Chemistry Final Crash Course-

By: Jeffrey Shim, Reetakshi Mishra, Hannie Lee, Godwin Moy, Nour Roumie
Special thanks to Ryan Vo, Sebastian Ponce, John Zheng
The looming shadows of Moore and Ramirez tower over you silently
GOOD LUCK ON FINALS EVERYONE
UNIT 1 NOTES: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
General Overview: scientific notation, significant figures, metric system,
separation of substances, introduction to the periodic table, history of chemistry;
lots of vocab ​

Scientific Notation: M x 10y

1 ≤ M < 10
y is how many times M must be multiplied or divided by 10 to get to the number

Significant Figure Rules

1.​ All nonzero numbers and zeros between nonzero numbers are significant
2.​ Preceding zeros are never significant
3.​ When a decimal follows a nonzero number, all are significant
4.​ Trailing zeros without a decimal are not significant unless indicated by a bar over the
zero
5.​ All numbers in scientific notation are significant excluding the case and the exponent
6.​ Exact numbers are treated as having an infinite number of significant figures
​
How to apply sig figs in a given problem for addition and subtraction
1.​ Do operation
Round answer to least number of decimal points in the original problem​

How to apply sig figs in a given problem for multiplication and division
2.​ Do operation
3.​ Round answer to least number of sig figs in the original problem

Metric System - A uniform system based on units of 10

Base Units - defined unit on an object in the physical world

Quantity Base unit

Mass (m) Gram (g)

Volume (v) Liters (L)

 Distance (d) Meters (m)

Nnnnmnmnnbc

Prefix Symbol Number in comparison to

base unit

Giga- G x/1,000,000,000

Mega- M x/1,000,000

Kilo- k x/1,000

Hecto- h x/100

Deca- da x/10

Base Unit -- x

Deci- d 10x

Centi- c 100x

Milli- m 1,000x

Micro- μ 1,000,000x

Nano- n 1,000,000,000x

Pico- p 1,000,000,000,000x
(Great Mighty King Henry Died By Drinking Chunky Milk - courtesy of Emily (comment your
last name so i can give you creds plzplz if you see this - unless you don’t want to ofc))
Density = mass/volume (d=m/v)

Chemical/Physical Changes and Separation

Pure Substances
-​ Elements and compounds, atoms, molecules
-​ Difficult to separate or put together
-​ Constant boiling and freezing points
-​ Homogenous
Mixtures
-​ 2 or more kinds of matter with separate identities
-​ Easily separated
-​ Heterogenous (solutions are homogenous)
-​ Air is mixture

Chemical and Physical Changes

Physical Changes - Reactions that do not produce new types of matter and are easily reversed
(usually change of state)
Chemical Changes - Reactions that do produce new types of matter with different properties
(look for color, temperature, gas escaping, and precipitation)

Scientific Measurements

Qualitative Measurements - Descriptive, non-numeric (the ball is big and red)

Quantitative Measurements - Definite, usually numeric (there are two balls)

Accuracy - How close a measure is to an accepted value

Precision - How close several measurements are to each other (data sets can be precise but not
accurate)

Law of Conservation of Mass - Matter is never created nor destroyed in chemical or physical
reactions

Extensive Properties - depend on the amount of matter (the more you add, the more it changes)
(ex. Length, weight, temperature)
Intensive Properties - are independent of the amount of matter(will stay the same regardless of
amount of matter) (ex. Density, color, boiling/freezing points)

Separation of Substances
Technique How it’s performed

Filtration Using a porous material to separate a solid

and liquid

Distillation Process of separating the components or

substances from a liquid mixture by using
selective boiling and condensation
 Crystallization Process by which solid forms, where the
atoms or molecules are highly organized into
a structure

Chromatography A method by which a mixture is separated by

distributing its components between two
phases (substances move along a stationary
thingy at different speeds, separating
substances)
The Periodic Table

Average Mass Unit (AMU) - basically just the atomic mass so have fun with that
If there are multiple elements you just add all of em up and slap an amu title on it

Isotopes - have the same identity but different masses (same number of protons, diff neutrons)
➢​ Isotopes written as <element name> - <number of neutrons> ex) chlorine-35

Amu of Isotopes (kinda janky basically just)

1.​ Convert abundance percentage to decimal
2.​ Multiply by mass of isotope
3.​ Repeat the top two instructions with all the other isotopes involved
4.​ Add all of them up
5.​ Wow look at you, following instructions like a dog (you my dog now)

Example:
Carbon-14​ ​ ​ Carbon-13​ ​ ​ Carbon-12
Abundance: 2.869%​ ​ Abundance: 18.597%​​ Abundance: 78.534%
Mass: 14.0012​​ ​ Mass: 12.9988​​ ​ Mass: 12.0003
(0.02869)(14.0012) + (0.18597)(12.9988) + (0.78534)(12.0003) = 12.2434

Matter and the Atom Models

➔​ Volume - amount of space that a substance or object occupies
➔​ Mass - Measurement of matter, does not change in locations

States of Matter
Solid Liquid Gas

Have a definite shape Take shape of container Take shape of container

Have a definite volume Have a definite volume and Volume and density change in
pours or flows shape

➔​ Atom - Smallest package of matter, single symbol

➔​ Elements - Purest form of matter, only one type of atom
-​ can be an atom or a molecule and can exist alone or bonded
➔​ Molecule = two or more atoms chemically bonded
➔​ Compounds - two or more types of atoms chemically bonded to form a pure substance
-​ molecules that are bonded elements

History of Chemistry (not on the final)

Dalton’s Model (1803)
-​ “Billard ball model”
-​ Atom is indivisible and uniformly dense with no charge
‘;
Sir JJ Thompson’s Model (1904)
-​ “Blueberry muffin model” or “plum pudding model”
-​ Proposed electrical nature of the atom (discovered the electron, disproving Dalton’s
model)

Robert Milikan (1909)

-​ Determined charge and mass of an electron using oil drop experiment

Ernest Rutherford (1911)

-​ Discovered the nucleus
-​ Positive charges in densely packed nucleus

Neils Bohr (1913)

 -​ Electrons orbit around a nucleus

James Chadwick (1932)

