Section 6.

1
● What is habituation and how does it differ from sensitization?
Habituation is when an organism decreases its response to a repeated stimulus over time. For
example, if you move near train tracks, the sound of the train might initially be distracting, but
over time, you stop noticing it.
Sensitization is the opposite—when an organism’s response increases after repeated
exposure to a stimulus. For example, if you hear a dripping faucet while trying to sleep, the
sound might become more irritating over time.
● What is Pavlov’s model of classical conditioning? Describe it.

Pavlov’s classical conditioning model involves learning through association. He conditioned

dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by repeatedly pairing it with food. The process involved:

1.​ Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – food, which naturally triggers salivation.

2.​ Unconditioned response (UCR) – salivation, an automatic reaction to food.
3.​ Neutral stimulus (NS) – a bell, which initially does not cause salivation.
4.​ Conditioned stimulus (CS) – after repeated pairings, the bell alone elicits salivation.
5.​ Conditioned response (CR) – salivation in response to the bell alone.

● Know the difference between a neutral stimulus, a conditioned and unconditioned

stimulus, and a conditioned and unconditioned response.
Neutral stimulus (NS): Does not naturally trigger a response (e.g., a bell before conditioning).
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).
Unconditioned response (UCR): Natural reaction to UCS (e.g., salivation).
Conditioned stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, but after association with UCS, triggers a
response (e.g., the bell after conditioning).
Conditioned response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation when hearing the bell).

● Understand how complex behaviours can result from classical conditioning.

Complex behaviors can develop through associative learning. For example, if a child
experiences anxiety every time they enter a classroom due to a past negative
experience, the classroom itself can become a conditioned stimulus for anxiety.

● What is acquisition? Be able to provide an example.

Acquisition is the process of learning the association between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus.
Example: A dog learning that a bell predicts food.

● What is extinction? Be able to provide an example.

Extinction occurs when the conditioned response weakens because the conditioned stimulus is
presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Example: If Pavlov’s dogs repeatedly heard the bell but received no food, they would stop
salivating.
● Describe spontaneous recovery and renewal effects.
Spontaneous recovery: The return of a conditioned response after a period of rest without
further training.
Renewal effect: The return of a conditioned response when an organism is placed in a different
environment where the original learning occurred.

● What is the difference between stimulus generalization and stimulus

discrimination?
Stimulus generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned
stimulus (e.g., a dog salivates to a different-sounding bell).
Stimulus discrimination: Learning to differentiate between similar stimuli (e.g., a dog salivates
only to a specific bell tone).

● What is higher-order conditioning? Describe how it works.

Higher-order conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is used to condition another
stimulus.
Example: A dog learns that a bell (CS) predicts food. If a light is paired with the bell, the light
alone may eventually trigger salivation

● How does classical conditioning relate to phobias?

Phobias can develop when a neutral stimulus is paired with a fear-inducing event (e.g.,
a child bitten by a dog develops a fear of all dogs).

● How does classical conditioning relate to drug tolerance and overdose.

Drug users develop tolerance because their bodies prepare for the drug in specific
environments. If they take the same dose in a new environment, the body doesn’t
prepare, leading to overdose.

● How does classical conditioning relate to conditioned fetishism.

Fetishes may develop when sexual arousal becomes linked to a neutral object (e.g.,
associating a particular fabric with arousal due to past experiences).

Section 6.2
● Be able to distinguish between operant conditioning and classical conditioning
Classical conditioning: Learning through association.
Operant conditioning: Learning through consequences (rewards/punishments).

● Describe Thorndike’s law of effect.

Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated,
while behaviors followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated.
● How did Thorndike’s puzzle box experiments lead to his idea that learning occurs by trial and
error?
Cats placed in a puzzle box had to learn how to escape by trial and error. Over time,
they escaped faster, showing learning through reinforcement.

