of applications and materials. These include:
1. Structures
 Concrete structures such as bridges and buildings
 Metallic structures such as pressure vessels, pipelines, storage tanks, aircraft structures and steel
cables
 Composite structures such as aircraft structures, motorsport structures and composite beams
2. Machines
 Rotating machinery such as detecting early wear in bearings and gearboxes
 Electrical machinery such as detecting partial discharge in transformers and bushings
3. Processes
 Additive manufacturing for assessing build quality during build
 Leak detection in pipelines and pressure systems
 Particle impacts
 Frictional processes

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UNIT V RADIOGRAPHY (RT)
Principle, interaction of X-Ray with matter, imaging, film and film less techniques,
types and use of filters and screens, geometric factors, Inverse square, law, characteristics of
films -graininess, density, speed, contrast, characteristic curves, Penetrameters, Exposure
charts, Radiographic equivalence. Fluoroscopy- Xero-Radiography, Computed
Radiography, Computed Tomography.

INTRODUCTION
Radiography testing is one of the most important, versatile and widely accepted of all thenon-
destructive examination methods.
In radiography testing, X-ray or gamma ray is used to determine the internal soundness of the metal,
hence it is also called as X-ray or gamma ray testing.
Principle:
The principle involved in radiography is difference in density; the metal surrounding the defect is
denser and hence shows up as lighter than the flaws on an X-ray film.
The principle of radiography is similar to the way bones and teeth show up lighter than the rest of
the body in X-ray films. Radiography inspection employs the same principles and techniques as those of
medical X-rays.
Definition of X-Rays
X- rays are electromagnetic waves of high energy and very short wavelength, which are able to
pass through many materials opaque to light.

In radiographic testing, the radiation source can either be X- ray tube or radiation from radioactive
elements (Iridium, Ir-192 and Cobalt, Co-60) emitting ɤ-rays. Whether the radiation is emitted from an X-
ray tube or gamma ray source, there are essential components that apply to the process of radiographic
testing.
The components of radiographic testing are:
1. The source of radiation (X-ray or gamma ray).
2. The test specimen to be examined.
3. Development of the technique.
4. Taking radiograph and processing the film.
5. Interpretation of the radiographic image.
Characteristics of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
Some of the main characteristic of X-rays and gamma rays are given below.
(i) They are invisible.
(ii) They cannot be felt by human senses.
(ii) They can produce fluorescence in certain materials.
(iv) They travel at the speed of the light i.e. 3x1010 cm/sec.
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(v) They can penetrate matter, the depth of penetration being dependent on the wave length.
(vi) They can be absorbed by matter.
(vii) They obey the inverse square law. Inverse square law states that intensity of X-rays at a point
(I) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the source and the point (r2)
(viii) They affect photographic emulsion.
(ix) They are harmful to living cells.
(x) While passing through a material they are either absorbed or scattered.
PRINCIPLE OF RADIOGRAPHY TESTING
Radiography testing is a method of inspecting materials for hidden flaws/detects by using the ability
of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation to penetrate various materials. The intensity of the radiation
that penetrates and passes through the material is captured by radiation sensitive film.

Figure. Principle of radiography testing

In radiography testing, the parts to be inspected are placed between the radiation source (X-ray or
gamma ray tube) and a radiation sensitive film, as shown in Figure. The part of inspection will stop some
of the radiation where thicker and more dense areas. The radiation that passes through the defective area
causes more exposure on the radiation sensitive film resulted in different exposure and shown in the form
of shadow graph on the developed film
The film darkness will vary with the amount of radiation reaching the film through the test object
where darker areas indicate more exposure (higher radiation intensity) and lighter areas indicate less
exposure (lower radiation intensity). This variation in the image darkness would be used to reveal the
presence of any flaws or discontinuity inside the materials.
General Procedure for Radiography Testing
Radiography testing is one of the most widely used NDT methods for the detection of internal
defects such as porosity and voids The various stages and procedure followed in basic radiography testing
of components are as follows:
(i) The test specimen is cleaned and inspected for surface imperfections and placed between X-ray
source and properly selected film,
(ii) Image quality indicators and lead identification letters are placed on the source side of the
specimen.
(iii) The energy of radiations are determined with the help of exposure charts.
(iv) Exposure is made on the test specimen.
(v) The film cassette is removed and taken to dark room for processing
(vi) The development of the film make the hidden image visible.
(vii) The film is dried after washing.
(viii) Finally the film is interpreted for defects and a report is compiled.
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(ix) The report is signed by responsible persons and properly filed for future reference.

Figure. Various stages radiography testing

EQUIPMENT OF RADIOGRAPHY TESTING

The major components of an X-ray generator are;
1. X-ray tube
2. Focusing Cup
3. Cooling Systems
4. Filters
5. Control Console
1. X-ray tube
X-rays are produced in a vacuum tube when high speed electrons, which are negatively charged,
are attracted by a positive potential in the anode and collide with a target material, as shown in Figure.

Figure. Schematic arrangement of X-ray tube

The electrons are produced when a filament, usually tungsten, is heated to incandescence. The
resulting electrons that break free of the cathode are strongly attracted to the anode target materials. Then
the electrons are slowed or stopped by the interaction with the atomic particles of the target, .I-radiation is
produced.
Energies of the electrons and X-rays are usually given in kilo electron volts (keV) or million
electron volts (MeV). The unit kilo-electron volt corresponds to the amount of kinetic energy that an
electron would gain when moving between two points that differ in voltage by 1 kV.
The high voltage between the cathode and the anode affects the speed at which the electrons travel
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and strike the anode. The higher kilo voltage, the more speed and therefore, energy the electrons have when
they strike the anode. Electrons striking with more energy result in X-rays with more penetrating power.
2. Focusing Cup
A focusing cup is used to concentrate the stream of electrons to a small area of the target called the
focal spot.
The focal spot size is an important factor in the system's ability to produce a sharp image.
3. Cooling Systems
Much of the energy applied to the tube is transformed into heat at the focal spot of the anode.
Though the anode target is commonly made from tungsten, which has high melting point, cooling of the
anode by an active or passive means is necessary
Water or oil re-circulating systems are often used to cool tubes.
Some low power tubes are cooled simply with the use of thermally conductive materials and heat
radiating fins.
4. Filters
X-ray generators usually have a filter along the beam path, placed nearer to the X-ray port. Filters
consists of a thin sheet of material usually made up of lead, copper or brass placed in the useful beam to
modify the spatial distribution of the beam.
Filtration is required to absorb the lower energy X-ray photons emitted by the tube before they
reach the material to be inspected in order to produce a cleaner image.
Advantages of using filters are:
(i) Increased contrast around the specimen edge.
(ii) Reduced undercut scatter at the edge of thinner sections,
(iii) Record wide range of specimen thickness.
(iv) Radiograph of parts with complicated geometry.
5. Control Console
One of the important components of an X-ray generating system is control console. The three main
adjustable controls in control console are:
1. Control to regulate the tube voltage (in kilovolts);
2. The tube amperage (in milliamps); and
3. The exposure time (in minutes or seconds).
Few systems are provided with keyed lock to prevent unauthorized usage of the system and switch
to change the focal spot size of the tube.