-​ Discovered a neutral particle in the nucleus
-​ Particle added to Bohr’s Model

Composition of an Atom
Subatomic Particle - particles that make up the atom
Particle Symbol Charge Mass Location Function

Proton p+ +1 1 amu Nucleus Identity of atom

Neutron n0 0 1 amu Nucleus Adds mass

Electron e- -1 1/2000 amu Orbits nucleus Reactions (rxn)

What I got wrong on test: Precision vs accuracy (if the results are 0.2 off then it’s accurate
enough)

UNIT 2 NOTES: CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

General Overview: mole bridge, empirical formula, balancing equations,
classifying equations, stoichiometry

➔​ 1 mole is 6.02 x 1023 molecules

➔​ 6.02 x 1023 - Avogadro’s Number

Empirical Formula - Smallest ratio of atoms in a molecule

Ex: H2O2 → HO
 C4H8 → CH2
CO2 → Cannot be simplified any further
How to solve for this thingy
Ex: A sample of carbon weighting 43.2g burns in oxygen to form a compound of mass 159.0g.
Find the empirical formula
1.​ Find the mass of both carbon and oxygen
Carbon: 43.2g
Oxygen: 159.0g - 43.2g = 115.8g
2.​ Change grams to mols for each element

3.​ Divide all mols by the lowest mols

4.​ Use whole numbers to write the EF

Carbon = 1
Oxygen = 2
CO2
★​ If the number after you divide is something like 1.43 and isn’t close to a whole number,
round it to 1.5 and multiply all numbers by 2

Balancing Equations
➔​ Count all the atoms on each side and add coefficients to make the reactant side and
products side have the same amount of each element
Ex: Na + Cl2 → NaCl
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl

Classifying Reactions
1)​ Synthesis Reaction
1.​ Two or more substances combine to form one compound
-​ 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
2)​ Decomposition Reaction
-​ One substance breaks down to form two or more products
-​ KOH → K+ + OH-
3)​ Single Replacement Reaction
 -​ One element is replaced by another in a reaction
-​ 2NaNO3 + Cl2 → 2NaCl + 2NO3-
4)​Double Replacement Reaction
-​ Elements switch groups
-​ Na2S + Cd(NO3)2 → 2NaNO3 +CdS
5)​Combustion
-​ Burns with O2 and gives off large amounts of energy and light (key indicator is oxygen on
the reactants side)
-​ CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + H2O

Stoichiometry (my nightmares)

Limiting Reactant - The reactant consumed first in a chemical reaction

Excess Reactant - The reactant in excess and is left over in a chemical reaction

How to Identify Limiting and Excess Reactants

Example of identifying limiting and excess reactants:
HCN + CuSO4 = H2SO4 + Cu(CN)2
You have 12.4 grams of hydrogen cyanide and 66.3 grams of copper (II) sulfate. What is the
limiting reactant?
First, balance the equation:
2HCN + CuSO4 = H2SO4 + Cu(CN)2
Then, get the mols of both reactants:

After, you divide both mols by the coefficients in their balanced equation.
0.469
HCN: 2
= 0.235
0.415
Cu(SO4)2: 1 = 0.415
Hydrogen cyanide evidently has less amount of moles than copper (II) sulfate, so hydrogen
cyanide is the limiting reactant.
Although it may have looked like at first copper (II) sulfate was the limiting reactant, you must
make sure you divide by the coefficient. The initial number of moles before you divide does not
always indicate that it’s a limiting reactant.
The other reactant is the excess reactant.
Answer: HCN is the limiting reactant and Cu(SO4)2 is the excess reactant.

Stoichiometry - Involves measuring/calculating the amounts of elements/compounds involved in

a chemical reaction

Mole Ratio - The ratio in the amounts of moles between two compounds (use coefficients
ONLY; if there is nothing for the coefficient, it’s 1) basically you can find this after you balance
ex) C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
Mole ratio for hydrogen in propane (C3H8) to water (H2O) is 4:1 - for every 4 mols of hydrogen
in propane, there is 1 mol of hydrogen in water

How to Stoich:
★​ First step in stoichiometry is always to balance the equation
Example of stoichiometry:
Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen gas to form sulfur trioxide. If 3.4 moles of sulfur dioxide reacts
wiith excess oxygen gas, how many moles of sulfur trioxide will form?
SO2 + O2 → SO3
1.​ Balance: 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
2.​ 3.4 mols SO2x 2 mols SO3 = 3.4 mols SO3​
1​ 2 mols SO2

Example Analysis: First you balance the equations to figure out the mole ratios (how much of a
reactant is needed per product made). Once you’re done balancing, you set up an equation like
shown below:
Note: You will ALWAYS use limiting reactant for theoretical yield
2nd Note: REMEMBER TO USE MOLES NOT GRAMS
​ If they give you only the grams in the equation, remember to convert it to moles before
applying mole ratio. Make sure to check if the problem wants molecules, moles, or grams before
providing the final answer.

Example analysis
➢​ Use the number given to you and put it as the numerator for the leftmost side, and then
multiply it by the mole ratio (mole ratio is <coefficient of compound you’re given the
amount of> to <coefficient of compound you’re tryna find>)

★​ First step in stoichiometry is always to balance the equation

Second Example
Sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen gas to form sulfur trioxide. If 3.4 moles of sulfur dioxide reacts
wiith excess oxygen gas, how many moles of sulfur trioxide will form?
SO2 + O2 → SO3
1.​ Balance: 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
2.​ 3.4 mols SO2 x 2 mols SO3 = 3.4 mols SO3​
1​ 2 mols SO2
Example analysis
➢​ Use the number given to you and put it as the numerator for the leftmost side, and then
multiply it by the mole ratio (mole ratio is <coefficient of compound you’re given the
amount of> to <coefficient of compound you’re tryna find>)

What I got wrong on test:

2Fe + 3 Cl → 2FeCl3
Formation of 2 FeCl3 was from the complete reaction of 2 Fe (is the answer of multiple choice
q)

UNIT 3 NOTES: THERMODYNAMICS

General Overview: Ungodly amounts of equations, Heat V.S. Temperature, Energy
Laws, Endothermic V.S. Exothermic, Enthalpy, Entropy, and a shit ton of diagrams