● Be able to explain reinforcement (both positive and negative). Be able to provide examples of
each.
Positive reinforcement: Adding something desirable (e.g., giving a child candy for good
behavior).
Negative reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant (e.g., taking painkillers to relieve a
headache).

● Be able to explain punishment (both positive and negative). Be able to provide examples of
each.
Positive punishment: Adding something unpleasant (e.g., getting a speeding ticket).
Negative punishment: Removing something desirable (e.g., losing video game privileges).

● Know the four schedules of reinforcement (fixed and variable ratio; fixed and variable interval)
and response patterns from each.
Fixed ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (high response rate, quick
burnout).
Variable ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (steady response
rate, e.g., slot machines).
Fixed interval: Reinforcement after a set time (responses increase as time approaches, e.g.,
studying before an exam).
Variable interval: Reinforcement at unpredictable times (slow, steady responses, e.g., pop
quizzes).

● What are the pros and cons (or positives and negatives) for each schedule of reinforcement.
Fixed Ratio (FR) – Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

●​ Pros: High response rate, efficient for learning new behaviors.

●​ Cons: Post-reinforcement pause (temporary drop in behavior after reward), burnout.
●​ Example: Factory workers getting paid per 10 products made.

Variable Ratio (VR) – Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

●​ Pros: High, steady response rate; resistant to extinction.

●​ Cons: Hard to establish; can lead to compulsive behaviors (e.g., gambling).
●​ Example: Slot machines.

Fixed Interval (FI) – Reinforcement after a set time has passed.

●​ Pros: Predictable, encourages consistent behavior before reward time.

 ●​ Cons: Scalloped response pattern—behavior increases as reinforcement time nears,
then drops.
●​ Example: Studying increases before an exam.

Variable Interval (VI) – Reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals.

●​ Pros: Steady, moderate response rate; resistant to extinction.

●​ Cons: Slow learning; unpredictable rewards.
●​ Example: Pop quizzes or checking for social media notifications.

● What is shaping?
Gradually reinforcing behaviors that lead to a desired behavior (e.g., teaching a dog to
roll over by rewarding each small step).
● What are some applications of operant conditioning?
Education: Using positive reinforcement in classrooms (e.g., rewarding students for
participation).
Parenting: Time-outs (negative punishment) or rewards for good behavior.
Workplace Productivity: Bonuses and commission-based salaries.
Behavior Therapy: Treating phobias through gradual exposure and reinforcement.

● What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?

Primary reinforcers: Naturally satisfying (e.g., food, water).
Secondary reinforcers: Learned value (e.g., money, praise).

● Describe two-process theory.

Two-process theory explains how both classical and operant conditioning interact in
learning.
Example: A person with a dog phobia (classically conditioned fear) avoids dogs (operant
conditioning—negative reinforcement because avoiding dogs reduces fear).

Section 6.3
● Describe S-O-R psychology and how it differs from S-R psychology
S-R (Stimulus-Response) psychology: Behavior is a direct response to stimuli.
S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response) psychology: Internal mental states (O) mediate
responses.

● Define latent learning.

Learning that occurs but isn’t demonstrated until there’s a motivation to use it.

● How did Tolman and Honzik’s Maze trials show latent learning?
Rats learned a maze without rewards but only showed learning when rewarded later.

● What are cognitive maps? How did Tolman’s starburst maze study relate to cognitive maps?
Cognitive maps: Mental representations of spatial environments.
Tolman’s study: Rats in a maze learned the layout even without rewards, showing they had an
internalized map rather than just learning through trial and error.

● What is observational learning?

Learning by watching others (e.g., a child mimicking a parent's behavior).

● How did Bandura’s bobo doll experiments relate to observational learning and childhood
aggression?
Children who watched aggressive behavior toward a Bobo doll were more likely to act
aggressively themselves.

● Know what mirror neurons are and how they relate to observational learning.
Mirror neurons fire both when performing an action and when watching someone else perform
it.
Role in learning: Helps with imitation, empathy, and understanding others’ actions (e.g.,
watching someone play an instrument helps you learn it).
Related to social learning: Explains how children pick up behaviors by watching adults.