Advantages of X-Ray Radiography Testing

Some of the advantages of X-ray radiography testing are as follows:
(i) Wide variety of materials can be inspected.
(11) Ability to inspect assembled components.
(ii) Surface preparation required is minimum.
(iv) Sensitivity to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids and cracks.
(V) Both surface and sub-surface defects can be detected.
(vi) Permanent record of inspection is possible.
Limitations of X-Ray Radiography Testing
Some of the limitations of X-ray radiography testing are as follows:
(i) Access to both sides of the specimen is essential.
(ü) Orientation of the sample is critical to assess the defects.
(ii) Determination of flaw depth is impossible without additional angled exposures.
(iv) Special operator training is required.
(v) Additional safety measures are essential to prevent radiation hazard for personnel.
Applications of X-Ray Radiography Testing
Some of the applications of X-ray radiography testing are as follows:
(i) Detect internal discontinuities such as shrinkage, cracking and porosity in castings.
(i) Verify the integrity of internal components.
(iii) Determine the quality of welded sections and pipes.
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(iv) Identify the extent of corrosion.
(v) Inspection of variety of non-metallic parts.
(vi) Locating discontinuities in fabricated structural assemblies.
GAMMA RAY RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
Gamma rays are electro-magnetic radiation emitted from an unstable nucleus. Isotopes with
unstable nucleus will emit radiation with sufficient intensity required for inspection of materials.
Gamma rays are similar to X-rays, except that they are emitted by the nucleus of the atom. Gamma
rays consist of discrete wavelengths much shorter than X-rays. Energy levels of gamma ray remain constant
for a particular isotope but the intensity diminishes with time indicated by the half-life.

Gamma Ray Source

Wide variety of radio isotopes is available to produce gamma rays, but only few selected isotopes
are used for the purpose of radiography.
Due to shorter half-life, many of the isotopes are found unsuitable for radiography testing.
Gamma Ray Testing Arrangement
Gamma ray equipment consists of an isotopic source (cobalt 60 or iridium 192) and a container for
positioning the source.

Figure. Gamma ray testing

Basically the equipment consists of: (i) gamma ray source container, (ii) a camera, and (iii) crank-
out mechanism.
A cylindrical isotopic sources are placed inside the container, as shown in Figure. The container is
made of steel, aluminium or an alloy of magnesium and aluminium for safe handling of the source and for
easy portability. Most of the applications, the source cylinder size is approximately 3 mm x 3 mm.
The source is placed at the one end of the container and the other end connected with manipulator rod or
crank mechanism.
The source camera is designed in such a way that there is no leakage of radiation. The camera is
usually made of lead or depleted uranium. The camera is also provided with facilities like easy loading,
exchange of the source and easy opening and closure of shutters. Cameras are often fixed to a trailer and
transported to inspection sites. When the source is not being used to make an exposure, it is locked inside
the exposure device.
Crank-out Mechanism for Gamma Ray Radiographic Exposure
To make a radiographic exposure, a crank-out mechanism and guide tube are attached to opposite
ends of the exposure device.
To make the exposure, the radiographer quickly cranks the source out of the exposure device and
position into the collimator at the end of the guide tube.
After the exposure is completed, the source is cranked back into the exposure device.
The figure shows the arrangement of crank-out mechanism guide tube to inspect components by
radiography testing.

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Figure (a). Source in stored position (crank-in) Collimator

Figure (b). Source in exposure position (crank-out)

Series of safety procedures must be accomplished while making exposure with a gamma source to
ensure safety of the radiographer and equipment.
Half-Life of Radioactive Isotopes in Gamma Ray Testing (Isotope Decay Rate)
Definition: Half-life of the radio isotope is defined as the time required for the activity of any
particular radio nuclide to decrease to one half of its initial value.
Nuclide is a distinct kind of atom or nucleus characterized by specific number of protons and
neutrons. Each radio nuclide decays at its own unique rate which cannot be altered by any chemical or
physical process. A useful measure of this rate is the half-life of the radio nuclide.
Half-life of the radio nuclides range from micro seconds to billions of years. Half-life of various
industrial isotopes are given in Table below.
Table . Half-life of various industrial isotopes
Isotope Half-life
Cobalt 60 5.3 years
Iridium 192 70 days
Caesium 137 33 years
Thulium 170 127 days

Advantages of Gamma Ray Radiography Testing

Some of the advantages of gamma ray radiography testing are as follows:
(i) The sources are very portable.
(ii) Highly suitable for field radiography
(iii)Low initial cost of the equipment.
(iv) Thicker plates can be inspected (i.e., greater penetrating power).
(v) Loss scatter.
(vi) No special cooling arrangement and water is required.
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Limitations of Gamma Ray Radiography Testing
Some of the limitations of gamma ray radiography testing are as follows:
(i) More exposure time is required. (ii) Sources must be replaced periodically. (iii) Poor quality radiographs.
X-RAY FILM
What is it?
The X-ray film is the medium that record the image of part exposed with X-rays. The X-ray film is
similar to photographic film in its basic construction, Radiation sensitive emulsion is usually coated on both
sides of the base of X-ray film and it is used along with intensifying screens.
Construction and Structure of Industrial X-Ray Film
X-ray film for industrial radiography consists of an emulsion and blue tinted base of polyester. The
emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in layers and protected by thin outer protective layers, as shown
in Figure. The emulsion consists of silver halides (silver bromide or silver chloride) as the photo sensitive
material, additives and gelatine.