Thermodynamics - Heat Changes

Heat Temperature

Form of Energy Measurement of heat/energy

Depends on Mass DOES NOT depend on mass

Total sum of energy Average Kinetic Energy (movement of molecules)

Law of Conservation of Energy - Heat loss = Heat gained

-​ Heat is transformed but never destroyed or created
-​ Heat flows from warmer →cooler areas

E = (m)(c)( T)
➔​ E: Change in energy (J) heat loss or gain
➔​ m: Mass (g) of a substance
➔​ c: Specific heat capacity (J/g℃
➔​ T: Change in temperature (℃) [Initial Temperature - Final Temperature)
★​ DO NOT use specific heat capacity as a source of significant figures

Endothermic Reactions
-​ When heat is absorbed from surroundings
-​ Chemical Change: Decrease in temperature
-​ Physical (Phase) Change: Increase in Temperature
-​ E is Positive
-​ Reactant + E → Product
-​ Products > Reactants

Exothermic Reactions
-​ When heat is released into surroundings
 -​ Chemical Change: Increase in Temperature
-​ Physical (Phase Change): Decrease in Temperature
-​ E is Negative
-​ Reactant → Product + E
-​ Reactants > Products

Thermochemical Equations
-​ Balanced Equations
-​ Includes energy term (Absorbs, Releases)

Enthalpy - Energy taken in (absorbed) or given off (released) in a chemical reaction

H = Products - Reactants
➔​ Negative H = exothermic reaction
➔​ Positive H = endothermic reaction
★​ We can calculate H using standard molar enthalpies of formation at 298K

Standard Enthalpy of Formation ← WILL BE ON THE FINAL

-​ The natural state in which atoms are found
a.​ Gases are found in pairs ex) Cl2 N2 O2
b.​ Metals are found by themselves ex) Al Ga Zn
c.​ Noble gases are found by themselves ex) Ne Xe Kr
NO COMPOUNDS WILL BE IN THEIR STANDARD ENTHALPY OF FORMATION, IT IS
NOT THEIR NATURAL STATE

Phase Changes = E = Hx (moles)

★​ H = heat of fusion, vaporization, condensation, freezing, etc.
 ➔​ Melting & Vaporization = Use E = Hx (moles)
➔​ Solid, Liquid, Gas = Use E = (m)(c)( T)

Kinetic Energy - Energy of motion (KE)

➢​ Temperature: Average Kinetic Energy
-​ Higher Temperature = Higher Kinetic Energy
-​ Lower Temperature = Lower Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy - Energy of a position (energy at rest)
➢​ Greater Height = More Potential Energy
Spontaneous Reaction - a physical/chemical change that occurs without outside intervention
(ex: rusting)

Entropy - Measure of disorder/randomness ( S)

➢​ [2nd Law of Thermodynamics] Law of Disorder - spontaneous reactions move towards
more disorder (increase in entropy)
[3rd Law of Thermodynamics] - entropy of a pure crystalline solid at 0K is 0!! (like Cl2, Al)
S = Products - Reactants
If….
➢​ Sproducts > Sreactants (positive) → System > 0
 ➢​ Sproducts < Sreactants (negative) → System < 0

Gibb’s Free Energy - Energy that is able to do work; Takes place at constant temperature and
pressure and predicts whether reaction is spontaneous or nonspontaneous
G = H -T S
➢​ If G Positive - Nonspontaneous
➢​ If G Negative - Spontaneous

What I got wrong on test: ALL ELEMENTS have a heat of formation of 0 kJ/mol (was true/false
q)
 UNIT 4 NOTES: GAS LAWS
General Overview: Gas Laws (no shit sherlock its the title), conversions of
pressure and temperature, Effusion, Diffusion

Pressure - Force per unit area that the particles in the gas exert on the walls of their container
-​ Is measured using a barometer
-​ Gas can be compressed

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

➢​ Temperature (can be any of these units as they are all = to each other)
-​ 0 ℃
-​ 273 K
➢​ Volume (can be any of these units as they are all = to each other)
-​ 22.4 L (liters)
➢​ Pressure (can be any of these units as they are all = to each other)
-​ 101325 Pa (pascals)
-​ 101.325 kPa (kilopascals)
-​ 1.00 atm (atmospheres)
-​ 760 mmHg (millimeters Mercury)
-​ 760 torr

Kinetic Molecular Theory

1.​ Gas molecules are dimensionless points
2.​ Gas molecules move in straight lines
3.​ Particles are in constant motion
4.​ Collisions are perfectly elastic (molecules don’t stick together when they collide)
5.​ More movement = more collisions
6.​ More collisions = more pressure
7.​ Gas molecules DO NOT attract or repel each other
★​ These are assumptions all gas laws follow, real gases behave like ideal gases under
moderate conditions (which is high temp, low pressure)

Boyles Law - Gas volume is inversely proportional to the pressure on the gas when temperature
(T) and moles (n) are constant.
P1V1 = P2V2
★​ When setting it up think of it as Initial PV = Final PV
-​ When Pressure ↑ Volume ↓
-​ When Pressure ↓ Volume ↑
Dalton’s Law - Total Pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial
pressure of the component gas
-​ Partial Pressure - amount of pressure by each individual gas
-​ Constant volume and pressure
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4…

Charles’s Law - At higher temperature, the particles in a gas have greater kinetic energy
-​ the volume of gas is directly proportional to temperature when pressure and number of
moles are constant
V1 = V2
T1 T2
-​ When Temperature ↑ Volume ↑
-​ When Temperature ↓ Volume ↓

Gay Lussac’s Law - When volume and moles are kept constant, pressure and temperature are
directly proportional
P1 = P 2
T1 T2
-​ When Pressure ↑ Temperature ↑
-​ When Pressure ↓ Temperature ↓

Combined Gas Law - All laws put together

P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2

Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT

-​ P = Pressure
-​ V = Volume
-​ n = moles
-​ R = gas law constant (0.0821 L atm/mol k)
-​ T = Temperature

