ANS 302 - RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION (2 Units)

SYNOPSIS
 Management of breeding stock, draught animals, growing and young animals
 Housing and equipment

MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK

Introduction
The genetic potential of an animal is inherited from its parents. In selection and breeding,
animals with superior characteristics are selected and allowed to mate, in the process they
transmit the superior characteristics to their off-springs and when this is done over a long
period of time, it results in livestock improvement. The performance of an animal is
influenced by two major factors; the genetic potential and the environment (which includes
feeding, health care and ecological conditions).

Breeding: This is the process of mating selected males and females to produce offspring with
the desired characteristics.

Reasons for breeding include:

 To expand the inherited potential of the animal.

 To improve production by introducing new genes.
 To overcome production problems created by the environment.
 To satisfy consumers taste.
 For economic reasons e.g. fast growth rate to reach the market early.

Selection of Breeding Stock

Selection: This is the process of allowing certain animals to be parents of future generations
while culling others. The animals retained have certain desirable characteristics which make
them produce more. Culling is the removal of animals which do not perform to the desired
level, from the herd. Selection is used as a tool for livestock improvement, as selection
process repeated for many generations increases chances of formation of desirable qualities in
an animal. Selection therefore increases occurrence of desirable genes and decreases
occurrence of undesirable genes. During selection, the characteristics to be selected for are
first studied closely to ascertain that it is not influenced by the environment, but mainly by
the genetic make-up. Selection helps improve characteristics which are highly heritable.

Breeding stock: This is a group of males and females which act as parents of future
generations. Selected animals make up the breeding stock. The breeding stock should pass
the good qualities to their off-springs for better performance, to improve the livestock.

Factors to consider when selecting a breeding stock

1. Age: Young animals should be selected especially those that have not parturated for more
than 3-times, because they have a longer productive life. Old animals are poor breeders and
low producers as such, should not be selected as production and breeding efficiency decline
with age.

1
2. Level of performance: Animals with highest production level should be selected.
Performance is best indicated by records. Good performance of animal is indicated by high
milk, wool and egg production; good mothering ability, high prepotency (which is the ability
of a parent to pass good qualities to their off-springs).

3. Physical Fitness: Animals selected should be free from any physical defect e.g. mono-
eyed, limping, irregular number of teats, scrotal hernia and defective and weak backline.

4. Health: Sick animals do not breed well and are expensive to keep and so, should not be
selected. Animals that are resistant to diseases pass these characteristics to their off-springs,
thus should be selected.

5. Body Conformation: Animals for breeding should be selected according to proper body
conformation for example, a dairy cow should be wedge-shaped with a large udder, thin legs,
long neck.

6. Temperament or Behaviour: Animals with bad behaviors should be culled e.g.

cannibalism, egg eating, aggressiveness, kicking.

7. Quality of products: Select animals that give products of high quality such as meat, wool,
eggs, milk.

8. Mothering ability: Animals selected should have good mothering abilities, that is animals
with good natural instinct towards their young ones. This will enable them to rear the young
ones up to weaning.

9. Adaptability: Animals selected should be well adapted to the prevailing climatic condition
in the area e.g. arid and semi-arid areas.

10. Prolificacy: Animals selected should be highly prolific, that is, animals with the ability to
give birth to many off-springs at a time (larger litter). This is a quality that should be
considered when selecting pigs and rabbits. The ancestry records assist to choose the prolific
breeds for mating.

Methods of Selection

1. Mass selection: In this method, animals with superior characteristics (highly heritable
breeds) are selected from a herd and then allowed to mate among each other at random. The
off-springs will show higher performance than their parents. This is because mass selection
increases the occurrence of the desirable genes in a population.

2. Progeny testing: In this method, a group of progenies (off-springs) are used as an aid to
increase accuracy in the selection of a breeding stock. This method is used when the character
to be selected is of low heritability and expressed by one sex only.

3. Contemporary comparison: This is a progeny testing method which involves comparison

of average production of daughters (heifers) of each bull with that of the other heifers
referred to as contemporaries. Contemporaries refers to other heifers in the herd sired by the
same bull.

2
 BREEDING SYSTEMS
Breeding system is categorized into two namely: Inbreeding and Outbreeding
1. Inbreeding: Mating of animals which are related. It is mostly used in animals of higher
prepotency.
Reasons:
To increase genetic uniformity in a herd.
To increase phenotypic uniformity.
To get proven sires.
To fix required characteristics when developing a new breed.

Systems of Inbreeding
i. Close Breeding: This involves mating animals that are very closely related that can be
traced back to more than one common ancestor e.g. mating sire to daughter, son to dam,
brother to sister.
ii. Line Breeding: Mating animals that are more distantly related which can be traced down
to one common ancestor e.g. cousins grandparents to grand off-spring, half-brother to half-
sister.

2. Outbreeding: Breeding or mating of unrelated animals.

Reasons:
To introduce new genes in an existing breeding herd.
To exploit heterosis resulting from a cross between two breeds.
To develop a new breed or a grade animal.