Figure. Structure of X-ray film

The structure of a typical X-ray film consists of several layers. Different layers are:
(i) Base: Thicker layer of X-ray film and is made up of cellulose acetate or polyester. This base has high
transparency, toughness and flexibility.
(ii) Bonding layer: The bonding layer contains a mixture of gelatin and cellulose, ester solvents.
(iii) Emulsion layer: The sensitive emulsion layer consist of silver bromide, suspended in gelatin.
(iv) Protective layer: An anti-abrasion layer consists of only gelatin is coated on the sensitive emulsion
layer, for protection from physical damage.
When X-rays, gamma rays or light strike the film, some of the halogen atoms are liberated from
the silver halide crystal and thus leaving the silver atoms alone. This change creates a latent (hidden) image
on the film. When the exposed film is treated with a chemical solution (the developer), takes place causing
formation of black metallic silver and this film is a reaction constitutes the image of the detects.
Classification of X-ray film

Figure. Classification of X-ray film

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Screens
Screens, also known as intensifying screens, are ray cassettes and interact with X-rays to convert
most of their radiant energy.
Screens are used in combination with films to utilize the radiation and enhance the photographic
effect. Two types of screens used in radiography testing are:
1. Metal foil screens, and
2. Fluorescent screens.
1. Metal Foil Screens
Lead foil screens are generally used as metal foil screens. Lead foil is mounted on cardboard or
plastic and is used in pairs by sandwiching the film between them, one of the screens facing the source side
is called the front screen and the other is back screen which is placed behind the film.
The main advantages of using lead screen are:
 Enhancement of photographic action in the film by emission of photo electrons.
 More soft scattered radiation is absorbed than primary radiation.
 The harmful effect of scattered radiation is reduced, thus producing greater contrast and clear
image.
 Reduced exposure time.
In addition to lead intensifying screens, other metal screens such as copper, tantalum, tungsten screens
also used in high power X-ray and Co60 gamma ray radiography,
2. Fluorescent Intensifying Screen (or Salt Screens)
In fluorescent screens, fluorescent crystals like calcium tungstate or barium lead surface layer is
spread with a suitable binder on a card board or a plastic support.
The fluorescent material emits visible or ultraviolet light when exposed to X-rays or gamma rays.
The intensity of emitted light depends on the intensity of incident radiation.

Figure. Structure of fluorescent screen

The structure of fluorescent screen consists of several layers Figure and they are:
(i) Plastic base: Provides a strong support to the fluorescent layer.
(ii) Reflecting layer: It is the bonding layer between the base and phosphor layer, it is reflective also.
(iii) Phosphor layer: Active layer of the screen that consists of fluorescent crystals.
(iv) Protective layer: This is a transparent external protective layer which helps in resisting surface
abrasion.
The main advantage of using fluorescent salt screens is to drastically reduce the exposure time.
Fluorescent screens are not suitable for gamma ray radiography, as manifestation is poor with long
exposures.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF X-RAY FILMS
The properties of X-ray film can be expressed in several ways. The most widely used is
characteristic curve.A film characteristic curve shows how a film responds to different amount of radiation
exposure. The characteristic curve furnishes information on the speed, contrast (average gradient) and fog
of X-ray film.
It is difficult to measure the absolute strength of the X-rays and gamma rays, so log relative
exposure is considered and is plotted in the horizontal axis. Density is plotted along the vertical axis. The
shape of the characteristic curve and its position on the graph differs from one type of film or radiation
source.

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Figure. Characteristic curve of X-ray film

Generally a characteristic curve is divided into five sections as shown in figure. The five sections
are:
(i) Unexposed portion,
(ii) Toe region,
(iii) Straight line portion,
(iv) Shoulder region, and
(v) Solarization portion.
The five sections of the characteristic curve are briefed below.
(i) Unexposed portion: A density which is just noticeable appears in the unexposed areas of processed
film and this density is called fog.
(ii) Toe region: Underexposed films generally have a density in the range indicated by this section AB, as
shown in Figure.
(iii) Straight line portion: Properly exposed films generally have a density in this range indicated mainly
by the straight line section and toe (section BC in Figure). Contrast is most closely related to the straight
line section.
(iv) Shoulder region: Overexposed film generally has a density in the range indicated mainly by the
shoulder and straight line portion (section CD, in Figure).
(v) Solarization portion: The density may even fall again upon increasing exposure above that indicated
by the shoulder. This portion is not included in exposures used for the formation of photographic images.

Film Density and Film Speed

1. Film Density
The ratio of light incident on one side of a radiograph to the light transmitted through the
radiograph in logarithm scale is known as density of the X-ray film.
Mathematically, the film density is given as

where D = Film density, Io= Intensity of the incident light, and I Intensity of the transmitted light.
From the characteristics curve, it is apparent that as exposure increases, overall film density
increases and more importantly, film contrast increases.
In industrial radiography, films should be exposed for a density of at least 1.5. The upper and lower
density limits are usually 1.8 to 4.0
2. Film Speed
Film speed refers to the relative sensitivity of X-ray films to a given amount of radiation. The speed
of the radiographic film is usually expressed by the reciprocal of the exposure as determined by the
characteristic curve.
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High speed film needs only low exposure, whereas slow speed film requires more exposure to attain
the same film density.