Graham’s Law - molecules are always moving because of Brownian motion; the ratio of rates of
diffusion for gases
-​ Measures how fast gas moves through a perfume
-​ If Temperature is constant →Kinetic Energy of Gases = Same
KE = ½mv² where m - mass & v - velocity
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐵
Diffusion Rate: 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏
= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐴
^ same stuff v
Effusion Rate (how gas escapes):
(effusion is solved the same way as diffusion - courtesy of Kalei Dacayanan)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐴
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎
= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐵
-​ a = the light and fast gas
-​ b = heavier and slower gas
★​ Rate is dependent on how heavier b is to a
★​ REMEMBER the number on top is always greater than the number on bottom!
★​ At same temp RATE IS THE SAME (this is the q a lot of ppl got wrong on test)

Molar Volume - 6.02 x 1023 molecules of any gas at STP will occupy 22.4L
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 22.4 𝐿
-​ Avogadro’s Principle ( 22.4 𝐿 = 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
)

𝑉 𝑉
Avogadro’s Law: 𝑛
1
= 𝑛
2

1 2

What i got wrong:

UNIT 5 NOTES: QUANTUM CHEMISTRY

General Overview: the shittiest unit ever, use ur fucking brain its quantum
numbers, periodic trends

➢​ Each electron within an atom can be described by a set of 4 Quantum Numbers: n, l, m, s

-​ Consider this like the address of an electron
-​ Pauli Exclusion Principle - No two electrons have the same set of quantum
numbers

n - Principle Quantum Number

-​ Describes the energy level of electrons
-​ Can be numbers 1-7
-​ Each energy level can have a certain amount of electrons: 2n2 (up to 32 electrons)
l - Azimuthal Quantum Number
-​ Describes the energy orbital shape
-​ Orbital - region of space around a nucleus; high probability of finding electron
Orbital Value Number of Electrons

Sphere 0 2 electrons

Principle 1 6 electrons

Diffuse 2 10 electrons

Fundamental 3 14 electrons
★​ To find l: energy level (n) - 1 (for example: if n = 4 then it can be a s, p, d, or f (4-1 =3);
4s = 4th energy level in sphere orbital)
★​ Easier way to remember: if the element is:
-​ In the s block, l=0
-​ In the p block, l=1
-​ In the d block, l=2
-​ In the f block, l=3

m - Magnetic Quantum Number

-​ How electron is oriented on an axis
-​ Values are from -l to l (ex: if value is f then -3, -2. -1. 0, 1, 2, 3 are all possible m values)
s - Spin of the electron
-​ Electrons in the same spin in opposite directions
-​ 2 spins: +½ up spin ↑ or -½ down spin ↓

Electron Configuration - arrangment of electron in an atom

-​ Afbau Principle - Electrons fill lowest energy first
-​ Electron Orbital Diagram - Shows how electrons are arranged in the nucleus of an atom
-​ Paramagnetism weak magnetism as a result of unpaired electron↑ (weak magnetic field)
-​ Diamagnetism - no magnetic attraction because all electrons are paired ↑↓

Diagonal Rule
Isoelectronic - atoms that have the same number of electrons, and electron configuration

d exceptions
-​ Filled energy levels are more stable (d9 column) (all 10 are filled)
Ex: Cu (29 electrons) →1s22s22p63s23p63s24s23d9
Change:​ ​ ​ ​ 4p13d10
-​ Half filled energy levels are next best
Ex: Cr (24 electrons) →1s22s22p63s24s23s23p64s23d4
Change: ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 4s13d5

Evaluate Configuration
1.​ Ground State
-​ Named diagonal rule order
2.​ Excited State
-​ Skips
3.​ Impossible
-​ Just plain wrong (use your fucking head :))

Periodic Trends
Metals - hard, shiny, luster, good conductors, malleable, form positive ions by losing electrons
Nonmetals - usually gases or dull and brittle solids, good insulators, form negative ions by
gaining electrons
Metalloids (Semi-Metals) - have both properties (staircase)
Trend = General Pattern
1)​ Atomic Radius: measure of size (nucleus to outermost electron)

2)​
 Ionic Radius

3)​ Ionization Energy (IE) and Elctronegativity (EN)

➔​ Ionization Energy: energy required to remove the outermost electron of the
gaseous atom (energy to hold on to electrons)
-​ Noble Gases: Lowest EN (do not want electrons) but Highest IE (do not
want to lose electrons)
➔​ Electronegativity - tendency to attract electrons within a bond (0-4); strength to
steal electrons (most EN are short by 1)
-​ Fluorine = Highest EN
★​ Noble gases have the most IE, least EN

4)​ Shielding Effect

➔​ inner electrons block outer electrons from positive pull of the nucleus; outer
electrons are held with less force
➔​ explains why some atoms are larger than others

5)​ Metallic Character

➔​ Having metallic properties like conductivity, forming positive cations, etc.

What i got wrong:

Elements in the same family (column) have similar electron configurations
Atoms called photons emit bright line spectrum unique to each element
Shielding effect causes atoms to have bigger than expected radii
When n=6, l=1, m =-2, s=+½ it’s impossible because m has to be -1, 0, or 1
UNIT 6 NOTES: CHEMICAL BONDS
General Overview: Ionic Nomenclature, Ionic Compounds, Hydrates, Covalent
Compounds, Covalent Nomenclature, Bonds, etc.

Properties of Ionic Compounds

1.​ All ionic compounds are called salt
2.​ Composed of well-organized, tightly bonded ions
3.​ Form a strong 3D crystal structure
4.​ Ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temp.

