Index

/
Sl.No. Chapter Pg.No.
1. Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 07
2. Structure of Atom 16
3. Classification of Elements & Periodicity in Properties 36
4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 51
5. States of Matter 71
6. Thermodynamics 83
7. Equilibrium 99
8. Redox Reactions 114
9. Hydrogen 124
10. The s - Block Elements 138
11. The p - Block Elements 154

12. Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principle & Techniques 171

13. Hydrocarbons 202
14. Environmental Chemistry 231
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Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

INTRODUCTION

Chemistry: The study of matter


Role in life → Cisplatin, Taxol → Cancer treatment drugs

AZT → AIDS treatment

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Matter

Mixtures Pure substances

Homogenous Heterogenous Elements Compounds

Mixtures Mixtures
Eg: O, Na, Cu, Co Eg: CO2, H2O
- Uniform - Non-uniform
composition composition

SI UNITS

FUNDAMENTAL SI UNITS
PHYSICAL QUANTITY NAME ABBREVIATION
Mass Kilogram kg
Length Meter m
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd

NOTE:
Mass and weight are not the same. Mass is the amount of matter and weight is the force exerted on an
object due to gravity

• Fundamental units: Length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, luminous intensity, and
amount of a substance
• Derived units: Units derived from fundamental units
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SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT

a) CGS – Centimeter(cm), Gram(g), Seconds(s)

b) MKS – Meter(m), Kilogram(kg), Seconds(s), Ampere(A)
c) SI system – International system of units
1. Basic or fundamental units
2. Supplementary units – Radian(rad), Steradian(sr)

PREFIXES
MULTIPLE PREFIX SYMBOL MULTIPLE PREFIX SYMBOL
10-24 yocto y 10 deca da
10 -21
Zepto z 102 hecto h
10 -18
Atto a 103 Kilo k
10 -15
Femto f 10 6
Mega M
10-12 Pico p 109 Giga G
10-9 Nano n 1012 tera T
10 -6
micro µ 1015 peta P
10 -3
Milli m 1018 exa E
10 -2
Centi c 10 21
zeta Z
10-1 Deci d 1024 yotta Y

Common conversions

1L = 1000mL = 100cm3 = 1dm3 → Boiling point of water → 100°C = 373.15K = 212°F

K = °C + 237.5 → Freezing point of water → 0°C = 273.15K = 32°F
°F = 9/5(°C) +32

UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT

• Scientific notation is an exponential notation in which any number represented in N x 10', where n is the exponent
having positive or negative values and N is the number between 1.000... and 9.999…
• Significant figures are meaningful digits that are known with certainty plus one which is estimated or uncertain
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Rules for determining the number of significant figures

• All non-zero digits are significant

• Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit are non-significant
• Zeroes between two non-zero digits are significant
• Zeroes at the end or right of a number are significantly provided they are on the right side of the decimal
point
• Counting numbers have infinite significant figures
• In a number written in scientific notation, all digits are significant

• Precision refers to the closeness of various measurements for the same quantity
• Accuracy is the agreement of a particular value to the true value of the result
• In addition, and subtraction of significant figures the result cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal
point than either of the original numbers
• In multiplication and division of significant figures the result must be reported with no more significant figures as
are there in the measurement fewer significant figures

Important points for rounding off the number

• If the rightmost digit to be removed is more than 5, the preceding number is increased by one
• If the rightmost digit is less than 5, the preceding number is not changed
• If the rightmost digit is 5 then the preceding number increased by 1 only if it is an odd number

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Physical Change

• A substance changes its physical properties

• Generally reversible
• Eg: evaporation of water, formation of clouds, stretching of springs

Chemical change

• A change in which one or more new substances are formed

• Original substance is deformed
• Irreversible
• Eg: Photosynthesis, rusting of iron, curdling of milk
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LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

• Law of conservation of mass: matter consists of atoms and atoms can neither be created nor destroyed
• Law of constant composition: Atoms of the same or different elements combine in fixed ratios to form
compounds
• Law of multiple proportions: Atoms of two elements may combine in different ratios to form more than one
compound
• Lussac's law of gaseous volume: the pressure of a given mass of gas varies directly with the absolute
temperature when the volume is kept constant
• Avogadro's law: equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, have the same number of
molecules [Avogadro’s number (NA) = 6.022x1023]