Figure. Characteristic curve for different film speed

Film Graininess
Film graininess is the visible evidence of the cluster of the minute silver particles (grains) that form
the image on the radiographic film.
Film graininess occurs during the development process when the developer used tends to cluster
many silver grains together into a mass. The degree of graininess is a function of both film type and
processing.
Graininess affects films contrast and image definition and all film is subjected to it.
 Small grains provide better definition (i.e., they provide better outline of small areas of film).
 Larger grains cause blurring of the outline of discontinuities.
The degree of graininess of an exposed film is dependent on the following factors:
(i) Fine or coarse grain structure of the film emulsion.
(ii) The quality of the radiation to which the film is exposed.
(iii) Development time (increased development time resulted in increase in graininess).
(iv) Use of fluorescent screens (increase in radiation causes increase in graininess) energy
DEVELOPMENT OF X-RAY FILMS
When film is exposed to light or radioactive rays, an invisible image (called latent image) is formed
in the emulsion layer of the film.
The process of converting the latent image to a visible image is called development and a developer
solution is used in the process.
Various stages of development of a radiographic film include:
(i) Developing with the use of developer,
(ii) Stop bath,
(iii) Fixing,
(iv) Quick washing, and
(v) Wetting.

Figure. Stages of film processing and development

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Stage 1: Developing
 After exposing the radiographic film, it is necessary to reduce only silver compound deposited in
the latent image during exposure to metallic silver to form a visible images.
 The chemical which is chosen to reduce exposed silver compound to metallic silver is called a
developing agent. Developing agent is used along with other ingredients to perform special
functions.The other ingredients used are:
(i) Accelerator (to activate the developing agent);
(ü) Preservative (to reduce the aerial oxidation of the developer);
(iii) Restrainer (to prevent development of fog); and
(iv) Additives (to soften the water used in development process)
Stage 2: Stop Bath
The silver image becomes too dense to serve the intended purpose unless the action of the developer
is stopped at a proper time.
If the film is directly transferred from the developer into the fixer, uneven fixation is liable to
occur. If the stop bath is not used, lack of processing uniformity takes place resulted in stain formation in
the radiograph.
Stage 3: Fixing
After development and stop bath neutralization, the emulsion still contain unreduced silver halide
which is not necessary for the image. Such material is detrimental, especially to the radiograph as viewed
by light. The fixer is used to remove the unreduced silver halide.
Stage 4: Quick Washing (Wash Accelerator)
The film removed from the fixing bath retains not only the fixer ingredients but other compounds
which were formed in dissolving the silver halides. To remove these, the film is washed in running water
for 20 minutes or more.
To reduce the washing time, wash accelerator is used. Wash accelerator can reduce the washing
time to one-third to one- fifth of that required without its use.
Stage 5: Wetting
After washing, water adheres to the film in streaks and drops. If the film is dried in this condition,
watermarks will be left on the radiograph.
To reduce drying time and prevent water marks, wetting agent is used. After wetting and drying,
the film processing is completed and it is ready for evaluation of defects.
INTERACTION OF X-RAYS WITH MATTER
X-rays are not simply passing through the material to be inspected. On reaching a material, some
of the X-rays will be absorbed, and some scattered if neither process occurs, the X-rays will be transmitted
through the material.

Figure. Interaction of X-rays with matter

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The four important processes, when X-rays interact with the matter are:
1. The photoelectric effect,
2. The Compton effect,
3. Pair production, and
4. Thomson (or Raylagh) scattering.
Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect occurs when photons interact with matter resulting in ejection of electrons
from the matter.
Photoelectric absorption of X-rays occur when the X-ray photon is absorbed resulting in the
ejection of electrons from the atom. This leaves the atom in an ionized (charged) state. The ionized atom
then returns to the neutral state with the emission of an X-ray characteristic of the atom.
Photo electric absorption is the dominant process for X-ray absorption up to energies of about
500 keV. The photoelectric effect is responsible for the production of the characteristics X-rays in the X-
ray tube, but the process is also important as a secondary process that occurs when X-rays interact with
matter.

Figure. Photoelectric effect

The Compton Effect

The Compton effect or Compton scattering, also known as incoherent scattering, occurs when the
incident X-ray photon ejects an electron from an atom and an X-ray photon of lower energy is scattered
from the atom.
The Compton effect will occur with very low atomic weight targets even at relatively low X-ray
energies.
In Compton scattering, the incident X-ray changes direction and loses energy, imparting the energy
to the electron called as Compton electron. The Compton electron will typically interact with other atoms
producing secondary ionizations.

Figure. Compton scattering

Since they possess relatively low energy, the X-rays produced will generally be low energy also.
The lower energy, therefore resulted in longer wavelength according to Planck relationship
Pair Production
Pair production (PP) occurs when an electron and positron are created with the disappearance of
X-ray photon.

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Positrons are very short lived and disappear with the formation of two photons of 0.51 MeV energy.
Pair production is of particular importance when high energy photons pass through materials of a high
atomic number.

Figure. Pair production

Pair production is a rare process and only occurs at high X-ray photon energies with high atomic
weight targets. Pair production is impossible unless the incident X-rays exceed 1.02 MeV and does not
become important until this exceeds about 2 MeV. Pair production is not a significant process at the X-ray
energies involved in X-ray diffraction.

Thomson Scattering (or Rayleigh Scattering)

Thomson scattering, also known as Rayleigh scattering, coherent, or classical scattering, occurs
when the X-ray photon interacts with the whole atom so that the photon is scattered with no change in
internal energy (neither to the scattering atom nor to the X-ray photon).

Figure. Thomson (or Rayleigh) scattering Scanner

The scattering occurs without the loss of energy. Scattering is mainly in the forward direction. This
effect is minor when related to absorption, but is the primary effect which makes X-ray diffraction possible.
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
X-rays are generated through interactions of the accelerated electrons with electrons of tungsten
nuclei within the tube anode. There two types of X-rays generated are:
1. Characteristic X-ray, and
2. Bremsstrahlung X-ray.

Characteristic X-Ray
Figure. Generation of characteristic X-ray

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When high energy electron collides with an inner shell, electron both are ejected from the tungsten
atom leaving a hole in the inner layer. This is filled by an outer shell electron with loss of energy emitted
as an X-ray photon.
Bremsstrahlung X-Ray
When an electron passes near the nucleus, it is slowed and its path is deflected. Energy loss is
emitted as a Bremsstrahlung X-ray photon. Bremsstrahlung radiation is also known as breaking radiation.