Ionic Nomenclature
★​ Metal + Nonmetal
★​ Before naming an ionic compound, ALWAYS make sure to determine if the metal’s
charge is fixed or variable.
​ ​ Fixed - Groups 1 and 2 (+1 and +2 charge), Ag+1, Zn+2, Cd+2, Al+3

Naming Fixed Charged Ionic Compounds

1.​ Name the first element (the metal) as the element
2.​ Name the second element (nonmetal) as the element but with the -ide ending
Ex: NaCl - Sodium Chloride
Ex: AlN -Aluminum Nitride

Naming Variably Charged Ionic Compounds

1.​ Name the compound as you would name a fixed-charged ionic compound
2.​ Find the charge of the metal (the first element) and add it to the first part in parentheses
Ex: FeCl2 - Iron (II) Chloride
Ex: Cu3P - Copper (III) Phosphide

Ions in Solution and Hydrates

➔​ Hydrates - Crystal structure that contains an anhydrous salt and water; are hygroscopic
➔​ Anhydrous salt - can obtain by heating and evaporating the water
➔​ Desiccator - enclosed structure that prevents water absorption

Dissolving of Ionic Compounds

➔​ Ionic compounds break apart and dissociate into their ions when placed in water
➔​ Called aqueous solutions (aq)
Writing an Equation for the Dissociation of an Ionic Compound
1.​ You literally just dissociate it and balance bruh idk what more you want
ex) Calcium Phosphate → Ca3(PO4)2
 Dissociates into calcium ions and phosphate ions; Ca+2 and PO4-3
Balance: 3Ca+2 and 2PO4-3
Naming Hydrates
➔​ Ionic compound is named normally + hydrate named by using greek number prefixes
monohydrate H2O

dihydrate 2H2O

trihydrate 3H2O

tetrahydrate 4H2O

pentahydrate 5H2O

hexahydrate 6H2O

heptahydrate 7H2O

octahydrate 8H2O

nonahydrate 9H2O

decahydrate 10H2O

How to Solve for Hydrates

1.​ cry
2.​ Subtract end result from original amount to solve for mass of water
3.​ Convert both water and salt for moles
4.​ Divide by lowest value
5.​ Name ;-;

ex) If a 5.00g sample of a hydrate of copper (II) chloride produces 3.58g of anhydrous copper
(II) chloride after heating, what is the formula of the hydrate?
5.00g (total mass of hydrate + copper II chloride) - 3.38g (anhydrous copper (II) chloride) =
1.42g (of water)
Copper (II) Chloride: 0.358 x 1 mol = 0.0266 = 1
​ ​ 1 134.45 0.0266
Water: 1.42 x 1 mol = 0.788 = 3
1 18.02 0.0266
CuCl2 · 3H2O
Copper (II) Chloride Trihydrate
Example Analysis: it’s pretty similar to empirical formula, you get the mols of CuCl2 and water
and then divide both by the smallest number of mols of the two. After that it’s only a matter of
putting down the coefficients and yayayy

Covalent Nomenclature
➢​ Nonmetal + Nonmetal
Naming based on Greek prefixes
1 mono-

2 di-

3 tri-

4 tetra-

5 penta-

6 hexa-

7 hepta-

8 octa-

9 nona-

10 deca-
ex) N2O3 - dinitrogen trioxide​​ PCl5 - Phosphorus pentachloride

★​ Key things to look for to identify if it’s an ionic compound or covalent compound
Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds

2 or more elements Only 2 elements

One metal and one nonmetal (if it has Both nonmetals

roman numerals in the name, then ionic)

Lewis Dot Structures

Electron Dot Structures - Diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule
Octet Rule - atoms try and have 8 electrons in valence shell

Exceptions to this Rule:

Hydrogen (H) Helium (He) Beryllium (Be) Boron (B)

Max electrions 2 4 4 6
 Max bonds 1 2 2 3

How to Identify How Many Valence Electrons an Element has Using the Periodic Table:

Disregard the transition metals cuz they vary but besides that, we just count from left to right and
whatever number you land on is the one for that column
-​ ex) Carbon → 4 valence electrons; Neon → 8 valence electrons; Cs → 1 valence
electron

Oh lord diagrams are gonna be so hard to draw dsjfusdfhag here we goo

Types of Bonds:
1.​ Single Bond - A chemical bond in which one pair of electrons are shared between two
atoms (is the longest and weakest)

2.​ Double bond - basically two single bonds you dumb shit
One double bond shares 4 electrons
 3.​ Triple bond - kinda in the name too
One triple bond has 6 electrons (is the shortest and strongest)

James Bond - A British secret agent working for MI6 under the codename 007
ex)

Lewis Structure for ions:

Expanded Octet - Elements with ≥5e- can have an expanded octet

​
Dude lewis structures are a pain to draw

Lone pairs - a pair of valence electrons that are not shared with another atom
VSEPR Theory
-​ Stands for Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
-​ The 3D shapes of molecules can be predicted if we assume that electron pairs stay as far
apart as possible
Electron Clouds - elements of electron pairs attached to center atom
Bonded Pairs - elements attached to center atom
Nonbonded Pairs (lone pairs) - electron pairs attached to center atom
Bond Types
➔​ Bonding - The types of bonds depend on the electronegativities of the elements involved
➔​ Electronegativity (EN) - the attraction an atom has for a shared pair of electrons

Two Divisions of Bonds

1.​ Intramolecular
-​ Bonds with a molecule
-​ ex) H-Cl
2.​ Intermolecular
-​ Bonds between multiple molecules
-​ ex) H-Cl--H-Cl
Intramolecular Bonds
1.​ Ionic Bonds
➔​ Usually metal to nonmetal
➔​ Electron are transferred
➔​ Positive and negative ions attract each other as a and form crystalline structures
➔​ Dissociate in water
➔​ Conduct electricity
 2.​ Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
➔​ Usually nonmetal to nonmetal
➔​ Electrons are shared by having orbitals overlap
➔​ Nonconductors
3.​ Polar Covalent Bonds
➔​ Electrons are still shared but not equally

Intermolecular Bonds -occur between polar and nonpolar covalent molecules

1.​ Van der Waal
2.​ Hydrogen bonds
-​ Hydrogen is attracted to and to N,O, or F from another molecule in a polar
covalent molecule
3.​ Dipole-Dipole
-​ Occurs in polar molecules
-​ Bond between any elements with polarity except hydrogen bonds with F, O, N
4.​ London Forces
-​ Momentary dipoles in all molecules (polar AND nonpolar)

★​ Strength of Forces
○​ Ionic → Polar Covalent → Nonpolar Covalent → Hydrogen → Dipole-Dipole →
London Forces

If the electronegativity difference is..