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

• Matter consists of indivisible atoms

• All atoms of a given element have identical properties, including identical mass
• atoms of different elements differ in mass
• Compounds are found when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio
• Chemical reactions involve the reorganization of atoms. These are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction
1 amu = 1u = 1.66x10-24g = 1/12th mass of 1 C-12 atom

NOTE:
For easy calculation, the mass number of an element is generally taken as atomic mass
Eg: S – mass number = 32
Atomic mass = 32.065u
Mass of 1 Hydrogen atom = 1.0078u

• Homoatomic molecules: Contain atoms of one element. Eg: H2, O2, N2, Cl2
• Heteroatomic molecules: Contain atoms of different elements. Eg: CO, HCl, H2SO4

MOLE CONCEPT

• 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 → 12g of 12C isotopes 6.022 x 1023 atoms always
• 1 mol is the amount of substance that has 6.022 x 1023 particles or entities
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1 mol of C weighs 12g

1 mol of H2O weighs 18g
Molar mass of H2O = 1g/mol

% COMPOSITION

Mass of an element
Mass of an element = × 100
Molar mass of compound

Eg: H2O
2 × 1 g/mol 16g/mol
% of H = × 100 = 11.2% % of O = × 100 = 88.8%
18 g/mol 18g/mol

Molecular formula = empirical formula ‘n’

Eg: Glucose → Molecular formula = C2H12O6
Empirical formula = CH2O
N = 6, as 6 is H.C.F of C → 6, H → 12, O → 6

CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION CAN BE REPRESENTED IN THE FOLLOWING WAYS:

Mass of solute
1. W/W % [mass percent] = × 100
Mass of solution

2. Mole fraction XA =
No.of moles of A Solution = Solute + solvent
No.of moles of A+B
[NOTE: In sugar solution, sugar – solute & water – solvent
A → solute
B → solvent In aqueous solutions, the solvent will have larger
quantity than solute
No.of moles of solute
3. Molarity (M) =
Volume of solution in litre

No.of moles of solute

4. Molality (m) =
Mass of solvent in kg

NOTE:
W/W%, mole fraction, and molality are independent of temperature. While,
molarity depends on temperature, as the volume of solution changes with
temperature
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• GRAM ATOMIC MASS(GAM): Quantity of the element whose mass in gram is numerically equal to its
atomic mass
Eg: 1gm atom of Na = gram atomic mass of Na = 23
• GRAM MOLECULAR MASS(GMM): Quantity of a substance whose mass in gram is numerically equal to its
molecular mass
Eg: 1gm of H2O = gram molecular mass of H2O = 18g

Key things to understand about stoichiometry and a chemical reaction

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O [combustion of methane]

This chemical reaction can imply the following

• 1 mol of CH4 reacts with 2 moles of O2 to give 1 mol of CO2 + 2 moles of H2O [OR]
• 1 molecule of CH4 reacts with 2 molecules of O2 to give 1 molecule of CO2 + 2 molecules of H2O [OR]
• 16g of CH4 reacts with 2 × 32g of O2 to give 44g of CO2 and 2 × 18g of H2O [OR]
• 22.4L of CH4 reacts with 44.8 L of O2 to give 22.4L of CO2 and 44.8 L of H2O

LIMITING REAGENT

• A limiting reagent or limiting reactant is a substance that has been wholly consumed in a chemical reaction
• Thus, the limiting reagent determines when to complete and stop a reaction
• Since the limiting reagent is consumed in a reaction, no amount remains to react with another reactant. Therefore,
the other reactant remains in excess and is known as the excess reagent
• The amount, of products resulting from the chemical reaction is limited by the limiting reagent
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FORMULAS AND TIPS

Density of a gas mass of gas

Vapor density (V.D) = = → Molecular weight = 2 × V.D
Density of H2 mass of H2

No.of molesules (or atoms) Mass of substance (in g) Volume of gas at STP
No. of moles (n) = = =
NA Molecular mass of substance 22.4L

W
10 ×Density of solution ×W%
Molarity (M) =
Molecular mass

Dilution equation M1V1 = M2V2

→ When a solution of molarity M1 and volume V1 is diluted to V2, where M2 < M1

For very dilute solutions, Molarity ~ Molality
1000 ×M
m= → Where, m – Molarity of a solution
d ×1000−M ×Ms
M – Molarity of solution
d – Density of solution
Ms – Molar mass of solute