Section 6.4
● Be able to explain how/why specific phobias and aversions are easier to learn than others
(biological preparedness)
Biological preparedness: We are evolutionarily wired to develop fears of threats (e.g., snakes,
heights) more easily than modern dangers (e.g., electrical outlets).
Example: People develop phobias of spiders more easily than cars, even though cars are more
dangerous.

● What are conditioned taste aversions? How are they different from other forms of classical
conditioning?
Conditioned taste aversions: Developing a strong dislike for a food after getting sick from it,
even if the sickness was unrelated.
Differences from classical conditioning:

●​ Can happen after just one pairing (not repeated exposure).

●​ The delay between eating and getting sick can be several hours, unlike most
conditioning which requires close timing.

● What is instinctive drift? What are some examples of instinctive drift discussed in the textbook
and/or lectures?
Instinctive drift: When learned behaviors revert to natural instincts despite conditioning.
Examples:
 ●​ Raccoons trained to put coins in a piggy bank started rubbing them together (instinctual
food-washing behavior).
●​ Pigs trained to move objects with their mouths started rooting them like they would in
nature.

Section 6.5
● Know some types of ‘enhanced’ learning techniques and the critiques of each (e.g., sleep
assisted learning).
Sleep-Assisted Learning

●​ Claim: Learning happens while asleep.

●​ Critique: Most studies show that passive exposure to information while sleeping does
not lead to meaningful learning.

Accelerated Learning (e.g., Suggestopedia)

●​ Claim: Relaxation techniques and positive reinforcement improve learning.

●​ Critique: Some techniques may help focus, but there’s little evidence they drastically
improve learning.

Discovery Learning

●​ Claim: Learning is best when students figure things out on their own.
●​ Critique: Can be inefficient—structured guidance is often better for complex topics.

● What are learning styles? What does scientific research say about learning styles? How well a
person will learn material if there is a match between their learning style and how the material
was presented?
Learning styles: The idea that people learn best in specific ways (e.g., visual, auditory,
kinesthetic).
Scientific research:

●​ Studies show that matching teaching methods to learning styles does not
significantly improve learning outcomes.
●​ What matters more is effective teaching methods, such as spaced repetition and
active engagement.

Chapter 7: Memory
Section 7.1:
● Define memory? What are the three types of memory?
Memory is the ability to store, retain, and retrieve information over time.
The three types of memory are:

1.​ Sensory memory – Brief retention of sensory input.

 2.​ Short-term memory – Temporary storage of information (also called working memory).
3.​ Long-term memory – Permanent storage of information.

● What is the paradox of memory?

Memory can be both surprisingly reliable and unreliable.
Example: We can recall childhood memories in detail, but also create false memories of
events that never happened.

● What is meant by the reconstructive nature of memory?

Memory is not like a video recording—it is reconstructed each time we recall it.
Example: When remembering an event, our brain fills in missing details based on expectations
or new information.

● What is hyperthymestic syndrome?

A rare condition where a person can recall extreme details of their personal life with
near-perfect accuracy.
Example: They can remember what they ate on any given day years ago.

● What is sensory memory? What are some different types of sensory memory (e.g., iconic
sensory memory).
Sensory memory is the brief storage of sensory information before it enters short-term
memory.
Types:

●​ Iconic memory: Visual sensory memory (lasts about 1 second).

●​ Echoic memory: Auditory sensory memory (lasts about 5–10 seconds).
●​ Haptic memory: Touch-based sensory memory.

● What is the capacity and duration of sensory memory?

Capacity: Large (can take in a lot of sensory information).
Duration: Very brief (visual: ~1 second, auditory: ~5–10 seconds).

● What was Sperling’s (1960) research on sensory memory?

Sperling’s experiment:

●​ Showed participants a grid of letters for a fraction of a second.