1.​ less than 0.5, the bond is nonpolar covalent
2.​ between 0.5 and 1.6, the bond is polar covalent
3.​ greater than 2.0, the the bond is ionic

Metallic Bonds
-​ “Sea of electrons”
-​ Electrons are free to move
-​ Responsible for metal’s luster
-​ Conductors

What i got wrong: London Forces occur in ALL molecules (true/false q)

In covalent bonds, there is a higher boiling point than expected
UNIT 7 NOTES: MOLARITY
Overview: Mostly vocabulary, solution stuff, Beer’s Law (no not the alcohol), Colligative
Properties, etc.
dude i swear this unit was easy idk how i did so bad - jeffrey

Surface Tension - energy required to increase surface area

➔​ Measure of inward pull by particles in the interior
➔​ Stronger attraction between particles = stronger surface tension
➔​ Surfactants - compounds that lower surface tension (ex. Soap, Detergent)

Compounds of a Solution
Solution - Homogeneous mixtures (solute dissolved in solvent)
➔​ Solute - getting dissolved (smaller amount)
➔​ Solvent - does the dissolving (larger amount)
-​ Water = Universal Solvent (BUT IF THERE’S MORE SMTH THAN WATER
THAN WATER CAN BE THE SOLUTE, MAKE SURE TO WATCH FOR
VALUES!)

Type of Concentration to Solutions

Concentrated - How much solute is in a solvent
➔​ Saturated - maximum amount of concentration
➔​ Unsaturated - Can add more solute (space left)
➔​ Supersaturated - abnormally more solute than possible (UNSTABLE just like me :D)
-​ Can be done by changing the temperature

Solubility
➔​ Miscible - no limit to solubility
➔​ Immiscible - never able to dissolve

Aqueous - between solid and liquid (state of matter)

Solvation - Process of surrounding solute particles with solvent particles to form a solution

FACTORS THAT AFFECT RATE OF A SOLUTION DISSOLVING

1.​ Pressure (Gases)
 2.​ Temperature
-​ Solids: Temperature ↑ then Solubility ↑ and vice versa
-​ Gasses: Temperature ↑ then Solubility ↓ and vice versa
3.​ Structure
➔​ Nonpolar dissolves nonpolar
➔​ Polar dissolves polar
-​ > 0.1M dissolve →insoluble
-​ 0.1 M > → soluble

Henry’s Law: As Pressure Increases, Solubility Increases (GASSES ONLY)

𝑆 𝑆
-​ 𝑃
1
= 𝑃
2

1 2

Percent Composition & Dilution

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
➔​ Percent Mass: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
➔​ Percent Volume: 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
➔​ Dilution: M1V1 = M2V2

Beer’s Law - each molecule of solute absorbs the same fraction of light regardless of
concentration in a non-absorbing medium
➔​ Absorbance & Light = Linear Relationship

Molarity - how concentrated a solution is

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
➔​ 𝑀 = 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Molality - measure of concentration

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
➔​ 𝑚 = 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

★​ Yes, the M and the m makes a difference. M is for Molarity while m is for Molality

Colligative Properties
 1.​ Freezing Point - Adding solute to solvent; particles are in the way; lead to lower freezing
point (depression what every high schooler has)
2.​ Boiling Point - adding solute to solvent, more energy required to change to gas; boiling
point is higher (elevation)
3.​ Osmotic Pressure - Pressure required to prevent osmosis (remember that shit from bio?
Semipermeable membrane and all)
➔​ Isotonic - solute is equal inside and out
➔​ Hypertonic - more solute outside cell
➔​ Hypotonic - more solute inside cell
4.​ Vapor Pressure

What i got wrong:

Freezing point rises when diluted with water
Lowering temperature can make something saturated

UNIT 8 NOTES: RATES

General Overview: Rate, collision theory, rate law equation, activation energy
graph, reaction order, equilibrium, Le Chatelier, Keq, Ksp

Rate -measure of changes in a chemical reaction over time (rate of disappearance of

reactants and rate of appearance of products)
Collision Theory - atoms, ions and molecules must collide with enough kinetic energy
and correct orientation to rearrange and form chemical bonds
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
1.​ Nature of Reactant
➔​ Shape
➔​ Surface area
➔​ Size
➔​ Electronegativity
➔​ Ability to lose/gain e-
2.​ Concentration of Reactants
➔​ Higher concentration = Faster Rate
3.​ Temperature Increase
➔​ Every 10℃ → Rate Doubles
4.​ Catalyst - substance that increases rate of reaction without being consumed by
reaction
➔​ Lowers Ea
5.​ Inhibitor - substance that decreases rate without being consumed by reaction
Rate Law Equation = k[R]x
➔​ k = rate constant (only changes with temp)
➔​ x = coefficient of reactant
★​ ONLY reactants in gaseous/aqueous state are included

Potential Energy Graphs

➔​ Activation energy
-​ energy needed to make product (B)
➔​ Energy of reactants (A)
➔​ Energy of products (D)
➔​ Enthalpy (negative for exothermic; positive for endothermic) (D minus A)
➔​ Activated Complex (TOP OF C)
Boltzmann Curve

★​ T2 is higher temperature because you make more products at a lower temperature

Equilibrium Rules
 1.​ Reactions are reversible
2.​ Both reactions are occurring at the same time
3.​ Forward and Reverse reactions occur at same rate
4.​ Closed system (nothing changes)
5.​ Started Reaction with either reactant or product
6.​ Temperature, pressure, and concentration kept constant

Le Chatelier's Principle
➔​ Stress (what you probably have while reading all of this) - any change in
concentration, temperature, pressure, or volume
➔​ If a stress is added to a system in an equilibrium, the system counteracts that
change and reaches a new state of equilibrium

➔​ Shift Right - products are favored, forward rxn speeds up

➔​ Shift Left - Reactants favored, reverse rxn speeds up

Changes in Concentration/Temperature
➔​ Increase - reaction shifts away from change
➔​ Decrease - reaction shifts towards change

Changes in Pressure and Volume

➔​ increase pressure = decrease volume
★​ REMEMBER BOYLE’S GAS LAW: shift towards side with less gas
moles
➔​ decrease pressure = increase volume: shift towards side with more gas
moles
➔​ same gas mol ratio: equilibrium does not change
★​ ONLY AFFECTS GASSES
★​ Equilibrium Expression (Keq)
 ➔​ Ratio between products and reactants
➔​ ONLY gaseous/aqueous state are included
-​ Keq > 1 = products favored
-​ Keq < 1 = reactants favored
-​ Keq = 1 = equilibrium