QUESTIONS

SIGNIFICANT FIGURE AND ROUNDING

1. Which among the following has the least number of significant figures?
A) 0.80760
B) 0.80200
C) 0.08076
D) 80.267

2. The number of significant figures in 5.69 x 1015 kg is

A) 1
B) 2
C) 3
D) 18

3. Round the following to 3 significant digits

1) 2.387 - 2.39
2) 2.385 – 2.38
3) 2.375 – 2.38
4) 2.372 – 2.37
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LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

1. The formation of PbO, PbO2, and Pb3O4, reveals that the masses of oxygen combined with 1 g of Pb is a simple whole-
number ratio. This illustrates
A) Law of conservation of mass
B) Law of definite proportions
C) Law of constant proportions
D) Law of multiple proportions

MOLE CONCEPT

1. The mass of one atom of silver atom (atomic mass of Ag = 108) in g is?
A) 1.8 x 10-22 g
B) 1.8 x 10-23 g
C) 108 g
D) 6.023 × 1023 g

2. Number of Nitrogen atoms present in 1.4 g of N2, is?

A) 3.012 x 1022
B) 3.012 × 1023
C) 6.022 x 1022
D) 6.022 × 1023

3. Empirical formula of an organic compound is CH and its molecular mass is 78 g/ mol. What is its molecular
formula?
A) C2H2
B) C2H4
C) C2H6
D) C6H6

4. How many moles of NaCl should be dissolved in 100 ml of water to get a 0.2 M solution?
A) 0.2
B) 0.02
C) 0.01
D) 0.1

5. A solution is prepared by adding 2 g of substance A to 18 g of water. The Mass percent of solute A Will be
A) 15 %
B) 20 %
C) 10 %
D) 25 %
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6. Calculate the molarity of a solution of ethanol in water in which the mole fraction of ethanol is 0.040?
A) 2.31 MA
B) 0.231 M
C) 0.0213 M
D) 23.1 M

7. The number of moles of water present in 1 L of water is

A) 55.5 moles
B) 1 mole
C) 0.045 moles
D) 27.75 moles

8. 20 kg of N2 and 3 kg of H2 are mixed to produce NH3 gas. The amount of NH3 formed is
A) 17 kg
B) 23 kg
C) 34 kg
D) 56 kg

9. The density of 1 M solution of compound A is 1.12 g /ml. The molality of the solution is (Molar mass of A = 120 g
/mol)
(1) 0.55 m
(2) 0.75 m
(3) 1 m
(4) 1.2 m

10. Mole fraction of solute in 1 molal aqueous NaOH solution is

1) 1
2) 0.5
3) 1/55.55
4) 1/56.55

11. The concentration of sulfuric acid in moles per liter in a sample that has a density of 1.8 g /mL and mass percent of
sulfuric acid in it being 98 % is
A) 18 M
B) 15 M
C) 14M
D) 10M
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Structure of Atom
Introduction

• Atom is the building block particle of matter

• Contrary to Dalton’s theory, atoms can be divided into sub-atomic particles → Electron, Proton, and Neutron

PROPERTIES OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

ABSOLUTE RELATIVE APPROX.
NAME SYMBOL MASS/Kg MASS/u
CHARGE/C CHARGE MASS/u
Electron e -1.6022× -19
-1 9.10939×-31 0.00054 0
Proton p +1.6022×-19 +1 1.67262×-27 1.00727 1
Neutron n 0 0 1.672493×-27 1.00867 1

• Experiment on electrical discharge through gases in evacuated tubes, known as ‘Cathode ray discharge tubes’ helped
in the discovery of the structure of the atom

-ve electrode +ve electrode

*
| | || ||
High voltage

• The charge to mass ratio (e/m) is determined by using a discharge tube

• Deviation of particles takes place when an electric and magnetic field is applied to it

Deviation depends upon

1. Negative charge on particles → greater the negative charge, greater the interaction between
electric/magnetic field and electron
2. Smaller particle size → greater deflection
3. Greater the electric/magnetic field → greater deflection
 17
PROPERTY CATHODE RAYS ANODE RAYS
Motion They travel in straight lines They also travel in straight lines
They are deflected towards a positive
They are deflected towards the negative
Type of charge plate so they carry a negative
plate so they carry a positive charge
charge
Particles present in cathode rays Particles present in anode rays are
Particles
are electrons positively charged particles
The charge on the particles depends
Electrons present in the cathode upon the number of electrons lost by
Quantity of charge and mass rays always have the same charge atoms. The mass of the particles is
and mass nearly the same as that of the atom of
the gas taken in the discharge tube
They are produced in the space between
Origin They originated from the cathode
anode and cathode