●​ Asked them to recall as many letters as possible.
●​ Found that sensory memory holds more information than we can immediately
recall.

● What is short-term memory? What is the capacity and duration of short-term memory?
Short-term memory (STM): Temporarily holds information we are currently using.
Capacity: About 7 ± 2 items.
Duration: 15–30 seconds, unless rehearsed

● Why is short-term memory sometimes called working memory?

●​ Working memory is the active processing of information in STM.

●​ Example: When solving a math problem, you hold numbers in working memory while
performing calculations.

● What is interference and how does it relate to information loss in short term memory?
Interference: New or old information blocks recall of other information.
Two types:

1.​ Proactive interference – Old info disrupts new learning (e.g., remembering a previous
phone number instead of a new one).
2.​ Retroactive interference – New info disrupts old learning (e.g., learning a new
language makes it harder to recall an old one).

● What is decay in memory?

●​ Memory fades over time if not actively rehearsed.

●​ Example: Forgetting a grocery list after a few minutes.

● What is chunking? Give an example.

Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units to increase short-term memory
capacity.
Example: Remembering a phone number as (123) 456-7890 instead of 10 separate digits.

● What is the difference between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.

Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating information without meaning (e.g., repeating a phone
number to memorize it temporarily).
Elaborative rehearsal: Connecting new information to meaningful concepts (e.g.,
remembering a name by associating it with a famous person).

● What is the serial position effect? What are the primacy and recency effects?
Serial position effect: We remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than those
in the middle.
Primacy effect: Better recall for first items (due to LTM storage).
Recency effect: Better recall for last items (still in STM).
● What are the types of long-term memory? How is long-term memory structured (the diagram
on “Types of LTM” slide)?

Long-term memory is divided into:

1.​ Explicit (declarative) memory – Conscious recall of facts and experiences.

○​ Semantic memory: General knowledge (e.g., capital of France).
○​ Episodic memory: Personal experiences (e.g., first day of school).
2.​ Implicit (non-declarative) memory – Unconscious memory processes.
○​ Procedural memory: Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike).
○​ Priming: Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another (e.g., seeing
the word “yellow” makes you recognize “banana” faster).
○​ Classical conditioning: Learning associations between stimuli (e.g., feeling
anxious in a dentist's office).
○​ Habituation: Reduced response to repeated stimuli (e.g., tuning out background
noise).

● What is explicit LTM. What are the two types of explicit LTM.
Explicit memory: Memory that requires conscious recall.
Two types:

1.​ Semantic memory – Facts and general knowledge.

2.​ Episodic memory – Personal experiences.

● What is implicit LTM. What are the four types of implicit LTM.
Implicit memory: Unconscious memories that influence behavior.
Four types:

1.​ Procedural memory – Skills and habits.

2.​ Priming – Faster recognition due to prior exposure.
3.​ Classical conditioning – Learned associations.
4.​ Habituation – Reduced response to repeated exposure.

Section 7.2
-​ be able to name and describe the three major processes of memory
Encoding – The process of getting information into memory.
Storage – Maintaining information over time.
Retrieval – Accessing stored information when needed.

-​ what is library analogy of the three major processes of memory?

Encoding: Like entering a book into a library system (labeling and storing it in the right
section).
Storage: The book sits on the shelf, ready to be accessed.
Retrieval: Finding and pulling the book off the shelf when needed.

-​ what is encoding? How does the next in line effect illustrate the importance of attention
in LTM?
Encoding: The process of converting information into a format that can be stored in memory.
Next-in-line effect: People struggle to remember what was said right before their turn in a
group activity (e.g., introducing names in a circle).

-​ This happens because they are focused on their own upcoming turn, showing that
attention is critical for encoding into long-term memory (LTM).
-​ what are mnemonics and how do they help LTM?
Mnemonics: Memory aids that help encode information in a way that makes it easier to recall.
They improve LTM retrieval by creating meaningful associations.
Example: "HOMES" for the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior).