Calculate Keq
1.​ Balance equation
2.​ Write Keq omitting solids and liquids

Extra
-​ Acid removes OH- and Base removes H+
What i got wrong:
-​ In exothermic reactions, products have less energy than reactants
-​ Adding H2SO4 is adding go 2H+ not H2O

Solubility Product Constant (Ksp)

➔​ Indicates how much substance will dissociate in water
➔​ Written same way as Keq
UNIT 9 NOTES: ACIDS AND BASES
General Overview: Acids, Bases, pH, pOH, Nomenclature, Dissociation
Constants, Buffers, Titration

Acid
➔​ Arrhenius Definition: compound with the more [H+] ions
➔​ Bronsted-Lowry Definition: compound that can donate [H+] ions
➔​ Description: Sour
-​ Ex: citrus fruits

Base
➔​ Arrhenius Definition: compound with the more [OH-] ions
➔​ Bronsted-Lowry Definition: compound receives [H+] ions
➔​ Description: Bitter, Soapy, Slippery
-​ Ex: coffee, tea

Acids Nomenclature
1.​ If the compound ends with -ate then drop -ate and change it to -ic
Ex: HNO3 ←NO3 = Nitrate ic→Nitric Acid
2.​ If the compound ends with -ite then drop -ite and change it to -ous
Ex: H3PO3 ←PO3 = Phosphite orous →Phosphorous Acid
3.​ If the compound ends with -ide then add prefix hydro- and change -ide to -ic
E: HCl ←Chloride ic→ Hydro- + Chloric = Hydrochloric Acid

How to Identify Acids and Bases

➔​ You can generally identify an acid with the H in front of the compound
➔​ You can generally identify a base with OH the compound will have
★​ Strong Acids & Strong Bases form water and salt.

Electrolytes - compounds when dissociated can conduct electricity (ionization)

1.​ Strong Electrolytes - dissociate completely = strong electricity conductors
2.​ Weak Electrolytes - dissociate partially = partial/weak electricity conductors
3.​ Nonelectrolytes - covalent bonds that do not dissociate = no electricity

Dissociation Constant for Acids & Bases

𝑥
[𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠]
Ka or Kb = 𝑦
[𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠]
➔​ Acids & Bases have t same equation for dissociation constant
➔​ ONLY GASEOUS & AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
➔​ Coefficients are exponents (x & y)
Common Reactions
1.​ Acid + Metals = H2 (hydrogen gas) & salt
2.​ Acid + Carbonate = CO2 (Carbon Dioxide), H2O (water), & salt

pH, pOH, [OH-], & [H+]

➔​ Measure of the [OH-] or the [H+] ions in a solution (concentration)
-​ [H3O+] > [OH-] → acidic
-​ [H3O+] < [OH-] → basic
-​ [H3O+] = [OH-] → neutral

Titration - process of neutralizing acids and bases

➔​ Usually solve for unknown molarity/molar mass of a solid
➔​ Endpoint - When the indicator changes color
➔​ Equivalence Point - When the moles of acid = moles of base

Bronsted-Lowry
Conjugated Acids/Bases - acids and bases that differ by a proton
➔​ Can be identified as the opposite of what it was on the reactants
Ex: If a compound is a Acid on Reactants then it is a Conjugate Base on Products
➔​ Amphoteric - when a substance can act as an acid and a base (ex: H2O [water])

Protic - related to hydrogen ions

➔​ Monoprotic - 1 hydrogen ion to give away
➔​ Polyprotic - 2 or more hydrogen ions to give away

Buffers - Chemicals that can change the pH levels based on how much of a H+ ion or OH- is
added in limits
➔​ The solution can resist any changes by reacting with H+ OH- ions
➔​ Consists of a mixture of…
1.​ Weak Acid & Conjugate Base
2.​ Weak Base & Conjugate Acid
➔​ Buffer Capacity - Limited (Maximum) amount of acid or base a buffered solution can
take
UNIT 10 NOTES: REDOX REACTIONS
​ General Overview: Reduction, Oxidation, Oxidation Numbers, Electrochemistry,
Voltaic Cells
JEFFREY SHIM REETAKSHI MISHRA JEFFREY SHIM
IS DOING UNIT 10 DO NOT TOUCH THESE NOTES
REETAKSHI MISHRA JEFFREY SHIM REETAKSHI
MISHRA I WANNA DO IT
And then none of them ended up doing it
ALL U LAZY PPL SMH IM DOING IT -nour

Redox Reactions

➔​ Charge on the right side of the equation : Oxidation

-​ Li → e- + Li+
➔​ Charge on the left side of the equation : Reduction
-​ Mg2++ 2e- → Mg

Acronym: Leo the lion says Ger

L ose​ ​ ​ ​ the​ ​ ​ ​ G ain
E lectrons​ ​ ​ lion​ ​ ​ ​ E lectrons
O xidized​ ​ ​ says​ ​ ​ ​ R educed

Oxidation Numbers
➔​ Equal the charge of the atom
➔​ Rules:
1.​ Oxidation number of hydrogen is +1, accept in metal hydrides (behind a metal),
then it is -1
2.​ Oxidation number of oxygen is -2 unless it is in H2O2 then it is -1
3.​ Group 1 elements have an oxidation number of +1, group 2 elements have an
oxidation number of +2
4.​ All elements on their own have a charge of 0, unless they are charged (an ion),
then their oxidation number equals the charge.
5.​ Fluorine has an oxidation number of -1
6.​ The oxidation number of a compound/ion must add up to the charge (if there is no
charge, then it should equal 0)
Oxidizing/Reducing Agents
➔​ Oxidizing Agents
1.​ Causes the other substance to be oxidized
2.​ Is reduced itself
➔​ Reducing Agents
3.​ Causes the other substance to be reduced
4.​ Is oxidized itself

UNIT 11 NOTES: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

General Overview: Radiation, Chemical V.S. Nuclear, Fission, Fusion, Types of
Nuclear Decay

Differences Between Chemical and Nuclear Reaction

Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions

1.​ Occurs when bonds are broken and 1. Occurs when nuclei emits particle or rays
reformed (alpha, gamma, beta)

1.​ Atoms do not change 2. Atoms can be converted into another

element (H+H=He)

2.​ Involves valence electrons 3. Involves protons, electrons, and neutrons

3.​ Small energy Change (Expressed in Kj 4. Large energy change (expressed in volt)
or J)

4.​ Rate is influence by temperature, 5. Rate is normally affected by factors that

pressure, concentration and catalysis influence chemical reactions

5.​ Mass is conserved (reactants mass is 6. Nuclear reactions are balanced through
the same as the product) both mass and energy.