Fig. 5.19. Generation of Bremsstrahlung X-ray

Approximately 80% of the population of X-rays within the X-ray beam consists of X-rays
generated in this way. Bremsstrahlung interactions generate X-ray photons with a continuous spectrum of
energy. The reason for continuous spectrum is due to continuously varying voltage difference between the
target and the filament.

INTENSITY OF X-RAYS IN RADIOGRAPHY TESTING

Inverse Square Law
The inverse square law states that the intensity of an X- ray beam varies inversely with the square
of the distance from the radiation source.
X-rays like visible light rays, diverge an emission from their source and cover increasingly larger
areas as the distance from the source increases. It is major consideration, in computing radiographic
exposures and safety procedures.

Figure. Principle of inverse square law

When the distance between the individual from a known source of radiation is doubled, the intensity
to the individual will be reduced by a factor of four. Conversely, if the distance to the radiation source is
cut in half, the intensity is four times greater.
The relationship of inverse square law can be expressed as

where 11I2 are intensities at distances D1, and D2 respectively.

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X-Ray Beam Attenuation

As the X-ray beam passes through the material, photons get absorbed so there is less energy, this
is known as attenuation.
The total absorption/attenuation is a combination of follow three absorption processes:
(i) Photon electric effect,
(ii) Compton effect, and
(iii) Pair production.
In all three absorption processes, the energy of X-rays lowers and it gets scattered in different
directions with different wavelengths. The probability of photo-electric absorption is approximately
proportional to (Z/E)3
where Z =Atomic number of the material atom, and E = Photon energy;As ‘E' gets larger, the
likelihood of interaction drops rapidly.
Half-Value Layer
In radiography testing, the penetration of radiation can be expressed with the term "half-value
layer".
Definition: The half-value layer (HVL) is defined thickness of a specific material that will reduce the
radiation intensity to one half of that entering the part.
If the initial radiation intensity is 100 roentgens (100R), a material that is exactly one half-value
layer will reduce that 100R to 50R. Another half value layer thickness will reduce that 50R to 25R, and so
on. If this is carried forward, the radiation never reaches zero.
The factors involved with the half-value layer are:
(i) Energy (higher the energy, the thicker the half-value layer);
(ii) Material type (the greater the material density, the thinner the half-value layer); and
(iii) Thickness (as the material thickness increases, the absorption and scatter increases).
The relationship between half-value thickness and linear attenuation co-efficient is expressed as
HVT=0.693/µ
where HVT Half Value Thickness (mm), and µ = Linear attenuation co-efficient (mm-1).

IMAGE QUALITY IN RADIOGRAPHY TESTING

Image Quality Indicators (IQI) (Penetrometers)
The quality of the radiographic techniques is established by comparison with the image of "Image
Quality Indicators (IQI), also referred to as penetrometer, on the completed radiograph.
Indicators are fixed on the test piece to be inspected for defects during exposure with X-ray or
gamma ray source. Two major types of penetrometers widely used in radiographic applications are:
(i) Shim type penetrometer, and
(ii) Wire type penetrometer.
1. Shim Type Penetrometer
The shim or hole type penetrometer, shown in Figure, contains a lead identification number at one
end and three holes of different diameters.
The thickness of the shim type penetrometer is based on the percentage of material thickness that
is being radiographed. Generally 2% of the thickness of the material to be inspected is the thickness of the
penetrometer.
Figure shows the shim type penetrometer with three holes. Three holes have different diameters,
which are based on the penetrometers thickness

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.
Figure. Shim type penetrometer
The smallest hole located in the shim is referred to as the 1T. The 'T' refers to the penetrometer
thickness. Therefore 1T hole will have diameter equivalent to the thickness of the penetrometer, which is
usually 2% of the thickness of the material being radiographed.
Similarly 2T hole refers to two times of penetrometer thickness and “3T hole refers to three times
of penetrometer thickness.
The outline of the penetrometer and the image of the holes on radiographic technique.
Penetrometers have sharp edges and holes are precisely machined. Defects/discontinuities on the part to be
inspected are quite different from these holes. The penetrometer is used to establish the quality level of the
radiographic technique and should be compared with discontinuities.
2. Wire Type Penetrometer

Figure. Wire type penetrometer

Wires of various diameters placed parallel at equal distance manufactured with wires of steel,
aluminium, titanium or copper.
A series of wires usually six in numbers are encased in a clear plastic holder with lead identification
numbers. Wire type penetrometers must be placed on the source side of the object being radiographed.
Filtering
In radiography testing, filtration is required to absorb the lower energy X-ray photons emitted by
the tube before they reach the target.
The use of filters produce a cleaner image by absorbing the lower energy X-ray photons that tend
to scatter more. Two types of filtration followed in radiographic testing are:
1. Inherent filtration (filter is part of the X-ray tube and housing), and
2. Added filtration (thin sheets of a metal are inserted in the X-ray beam).
Filters added to the X-ray beam are most often made of high atomic number materials such as lead,
copper or brass. The degree of filtering depends on the type and the thickness of the material used. In
gamma radiography testing, filtration is not a useful technique.
Contrast and Definition in Radiography
Exposure to radiation creates latent (hidden) image on the film and chemical processing makes the
image visible.
When X-rays or gamma rays hit the grains of the silver bromide (coated on the surface of the film),
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a change takes place in the physical structure of the grains. This change cannot be detected by ordinary
physical methods. Hence the film is treated with chemical solution; a reaction takes place causing the
formation of black metallic silver.
When the radiographer interprets a radiographic image, the details of the image are seen in terms
of amount of light passing through the processed film. The images may appear dark grey or light grey
depends on the radiation intensity.
Areas exposed to relatively large amount of radiation will appear as dark grey. Areas exposed to
less radiation will appear as light grey.
Always, there is a difference between the darkness (density) of the image. The density difference
between two film area is known as radiographic contrast. The sharpness of any change in density is called
definition. Interpretation of any radiograph relies on contrast and definition in the radiograph.
Factors affecting film contrast: Film contrast is determined by the following factors:
(i) Grain size or type of film;
(ii) Chemical composition of the processing chemicals;
(iii) Concentrations of the processing chemicals;
(iv) Development time;
(v) Development temperature; and
(vi) Type of agitation.