• J.J Thomson determined the specific charge of e- = e/me = 1.758 × 1011 C/Kg
• R.A Millikan determined charge of e- by “Oil drop experiment”

Millikan Oil Drop model

• To measure the charge of the electron

• The electrical charge is always an integral multiple of charge on an electron
q = ne → q = total charge
e = charge of 1 electron
n = positive integer

• Chadwick discovered neutron by bombarding a thin sheet of ‘Be’ by α-particle

2 He4 + 4Bea → 6C12 + Neutron 0n1

ATOMIC MODELS

• Models proposed to explain the structure of an atom and the distribution of the particles in an atom

I. THOMSON ‘PLUM PUDDING’ ATOMIC MODEL

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ACCORDING TO THIS MODEL:
1) An atom is considered to be a sphere of uniform positive charge and electrons are embedded into it
2) The total positive charge is equal to the total negative charge so that an atom as a whole is electrically neutral
3) The mass of an atom is considered to be uniformly distributed

Drawbacks of Thomson's Model

It could not explain the stability of an atom, i.e., how both positive and negative charges could remain so close
together

II. RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR MODEL

• α-particle scattering experiment (α-particle are He nuclei, He atom with e- removed)

Based on Rutherford’s experiment

• Most of the space in an atom is empty

• The center of the atom is occupied by the nucleus in which a positive charge is concentrated in a very small
volume
• The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus at a very high speed in a circular path
called orbits while electrostatic forces of attraction held the nucleus and electrons together

↑
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Observations:

1. Most of the α-particles passed through the gold foil undeflected

2. A small fraction of the α-particles was deflected by small angles
3. A very few α-particles (~1 in 20,000) bounced back, that is, were deflected by nearly 180°

Radius of atom = 10-10m

Radius of nucleus = 10-15m

RUTHERFORD MODEL

According to this model:

1. The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom were densely concentrated in an extremely small
region. This very small portion of the atom was called the nucleus by Rutherford
2. The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus at a very high speed in circular paths
called orbits. Thus, Rutherford's model of the atom resembles the solar system in which the nucleus plays the
role of the sun and the electrons that of revolving planets
3. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction

THE DRAWBACKS OF RUTHERFORD'S ATOMIC MODEL:

1. The comparison of electrons with planets in the solar system is the main drawback of Rutherford's atomic model
▪ According to the classical laws of mechanics and electrodynamics by Maxwell, an electrically charged
particle is in motion, it inevitably radiates energy
▪ Thus, an electron, when moving around the nucleus continually, should radiate energy i.e., loses energy
▪ As a result, it should be gradually pulled towards the nucleus and end up colliding with it
▪ This should result in the total collapse of the atom
2. It says nothing about the electronic structure of atoms i.e., how the electrons are distributed around the nucleus
and what are the energies of these electrons

• Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

• Mass number (A) = number of protons + neutrons
• Representation of an element → zXA
Eg: 6C12 → Where, 12 – Mass number
6 – atomic number
C – element symbol of carbon
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• Isotopes - Same atomic number but the different mass number
Example: 1H1 (Protium), 1O2 (Deuterium), 1T3 (Tritium)
[NOTE: they have the same chemical behavior and reactions]

• Isobar – Same mass number but different atomic number

Example: 6C14, 7C14
[NOTE: they have different chemical properties]

• Isotones - Same number of neutrons but different atomic and mass number
Example: 1H3, 2He4

• Isoelectronic – Atoms or species having the same number of electrons

Example: F-, Ne, Na+

• Isodiaphers – Atoms/species having the same isotope number

Calculated as, Isotopic number = mass number – 2 × atomic number
Example: 19K39, 9F19

Electromagnetic waves

• James Maxwell (1870) suggested that when electrically charged particles move under acceleration, alternating
electrical and magnetic fields are produced and transmitted in the form of waves. He called them electromagnetic
waves (E.M waves) or electromagnetic radiation
• The oscillating electric and magnetic fields produced by an oscillating charged particle are perpendicular to each
other and the direction of propagation of the wave
• Electromagnetic waves, unlike sound or water waves, do not require a medium to travel
• Electromagnetic radiations which differ from one another in wavelength constitute the electromagnetic spectrum
• Visible light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, as are radio waves, microwaves, and x-rays