Systems of Outbreeding
i. Cross-breeding: Mating of two animals of different breeds. Superior traits that results in
the crossbred progeny from crossbreeding are called hybrid vigor or heterosis such as higher
production rate, high growth, disease resistance and heat tolerance.
ii. Out-Crossing: Mating of unrelated animals from the same breed e.g. mating between
Friesian cow in Kenya with Friesian bull from Britain.
iii. Upgrading/Grading up/Backcrossing: Breeding of animals of two different breeds
where the animals of an indigenous breed/genetic group is mated by an improved pure breed
for several generations towards attaining the superior traits of the improved breed. Grading
up is continuous use of purebred sires of the same breed in a grade herd, by the fifth
generation, the grade animals may reach almost purebred levels.

SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING SHEEP AND GOATS

Selection of breeding ram/buck

In selecting a breeding ram/buck, consider the following:
1. The ram/buck’s frame should be well-developed and solid, with outstanding conformation
and breed qualities.
2. Legs should be straight and well-positioned under the body.
3. The ram/buck should be in good health and free of parasites both outwardly and internally.
4. It should come from a good milking strain and be the progeny of parents with a proven track
record of success.
5. The rams/bucks should be alert, vigorous and should possess good sexual libido.
6. Breeding soundness examination of the ram/buck can be done to evaluate the breeding
potential which includes physical examination and semen evaluation. Under physical criteria,

3
 body condition and structural soundness are examined. In semen evaluation, the volume,
sperm concentration and live sperm count are assessed.
7. Both testes should be well developed and descend into the scrotum. Testes should not be hard
or have any abnormalities. The fertility of the ram/buck can be tested from past records of
breeding.

Selection of breeding ewe/doe

Consider the following when selecting a breeding ewe/doe:
1. The ewe/doe should be well-developed and healthy-looking, with her feet placed straight on
the ground rather than on her pastern. It should stand squarely on her feet.
2. The ewe/doe should be free from any disease condition.
3. The eyes should be bright and alert.
4. Skin should be loose, supple and free from dryness.
5. Ewe/doe should have a regular reproductive cycle, early kidding ability with first kidding at
around 16-18 months,
6. Ewe/doe should have good mothering ability and high productivity with persistency in
milking.

Management of breeding sheep and goats

1. Animals for breeding stock should be purchased from a reputable breeder or livestock
market.
2. Animals in good health and with good physical qualities should be purchased.
3. One male can be allowed to breed 20-30 females (i.e. the male to female ratio should be 1:20-
30); however, they should be replaced each year.
4. Males and females selected for breeding should not be closely related to avoid inbreeding
5. Animals that are ready to reproduce and are at the peak of their development should be
procured
6. Females should attain 70% of adult body weight at their first mating. Breeding at too young
age may lead to birth of weak kids with low birth weight and even increase neonatal
mortality.
7. Females should be purchased at 18-24 months of age for breeding. Males can be used for
breeding between 2-5 years.
8. Animals should be bred every 8-9 months for maximum yield.
9. About 2-3 weeks prior to breeding season, ewes/does should be provided with good quality
pasture and concentrate mixture to attain proper body weight at breeding. It also promotes
ovulation rate, conception rate and higher number of healthy viable kids can be obtained.
Good mixture of fresh pasture, 500g legume hay and 250g concentrate per day can be
provided.
10. Younger males can be allowed to mate with older experienced females while younger
females with older males for better mating, otherwise if both male and female are mated for
the first time, they may reject and breeding will not be proper.
11. Oestrous detection of all females should be done twice in the morning and evening during the
breeding season. Vasectomized males or fertile male with apron may be used for this
purpose.

4
12. Mating can be done by hand mating, pen mating or flock mating. Hand mating is beneficial
when high genetically merit bucks are used for breeding. Flock mating or pasture mating
gives best results in terms of fertility but record keeping is difficult, however, marking paint
can be used.
13. Generally, 2 services at an interval of 8 to 12 hours is advantageous for increased conception
rate.
14. Unproductive livestock should be culled as soon as possible. Ewes/does that haven’t given
birth for more than one year should be removed from the flock.
15. Breeding should be planned in such a manner so as to avoid kidding during extreme winter as
the kids will be affected and even death may occur.
16. Vaccinate freshly acquired animals against illnesses.
17. Observe the freshly purchased animals for roughly 15 days before mixing them with the rest
of the flock.

SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING BULLS AND COWS

Selection of breeding bulls

The following should be considered when selecting a breeding bull:

The head: The head should show reasonable length and width yet not be too large in
proportion to the body. A head that is too big could potentially increase calving problems.

The eyes: Some breeds are very susceptible to eye cancer and exposure of the eye to sunlight
plays a major part, hence the eyes should be well set into the head to reduce this exposure.
There should be a strong forehead over the eye, providing protection from sunlight. Bulls
with eyes that bulge out from the head should be avoided.

The muzzle: The muzzle should be wide for efficient grazing. The teeth on the lower jaw
should meet squarely with the upper pad. Bulls with overshot jaws (lower jaw protruding)
and undershot jaws may have difficulty grazing on pasture.