Geometric Factors (Principle of Geometric Exposure)

A radiograph is a shadow picture of a test piece placed between the film and the X-radiation or
gamma radiation source.
To create a radiographic image, there must be a source of radiation, a test object and film. To get
sharp and accurate images, proper placement of the film from the radiation source and the test object is
important.
Geometric factors have the influence on radiographic definition. These geometric factors are:
(i) Focal spot size of the radiation source;
(ii) Source to film distance;
(iii) Specimen to film distance;
(iv) Angle between source and features of interest (defects in the specimen); and
(vì) Sudden changes in the thickness of the test object.
If the film is placed too far from the test object, the defect image in the test piece will be enlarged.
On the other side, if the test piece has a defect and is too close to the source, the image will be greatly
enlarged, resulting in loss of dimensional accuracy. This enlargement cannot be eliminated entirely using
an appropriate source to film distance, enlargement can be minimized to an accepted level.
Figure shows a radiographic exposure showing basic object and the film on which the images are
recorded.

Figure. Geometric relationship

Mathematically, the degree of enlargement will be
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Where,
Do = Size of the test object,
Df = Size of the radiographic image on film,
do =Distance between source to test object, and
df = Distance between source to the film.
Since X-rays and gamma rays obey the common laws of light, the radiographic image formation
may be explained in a simple manner in terms of light. The ratio of the test object diameter Do to the image
diameter Df is equal to the ratio of the source to object distance do to the source to film distance df.
Conditions for radiographic image to be closer to the same size as the test object are:
(i) The film must be placed close to the test object as possible; and
(ii) The radiation source must be placed as far from the film as practically possible.
Image Sharpness
The degree of sharpness of the image is determined by (i) the size of the radiation source, and
(ii) the ratio of the object to film distance and source to object distance.
In In radiographic testing, unsharpness is caused due to, geometrical factors as well as quality of
film.
In practice, unsharpness is reduced to acceptable level by optimizing the geometric variables
(i.e., distance between source to object and distance between source to film).
Geometric unsharpness can be expressed as

Where,
Ug= Geometric unsharpness,
F = Source size (focal spot size),
D=Distance between source to object, and
d = Distance between source to film.

Figure (a) Small geometrical unsharpness (i.e., test object is close to the film); (b) Greater geometrical
unsharpness (i.e., source to film distance is same but object to film distance is increased);
(c) A minimum geometrical unsharpness (i.e., object to film distance is same but source to film
distance is increased)

Determination of Exposure Parameters in Radiography Testing

1. Exposure Charts
In radiography, it is necessary to make an appropriate prior choice of exposure method according
to the material and shape of the specimen to the examined. Exposure conditions determine the image density
and definition of the radiographic image.
Exposure parameters for a given components of known composition are determined with the help
of exposure chart.
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An exposure chart is a graphical relationship between material thickness, beam energy (kV) and
quantity of radiation (mA x time of exposure).
Factors influencing exposure in radiography inspection are:
(i). Beam energy;
(ii) Focus to film distance;
(iii) X-ray tube current;
(iv) Orientation of the object : rith respect to the axis of the radiation beam;
(v) Thickness of specimen; and
(vi) Size of radiation source (i.e., focal spot size in X-ray source or capsule size in gamma ray
source)Generally X-ray equipment manufactures supply exposure charts for various thickness of steel.
Suitable corrections are made while using other materials. When X-rays are used, a radiograph of high
definition can be obtained by using low kilo voltage with long exposure time.
Exposure charts are plotted by laying off the thickness of the specimen in the horizontal axis and
the exposure (mA-min or mA-sec) or kilovoltage (kVp) along the vertical axis of the graph. However, it is
recommended that appropriate exposure charts be plotted according to exposure conditions for each case.

Figure. Exposure time Vs Thickness (to determine kilo voltage)

Figure shows a typical exposure chart through which the kilovoltage is determined from the
thickness of the specimen and the exposure time.

Figure. Kilo voltage Vs Thickness (to determine type of screen)

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Another exposure chart, shown in Fig. 5.26, is used to determine intensifying screen relative to the
thickness of the specimen and the exposure made at kilo voltages suited to the type of screen selected.
2. Radiographic Equivalence
In radiographic testing, the X-ray absorption of a specimen depends on its:
(i) Thickness,
(ii) Density, and
(iii) Atomic nature of the material.
It is obvious that two specimens of same thickness, the more dense will absorb more radiation,
necessitating an increase in kilo voltage or exposure to produce same photographic result. However, the
atomic elements in the specimen have greater effect on absorption than thickness and density.
For example, lead is about 1.5 times as dense as steel but as 220 kV, 2.5 mm lead absorbs as much
as 25 mm of steel. From this example, it is evident that X-ray absorption varies according to the atomic
nature of material.
Generally, exposure charts are drawn for steel or aluminium as standard material. It is possible to
use these charts for other materials by considering radiographic equivalence factors.
The radiographic equivalence factor of a material is that factor by which thickness of the material
must be multiplied to give the thickness of a “standard material” (steel) which has the same absorption.
The factors may be used to determine:
(i) the practical thickness limits for radiation sources for materials other than steel; and
(ii) the exposure factors for one metal from exposure techniques for other metals.

RADIOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
The majority application of radiography testing is grading and inspection of welds on pressurized
piping, pressure vessels, high capacity storage containers, pipelines and some structural welds.
For the purpose of inspection, several techniques (exposure arrangements) are used. Radiography
of flat plates and large cylinders permit entry for placement of the film is a simple operation, whereas
radiography inspection of pipes, access to the bore to place the film presents some problems.

The radiography techniques followed for various engineering components are:

(i) Single Wall, Single Image (SWSI) technique,
(ii) Double Wall, Single Image (DWSI) technique, and
(iii) Double Wall, Double Image (DWDI) technique.
Single Wall, Single Image (SWSI) Technique
In single wall, single image (SWSI) flat technique, the radiographic source is placed outside the
plate or pipe, The film is placed inside the surface to be examined.
In single wall, single image panoramic technique, the radiographic source is placed inside the pipe
by some suitable method. The film cassettes are placed outside of the surface to be examined.