-​ what are some types of mnemonics? Particularly, what is the method of loci?
Method of Loci – Associating information with a mental map of a familiar location.

●​ Example: Imagining groceries placed in different rooms of a house to remember them.

Acronyms – Forming a word from the first letters of a list (e.g., PEMDAS for the order of
operations in math).
Rhymes – Using rhyming patterns to aid recall (e.g., “I before E, except after C”).
Chunking – Grouping information into smaller, meaningful units (e.g., phone numbers).

-​ know what a schema is and be able to come up with an example.

Schema: A mental framework that helps organize and interpret information.
Example: If you visit a restaurant, your restaurant schema tells you to expect menus, waiters,
and ordering food.

-​ what is retrieval? How do researchers test memory retrieval?

Retrieval: Accessing stored memories.
Researchers test retrieval using:

-​ Recall – Producing information from memory (e.g., essay questions).

-​ Recognition – Identifying the correct information among options (e.g., multiple-choice
tests).
-​ Relearning – Measuring how quickly information is learned a second time.
-​ how important are cues for retrieving memory. Describe the work of Mantyla (1986) to
illustrate this.
Cues help trigger memories by providing context.
Mantyla’s study (1986):

-​ Participants memorized 600 words and generated their own cues for them.
 -​ Result: Participants remembered 91% of words when using their own cues, but only
55% when given cues made by others.
-​ Shows that self-generated cues enhance memory retrieval.
-​ What is the law of distributed vs massed practice?
Distributed practice (spaced learning) leads to better long-term retention than massed
practice (cramming).
Example: Studying for an exam over several days is better than cramming the night before.

-​ what is encoding specificity? What are the two types that were discussed in class. Give
an example of each.
Encoding specificity: Memory is best retrieved in the same conditions it was encoded.
Two types:

1.​ Context-dependent memory – Better recall when in the same physical environment
as learning.
○​ Example: Scuba divers who learned words underwater recalled them better
underwater than on land.
2.​ State-dependent memory – Better recall when in the same mental/emotional state as
learning.
○​ Example: Someone who studies while feeling anxious may recall information
better during a stressful test.

Section 7.3
● What is an engram?
An engram is the physical trace of a memory in the brain.
Early researchers thought memories were stored in a single location, but now we know they
are distributed across different brain areas.

● What is LTP and what cells are involved in it?

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) is a process where neurons strengthen their connections
when frequently activated.
Cells involved:

●​ Glutamate receptors (AMPA & NMDA) in hippocampal neurons play a major role.
●​ Strengthened synapses make future neural signaling more efficient, improving
memory.

● What role does the hippocampus play in memory formation?

The hippocampus is critical for consolidating short-term memories into long-term
memories.
It does not store memories permanently, but helps organize and transfer them to other
brain areas like the cortex.

● What are the two major types of amnesia and how are they different?
Anterograde amnesia – Inability to form new memories after brain damage.

●​ Example: H.M., who had his hippocampus removed, could remember old memories but
couldn’t form new ones.

Retrograde amnesia – Loss of past memories, but the ability to form new ones remains.

●​ Example: A person forgetting everything about their life before a car accident.

● What parts of the brain are used for emotional memories?

Amygdala – Processes fear and emotional memories.
Hippocampus – Provides context to emotional memories (e.g., where and when they
happened).
Strong emotional memories tend to be more vivid due to the amygdala’s activation.

● When do humans begin to experience memory deterioration?

Mild memory decline starts around age 30, but becomes more noticeable in the 60s and
beyond.
Procedural memory (skills) stays intact longer than episodic memory (personal events).

● What parts of the brain are affected for individuals with Alzheimer’s?
Hippocampus – First area to show damage, leading to memory loss.
Cortex – Shrinks, affecting problem-solving and language.
Amygdala – Can be affected, impacting emotional regulation.
Neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques contribute to neuron death.