Radiation
➔​ Energy or particles emitted by a radioactive source and travel through a medium or space.
(move through something)

Nuclear Radiotracer
➔​ Molecules bonded to a radioactive element
➔​ Used to assess bodily functions and help diagnose/treat disease (pet scan)
Alpha Decay
➔​ Nucleus is too heavy
➔​ Releases 2 protons and 2 neutrons
➔​ Weakest radiation

Beta Decay
➔​ Unstable due to too many neutrons vs protons
➔​ When a neutrons turns into a proton (along with electron)

Gamma Radiation
➔​ High-energy (short wavelength)
➔​ Electromagnetic radiation
➔​ No mass change just radiation

Positron Emission
➔​ Particle with same mass as electron but opposite charge
➔​ A proton is converted into a neutron while releasing a positron
Electron Capture
➔​ Unstable atoms below band of stability capture an electron to become more stable
➔​ A proton and electron produce a neutron
➔​ Atomic number decreases
➔​ X-ray given off

Kinds of reactions
1.​ Chemical - atoms rearrange to form new things, changes chemical bond
2.​ Physical - Same composition with change of state
3.​ Nuclear - New atoms are formed, nucleus different (transmutation)

Measuring Length of Decay

➔​ Half-life measures the time it takes of the nuclei in a radioactive sample to decay
➔​ Half life are constant (exact time)

Radiochemical Dating
➔​ Age is determined by measuring the amount of radioisotope remaining. Living things use
carbon dating.

Nuclear Fission
➔​ Atom split by chain reaction
➔​ Large output of energy
➔​ Used in weapons and nuclear power plant
➔​ Reaction begin with neutron
Pros
-​ Much more effective energy source compared to coal
-​ No pollution (through nuclear waste)
-​ Avoid usage of nonrenewable energy sources (coal and fossil fuel)
Cons
-​ Uranium is difficult and expensive to find
-​ Reaction can be controlled by no stopped
-​ Lots of toxic waste that last a long time
-​ Possible issues of reactor safety (3 mile island, Chernobyl, Fukushima)

Fusion
➔​ Two hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form a helium nuclei
➔​ Requires a very hot environment (uses fission to get heat)
➔​ Fuel is inexpensive and abundant
➔​ No toxic waste
➔​ Reaction can be stopped
Nuclear Chemistry
➔​ Lost Mass is proportional to energy given off
➔​ Mass Defect - the difference in mass between an isotope and its mass
➔​ Binding Energy - the energy that holds a nucleus together and released when an atom
loses mass

What i got wrong:

Hydrogen bombs operate on fusion
Radiotracers have a short half life
Final Exam List Breakdown
Unit 1
Uncertainty - estimated degree of error in a measurement, things measured with an instrument
are always considered uncertain
Pure substances vs mixtures -
Pure Substances Mixtures

Elements and compounds, atoms, molecules 2 or more kinds of matter with separate identities

Difficult to separate or put together Easily separated

Constant boiling and freezing points Heterogenous

Homogenous

Significant figures -
1.​ All nonzero numbers and zeros between nonzero numbers are significant
2.​ Preceding zeros are never significant
3.​ When a decimal follows a nonzero number, all are significant
4.​ Trailing zeros without a decimal are not significant unless indicated by a bar over the
zero
5.​ All numbers in scientific notation are significant excluding the case and the exponent
6.​ Exact numbers are treated as having an infinite number of significant figures

Unit 2 (STUDY THIS UNIT)

Empirical formula - Refer back to Unit 2
Balancing equations - Refer back to Unit 2
Stoichiometry - Refer back to Unit 2
Limiting Reactant - Refer back to Unit 2
Theoretical Yield vs Actual Yield - Theoretical yield is how much of a product you will end up
with under perfect circumstances, while actual yield
Percent yield - The measurement of how much product you got from how much you were
supposed to get theoretically​ ​ Equation: Actual Yield x 100
Mole Bridge​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Theoretical Yield

Hydrates

Unit 3 (STUDY THIS UNIT)

Heating curves/PE graphs
Phase change diagrams
E=mΔT
Boltzmann curve
Enthalpy, ΔH
Entropy, ΔS
Gibbs Free Energy, ΔG
ΔH = Hp - He
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
Endothermic vs Exothermic
Standard Enthalpy of Formation

Unit 4 (STUDY THIS UNIT)

Boyle’s Law
Charles Law
Gas Law graphs
Combined Gas Law
Ideal Gas Law
Kinetic Molecular Theory
Effusion vs. Diffusion
KE = 1/2mv2
Graham’s Law

Unit 5
Pauli Exclusion Principle
Periodic table trends
Valence electrons
n, l, m, s
Groups/Families
Electron configuration
s, p, d, f

Unit 6
Polar vs Nonpolar bonds
Dipoles
Intramolecular bonds
Intermolecular bonds
Covalent Naming
Ionic Naming​
Lewis Dot Structure
Shapes

Unit 7
Molarity

Unit 8
Arrhenius acids and bases
Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases
pH
Acid nomenclature

Unit 9
Le Chatelier principle
Equilibrium
Keq

Unit 11
Types of decay
Half-life problems

Post Final Analysis

Most of the final was units 2, 3, and 4, it was very mathy.
Know:
Precise but not accurate
Uncertainty
Empirical
Gibb’s Law
Remember to balance equations
Number of ATOMS are the same for product and reactants
Principal energy level, orbitals know what they represent
Nuclear decay