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Figure. Single wall, single image (flat and panoramic)

The image quality indicator is places on the outside of the pipe immediately below the film. Both
X-ray and gamma rays can be used.
The source of radiation is place at the center of sphere or cylinder (tanks, vessels, and piping). The
source positions and moved by means of crawler unit
This method is commonly used for inspection of pipe fines where the weld can be radiographed in
one exposure, making the technique rapid and cost effective.
Advantages: Some of the advantages of SWSI technique as follows:
(i) Exposed film will be of the same approximate density
(ii) Taking less time than other techniques.
(iii) Radiation source penetrate the total wall thickness,
(iv) Radiation source travel the radius of the inspection of the component, not its full diameter.
Limitations: Some of the limitations of SWSI technique me as follows:
(i) In panoramic method, it may be impractical to reach the centre.
(ii) The radiation source may be too weak for the inspection of the larger vessels and tanks.

Double Wall, Single Image (DWSI) Technique

The double wall, single image (DWSI) technique usually adopted for very small diameter piping
or parts, where access to the bore is not possible to permit the use of an internal source. The film is placed
on the outside of the pipe on the side from the radiographic source.
The source may be offset slightly to avoid an image of the upper part of the weld to be projected
onto the film or directly in line. The source may be close to or a substantial distance from the pipe, the
location being compromise between a less sharp image but short exposure time for a small stand-off and
sharper image but longer exposure time for large stand-off.

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Figure. Double wall, single image technique

The need to penetrate two wall thicknesses means that the sensitivity will be poorer than with single
wall single image technique. This technique also requires multiple exposures to enable the complete
circumferences of the pipe to be examined. This technique is widely used on pipes over 80 mm diameter.
Double Wall, Double Image (DWDI) Technique
The double wall, double image (DWDI) technique is generally used only on pipes less than 75-
80 mm in diameter. The radiation source is kept at a distance with an offset from the axis of the weld, to
avoid the super imposing of the source side welds over the film side weld and to obtain an elliptical image
on the film.

Figure. Double wall, double image technique

By offsetting the radiation source from the weld center line and using a long source to film distance,
it is possible to project an image onto the film of both upper and lower parts of the weld. Multiple exposures
are required to achieve the complete coverage.
SPECIAL /ADVANCED RADIOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES FLUOROSCOPY
(RADIOSCOPY) TESTING
What is Fluoroscopy?
Fluoroscopy, also known as radioscopy, is a technique whereby "real time" detection of defects is
achieved by the e of specialized fluorescent screen technology.
In this testing method, image of the defects in the component is produced by ionizing radiation on
a radiation detector such as a fluorescent screen or an array of solid state sensors which is then displayed
on a computer or television screen. These radiography systems work in real time and can provide
continuous inspection of objects, hence it is also called as "Real Time Radiography (RTR)".
Arrangement and Working Principle
Figure shows the arrangement of equipment and the working principle of fluoroscopy radiography
testing.

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Figure. Schematic arrangement of fluoroscopy testing

In fluoroscopy testing, the film is replaced by a fluorescent screen then the image of the test piece
can be visually seen.
Image intensifier or flat panel detector is used to convert ionized radiation into images. The image
intensifier commonly used as a converter device, contains a fluorescent material such as ceisium iodide.
The X-ray are passed through the object excite the fluorescent material producing bright spots in
the more heavily irradiated areas. These photons are converted to electron, accelerated and reconverted into
light on the output Screen.
Flat panel detectors contains an array of sensors provide various pixel sizes with extensive image
dynamics. Since the signals received are digital, the screen image can be optimized for interpretation.
Advantages of Fluoroscopy Testing
Some of the advantages of fluoroscopy testing are as follows:
(i) Immediate viewing of the objects for defects.
(ü) Ability to study moving parts in action.
(m) Less expensive on film and film processing cost.
(iv) Possibilities of comparing obtained image with a reference image for defect interpretation.
Limitations of Fluoroscopy Testing
Some of the limitations of fluoroscopy testing are as follows:
(i) Initial cost of equipment is very high.
(ii) Not portable as in gamma ray testing.
(iii) Special cabinet is required to keep exposure to radiation within regulations.

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Applications of Fluoroscopy Testing
Fluoroscopy radiography testing is widely used for the inspection of:
(i) thin wall section castings;
(ü) welded assemblies;
(iii) coarse sandwich constructions;
(iv) plastic parts are checked for the presence of metal particles or
(V) electric equipment such as switches, capacitors and radio cavities, and tubes.
XEROGRAPHY (XERO RADIOGRAPHY)
What is Xerography?
In conventional X-ray radiography, an image is produced by using photo chemical techniques in
which X-rays are passed through the part on to a film coated with photo sensitive material like silver nitrate.
Xerography uses the same physical principle but is a photoelectric process, rather than a photo
chemical process.
Xerography process is considered as a "dry" method of radiography in which a xerographic plate
takes the place of X-ray film.
Arrangement and Working Principle
Figure shows the arrangement and working principle of xerography testing.

Figure. Principle of xerography testing

A thin layer of photo conducting material, like selenium, is attached to a rigid aluminium plate. A
charge is applied to the base in total darkness, and the photo conducting material (selenium) acts as an
insulator.
When exposed to X-rays, the conductivity of the selenium is increased and the surface is discharged
according to the thickness of the material through which the radiation is passed. In this way, a hidden image
of defect in the part is created on the surface of the plate in the form of electro static charge pattern. This
image is then developed in a closed chamber by spraying a charged blue powder on the surface of the plate,
where it is attracted to the charged pattern and forms a powder image.
This powder image is made permanent by transforming into plastic coated paper by heating and
fusing. The image is now ready for viewing and evaluation.

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Figure. Functional steps of xerography techniques

Advantages of Xerography Testing

Some of the advantages of xerography testing are as follows:
(i) Reduced cost of material (no film is required).
(ii) High degree of image sharpness (due to free of graininess of the selenium).
(iii) Ease of reviewing.
(iv) Reduced exposure to radiation hazards.
(v) Better speed of production (entire process may be completed within 60 seconds).
(vi) No dark room requirement as in conventional radiography testing
Limitations of Xerography Testing
Some of the limitations of xerography testing are as follows:
(i) The amorphous selenium photo conductor coat is highly fragile.
(ii) Low inherent contrast of the image.
(iii) Selenium layer is quite easily scratched.
Applications of Xerography Testing
The xerography testing is widely used for:
(i) Inspection of welding.
(ii) Casting defects.
(iii) Detecting flaws in aerospace components.