Section 7.4:
● Know that children’s memory spans, conceptual understanding, and meta- memory increase
over time and why.
Memory span grows as the brain matures, increasing processing speed.
Conceptual understanding develops, helping kids organize and categorize memories.
Metamemory (awareness of one’s memory abilities) improves, making them better at learning
and recall strategies.

● What is infantile amnesia and what are some possible causes?

Infantile amnesia: The inability to remember events from early childhood (typically before age
3).
Possible causes:

1.​ Immature hippocampus – The brain structures needed for LTM aren’t fully developed.
2.​ Underdeveloped language skills – Memories may exist but can’t be recalled due to
lack of language at the time.
3.​ Lack of self-concept – Without a strong sense of self, early experiences may not be
encoded in a way that allows later recall.
Section 7.5:
● Know the causes and reasons for false memories.

False memories occur due to:

1.​ Misinformation effect – Incorrect information presented after an event alters a person’s
memory.
2.​ Source confusion – Forgetting where or how information was learned.
3.​ Schemas & expectations – Our brain fills in gaps using prior knowledge.
4.​ Reconstructive nature of memory – Memories are not perfect recordings; they are
rebuilt each time we recall them.
5.​ Social influences – Repeated storytelling or suggestion from others can create false
memories.

● What is a flashbulb memory?

A flashbulb memory is a vivid, detailed memory of an emotionally significant event (e.g.,
where you were on 9/11).
While they feel accurate, studies show they can be distorted over time like regular memories.

● What is misleading post-event information (MPI)? Describe an experiment that highlights its
impact on recall.

●​ MPI: When new, misleading details alter a person’s memory of an event.

Loftus & Palmer (1974) Car Crash Experiment:

●​ Participants watched a video of a car accident.

●​ They were asked, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed / hit each other?”
●​ Those who heard “smashed” reported faster speeds and were more likely to recall
broken glass (which wasn’t there).
●​ Conclusion: Word choice can shape memory recall.

● Critically assess the use of eyewitness testimonies in court.

Pros:

●​ Can provide key details in criminal cases.

●​ Jurors often trust eyewitnesses.

Cons:

●​ Memory is fallible – Misleading questions, stress, or biases can distort recall.

●​ False identifications – Innocent people have been convicted due to mistaken
eyewitness testimony.
●​ Cross-race effect – People struggle more to accurately identify individuals of a different
race.
Conclusion: Eyewitness testimony should be used cautiously and supported by physical
evidence.

● What is a cognitive interview?

A cognitive interview is a technique used by police to enhance accurate memory recall while
avoiding leading questions.
Steps include:

1.​ Reinstating context (mentally recreate the scene).

2.​ Recalling in different orders (not just chronologically).
3.​ Describing from different perspectives (e.g., another witness’s point of view).
4.​ Using open-ended questions to avoid suggestion.

● What are the 5 ways to study?

Distributed Practice – Study over multiple sessions instead of cramming.
Testing Effect – Actively quizzing yourself improves retention.
Elaborative Rehearsal – Making connections between new and old knowledge.
Mnemonics – Using memory techniques (e.g., acronyms, method of loci).
Deep Processing – Engaging with material at a meaningful level (e.g., applying concepts to
real life).

Chapter 11: Emotion and Motivation

Section 11.1
● Describe discrete emotions theory.
Discrete emotions theory suggests that humans experience a small number of core
emotions that are biologically ingrained rather than learned.
These emotions are universal across cultures and tied to evolutionary survival (e.g., fear
helps us avoid danger).

● How does emotions in animals and the development of emotions relate to discrete emotions
theory.
Animals show similar emotional expressions to humans (e.g., dogs show fear, primates display
anger).
Infants display basic emotions before learning from culture, supporting the idea that emotions
are innate rather than socially constructed

● Describe the work of Paul Ekman and Ekman faces.