COMPUTED RADIOGRAPHY
What is Computed Radiography?
Computed radiography (CR) uses a cassette similar to a film cassette. Instead of film, the cassette
holds an imaging plate.
A computed radiography system consists of an image reader/digitizer, cassettes containing imaging
plates (photo stimulable-phosphor plates), a computer console with analysing software, monitors and a
printer.
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Arrangement and Working Principle
Figure shows the arrangement of equipment and working principle of computed radiography.

Figure. Working principle of computed radiography

Imaging plates are inserted in a radiographic table’s cassette holder and images are acquired using
the X-ray system. When exposed to X-rays, electrons in the phosphor plate are excited into a higher energy
state, forming a latent image. Then it is inserted in the image reader.
An image reader scans the phosphor plate with laser spot. When the trapped electrons absorb the
laser energy, they emit as they return to their ground state.
This light is collected by a light guide and transmitted to a signal, then it is amplified and converted
into a digital signal, multiplier tube, which produces an analog electrical and digitally stored. The plate can
be reused after it is exposed to an erasing light that removes residual radiation.
Steps involved in Computed Radiography
The various steps involved in computed radiography are given below:
1. The phosphor plate is inserted into a cassette.
2. Placing and exposing the phosphor plate by the X-ray source with the part to be inspected.
3. A radiation pattern is exposed on the phosphor plate creating a latent image.
4. The phosphor plate is then inserted into a phosphor scanner to be read.
5. The phosphor plate is scanned and the digital image is displayed on the computer monitor for
review and evaluation.
6. The phosphor plate is then erased and reading to (upto 10,000 times reusable).
Difference between Computed Radiography and Film Radiography
Below table presents the comparison between computed radiography and film radiography.
Table. Computed radiography Vs Film radiography
S.No. Computed Radiography Film Radiography
1 Phosphor plate inserted in the cassette. Film is inserted in the cassette
Light tight dark room is not required for
2 Light tight dark room is required for imaging
imaging
No chemical processing is required to Chemical processing is required to develop
3
develop image. image
Less time consuming to read the image More time consuming to read the image
4
(1 to 2 minutes) (8 to 10 minutes).
Derived digital image can be enhanced for
5 Film image cannot be enhanced
review
Advantages of Computed Radiography
The main advantages of the computed radiography over the film radiography are as follows:
(i) Shorter exposure time (only 10-50% of film).
(ii) Higher dynamic range (less retakes and different thickness in one shot).
(ii) Phosphor plates can be reused (consumable cost saving).
(iv) No chemicals and dark room is required.
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(v) Lower doses (more safety).
(vi) Easier and faster analysis of defects.
(vii) Flexible imaging plates are possible (phosphor plates can be bent).
(viii) Ability to copy and duplicate without loss of image quality (no image degradation).
Limitations of Computed Radiography
Some of the limitations of computed radiography are as follows:
(i) High initial cost on equipment.
(ii) Image plates are sensitive to fogging (need to be erased daily).
(iii) Wider latitude (degradation of contrast is possible).
Applications of Computed Radiography
Typical applications of computed radiography include:
(i) On-site inspection of pipes in processing industry for leaking, wall thickness and corrosion
measurement.
(ii) Inspection of composite materials used in aerospace applications.
(iii) On-site scanning of circumferential and longitudinal welds.
(iv) Inspection of casting with different thickness in one image.

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY IN NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

What is Computed Tomography?
Computed tomography (CT) is a newer method of non- destructive evaluation by producing 2D
and 3D images of an object from X-ray sources.
From CT images, the following characteristics of the internal structure of an object can be obtained:
(i) Internal defects (cracks, voids, inclusions, porosity and delamination).
(ii) Dimensional measurements (thickness, diameter, shape of the in homogeneity and three
dimensional geometry).
(iii) Physical and mechanical properties (density, crack growth, phase identification and
impurities).
Arrangement and Working Principle
Figure shows the principle of computed tomography used in non-destructive evaluation of
components.
The test component is placed on a computer controlled turntable which is located between a
radiation source and the imaging system. The turntable and the imaging systems are connected to a
computer so that X-ray images collected can be correlated to the position of the component.
The principal components like X-rays tube, an X-ray detector and a turn table are enclosed within
a radiation shielding cabinet to meet the safety concerns.

Figure. Principle of computed tomography

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During computed tomography scanning, several 2D X-ray images were taken around the object,
preferably covering 360 degrees.
CT systems typically acquire images according to the desired final resolution.
For example:
 One image every degree – 360 images
 One image every 0.1 degree - 3600 images

The 2D digital images taken 'are saved directly into a single folder for further processing.
CT calibration and CT reconstruction algorithms are used to reconstruct the 3D CT volume. These
3D images are made of 3 dimensional pixels (voxels). With the help of visualization software, the 3D
images can be visualized in real time, Because of this facility, it is possible to slice through anywhere in
the object, to check for defects and to take accurate measurement is possible.
Advantages of Computed Tomography
Some of the advantages of computed tomography are given below:
(i) Precise measure of internal features of components in short time is possible.
(ii) Data set of huge amount of measuring points resulted in higher accuracy.
(iii) Both inner and outer geometry can be determined.
Limitations of Computed Tomography
Some of the limitations of computed tomography are follows:
(i) Complex and more number of influencing quantities affecting measurements.
(ii) No standard test procedures are available.
(iii) Scanning multiple materials within one product may encounter problem in data acquisition.
(iv) High equipment cost.
Applications of Computed Tomography
Typical applications of computed tomography include:
(i) Crack detection and measurement of aero-space structures.
(ii) Defect analysis like porosity and voids present in castings.
(iii) Density analysis of materials.
(iv) Failure analysis of components
(V)Non-destructive internal measurements.

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