Paul Ekman studied facial expressions across different cultures.
Found that 7 primary emotions have universal facial expressions (e.g., a smile for
happiness).
Created the Ekman Faces test, which is used to study microexpressions—brief facial
expressions that reveal hidden emotions.
● What are the 7 primary emotions and how do they differ from secondary emotions?
7 Primary Emotions (universal and innate):

1.​ Happiness
2.​ Sadness
3.​ Fear
4.​ Disgust
5.​ Anger
6.​ Surprise
7.​ Contempt

Secondary Emotions are blends of primary emotions and socially influenced (e.g., guilt =
sadness + fear).

● What are display rules?

Display rules are cultural norms that dictate how and when emotions should be expressed.

●​ Example: In Japan, people suppress negative emotions in public but express them more
privately.

● List and describe the 4 cognitive theories of emotion.

James-Lange Theory – Emotions result from our body’s reactions to stimuli.

●​ Example: We feel fear because our body trembles.

Cannon-Bard Theory – Emotions and bodily responses happen simultaneously.

●​ Example: Seeing a bear triggers fear and increased heart rate at the same time.

Two-Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer) – We first experience arousal, then interpret it based

on context.

●​ Example: If your heart is racing, you might label it as excitement at a party or fear in a
dark alley.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis – Our facial expressions influence our emotions.

●​ Example: Forcing a smile can make you feel happier.

● What are the unconscious influences on emotion? Describe each.

Automatic behaviors – Some emotions trigger fast, instinctive reactions (e.g., flinching at a
loud noise).
Subliminal messages – Brief emotional stimuli can influence mood without conscious
awareness.
Mere exposure effect – The more we see something, the more we like it (even without
realizing why).

● What is proxemics? And what are the four levels of distance discussed as a part of it.
Proxemics is the study of personal space in communication.
4 Levels of Distance:

1.​ Public Distance (12+ feet) – Public speaking, lectures.

2.​ Social Distance (4-12 feet) – Conversations with acquaintances.
3.​ Personal Distance (1.5-4 feet) – Close friends and family.
4.​ Intimate Distance (0-1.5 feet) – Romantic partners, close relatives.

Section 11.2
● How do humans portray emotion nonverbally?
Facial expressions – Universal indicators of emotion.
Body language – Posture, gestures, and movements.
Tone of voice – Pitch and speed convey emotions.
Eye contact – Can show interest, dominance, or discomfort.

● Why are nonverbal cues important?

Nonverbal communication conveys emotions more reliably than words.
Helps detect honesty, social status, and relationship dynamics.
Essential for cross-cultural communication.

● Are humans good at predicting if someone is lying? Why or why not?

No, most people are not good at detecting lies.
Common myths (e.g., liars avoid eye contact) aren’t always true.
Polygraphs measure physiological arousal but can be inaccurate (e.g., nervous truth-tellers
may fail).
Microexpressions can be brief but hard to interpret correctly.

Section 11.3
● What is positive psychology and how did it start?
A branch of psychology that focuses on happiness, resilience, and well-being.
Started with Martin Seligman, who promoted strengths-based psychology instead of just
treating disorders.

● Define defensive pessimism.

A coping strategy where people expect the worst to prepare for challenges.
Helps anxious individuals stay motivated and perform better.

● How do individual differences impact the effectiveness of positive psychology?

Not everyone benefits equally from positive thinking.
Some people thrive on optimism, while others function better with realistic or cautious
thinking.

● Define the broaden and build theory and how it impacts people.
Broaden-and-build theory (Barbara Fredrickson) – Positive emotions expand our thinking
and help us build skills and relationships.
Example: Joy makes people more creative, and social bonds grow stronger during happy
moments.

● Know myths about happiness.

Money makes you happy – Only up to a certain income level ($75k/year in the U.S.).
Happiness declines with age – Older adults are often happier than young adults.
Life events determine happiness – Long-term happiness usually returns to a baseline after
major events.
People in sunny climates are happier – Weather has little lasting impact on happiness.

● Why are humans bad at affective forecasting?

Affective forecasting = predicting future emotions.
Humans struggle because:

1.​ Impact bias – We overestimate how long emotions will last.

2.​ Focusing illusion – We fixate on one aspect (e.g., "If I get this job, I’ll be happy
forever!") but ignore other factors.
3.​ Hedonic adaptation – We adjust to good/bad events faster than expected.

Section 11.4
● List and describe the theories of motivation.
Drive Reduction Theory – Motivation comes from a desire to reduce internal tension (e.g.,
hunger, thirst).

●​ Example: Eating when hungry.

Incentive Theory – Motivation is driven by external rewards.

●​ Example: Studying for a bonus at work.

Arousal Theory – We seek an optimal level of arousal (not too bored, not too stressed).

●​ Example: Skydiving for excitement or reading for relaxation.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – We fulfill basic survival needs first, then move toward
self-actualization.

● Be able to list Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (in the correct order)

Physiological Needs – Food, water, sleep.
Safety Needs – Security, stability, shelter.
Love & Belonging – Relationships, family, friendships.
Esteem Needs – Confidence, achievement, respect.
Self-Actualization – Fulfilling one’s potential, creativity, personal growth.

● What factors impact an individual’s weight and what are the different theories?
Genetics – Twin/adoption studies show a strong genetic influence.
Set Point Theory – Our body has a natural weight range it tries to maintain.
Leptin & Ghrelin Hormones – Regulate hunger and fullness.
Environmental Factors – Portion sizes, availability of processed foods, cultural habits.
Behavioral Factors – Activity levels, stress, emotional eating.

● What are the phases in the sexual arousal cycle?

Excitement – Increased blood flow, muscle tension.
Plateau – Heightened arousal, breathing and heart rate increase.
Orgasm – Peak of pleasure, muscle contractions.
Resolution – Body returns to normal, relaxation occurs.

● What is the evidence for biological and for environmental influences on sexual orientation?
Biological Evidence:

●​ Twin studies: Higher likelihood of shared sexual orientation in identical twins.

●​ Brain structure: Differences in the hypothalamus of heterosexual vs. homosexual
individuals.
●​ Hormonal factors: Exposure to different prenatal hormones may play a role.

Environmental Evidence:

●​ Little to no support for theories suggesting parenting style or upbringing influences

sexual orientation.
●​ Cultural openness may influence whether individuals feel comfortable expressing their
orientation.

Section 11.5
● What factors influence attraction?
Proximity – We are more likely to be attracted to people we see often.
Similarity – People prefer those with similar values, interests, and attitudes.
Physical Attraction – Culturally influenced but often includes symmetry and good health.
Reciprocity – We are more attracted to people who like us back.

● Do opposites attract? Why or why not?

No, research suggests people prefer similarity.
Shared values and experiences make relationships more stable.
Differences can create initial attraction, but long-term success is rarer
● Be able to describe how ‘averageness’ is more attractive.

Averageness Hypothesis: People find composite faces (blended from many faces) more
attractive because:

●​ They appear more symmetrical.

●​ They may indicate genetic diversity and health.

● What are the different types of love according to Sternberg?

Triangular Theory of Love (Sternberg): Love has three components:

1.​ Intimacy – Emotional closeness.

2.​ Passion – Physical attraction and excitement.
3.​ Commitment – Long-term dedication.

Types of Love:

●​ Liking (Intimacy only) – Close friendship.

●​ Infatuation (Passion only) – Crushes, one-night stands.
●​ Empty Love (Commitment only) – Arranged marriages, staying together "for the kids."
●​ Romantic Love (Intimacy + Passion) – Early-stage relationships.
●​ Companionate Love (Intimacy + Commitment) – Deep friendships, long-term partners.
●​ Fatuous Love (Passion + Commitment) – Quick marriages.
●​ Consummate Love (Intimacy + Passion + Commitment) – The ideal, "complete" love.