The neck: The neck should be of good length and held high. A bull which holds his head and
neck low may in fact be straight in the shoulder. This affects the bull’s gait and mobility. A
straight-shouldered bull is also likely to be straight in the hind legs, a very serious fault,
leading to early breakdown.

The brisket: The brisket is one area in which fat is deposited. The bull should be trim in the
brisket, as he should be throughout his body. Overfeeding may affect the fitness and
longevity of the bull and bulls may also show temporary reduced fertility, if fat is laid down
in the neck of the scrotum.

The shoulders: The shoulders are naturally sloping, a slope of 45–60 degrees is considered
acceptable. The shoulder should be smooth against the rib cage. Bulls whose shoulders are
wide at the point of the shoulder (the base of the neck) or wide between the shoulder blades
(when observed from above) may throw heavily shouldered calves, increasing the chance of
calving problems (Figure 1 and 2).

5
 Figure 1. Front leg and shoulder structure of the bull

Figure 2. Bull shoulders should be smooth against the rib cage. Prominent shoulders increase
the chance of calving problems

Front legs: The front legs of the bull should be straight when viewed from the front. On a
structurally sound animal, a vertical line may be drawn from the point of the shoulder to the
middle of the claw. This line should intersect the knee (Figure 3 below), as the knee joints
carry more than half the bull’s body weight, deviations from this line may cause excessive
wearing of these joints.

6
 Figure 3. Front legs of a bull should be straight when viewed from the front

Figure 4. Indicates the correct angle of the pastern joint.

Front feet: Avoid overgrown, scissor or curved claws (Figure 5). Mild curling is normal.
Overgrown, uneven claws are usually indications of poor limb structure or early signs of hip
arthritis. Avoid extremely short feet, which are often associated with over-straight legs.

Walk: Select bulls with free-moving gait, with the hind feet stepping into the footprints of
the front feet (Figure 6). Over-stepping or under-stepping are indications of structural
problems.

7
 Figure 5. Avoid overgrown, scissor or curved claws.

Figure 6. Free-moving gait, with hind feet stepping into footprints of the front feet.

Hind legs and feet: A structurally correct bull, when walking, will place his hind foot in
exactly the mark left by his front foot.

8
Straight-legged bulls are less athletic than the sound bull and appear to suffer a higher
incidence of broken or damaged penises during serving (Figure 7).

Sickle-hocked bulls have less balance than do sound bulls. They may lose their balance
during serving, therefore running a higher risk of injury.

A bull is ‘cow hocked’ when the hocks are rotated inwards and the hooves rotated outwards,
this may cause problems but usually only in extreme cases.

A bull having legs that are wide at the hocks (‘bow-legged’), but the feet are turned in exerts
extra strain on the ligaments of the hock joints causing lameness and even permanent
damage.

Figure 7. The structure of the hind legs should be well-defined angles in the joints at the hip,
stifle, hock and pastern joints.

9
Leg angulation: Avoid bulls with:

Post legs (straight hocks) (Figure 8a)

These cattle generally walk short and are prone to arthritis in the hips and other joints, and
damage to the ligaments. Penis damage can occur due to serving accidents, as these bulls
have poorer balance than do structurally correct bulls, thus resulting in a decline in libido.

Sickle hocks (Figure 8b)

The joints are over-angled, leading to overstepping and long overgrown claws and lameness.
Moderate cases are not a concern, but bad sickle hock strains ligaments, damages the dew
claw and affects serving ability.

Figure 8a. Post legs Figure 8b. Sickle hocks

The sheath: The sheath should be trim and close to the body (Figure 9). A long sheath or an
excessively angled sheath is more prone to injury or infection and should be avoided. A slack
prepuce (the fold of skin covering the penis) should also be avoided. A bull who lets his
prepuce hang out for long periods of time should be regarded as having a serious structural
fault.

10
 Figure 9. The sheath should be close up against the body to prevent injury.

Top line: The width of the bull’s top line will help indicate the animal’s muscling. Heavily
muscled bulls will be wide and bulging in their top line, especially behind the shoulder, and
in the loin.

Management of breeding bulls

Conditioning prior to the breeding season: Growing and mature bulls need to be
conditioned before entering service during the breeding season. The conditioning period
should be around 60 days to allow adequate time for the bulls to adjust to a new diet. This
will also allow well-conditioned bulls to moderate their fat cover and harden up and thin bulls
will have adequate time to increase their body condition. The bull should enter the breeding
season with a body condition score of 5.5 to 6.5 (9-point scale).
Breeding Soundness Evaluation (BSE): These includes physical examination, measurement
of scrotal circumference, and evaluation of semen quality. To successfully complete a
breeding soundness evaluation, a bull must have at least 30% sperm motility and 70% normal
sperm morphology. Bulls should be tested approximately 6 weeks to 1 month prior to the
breeding season by a veterinarian.
Mating Ability: Mating ability can be described as the physical capabilities needed to
successfully breed a cow. A bull must be able to see, smell, eat, and move normally to
successfully breed cows. Any disease or injury that affects joints, muscles, nerves, bones, or
tendons may cause a bull to be structurally unsound. Diseases or injuries to the penis or
prepuce can result in an inability to breed via natural service.
Scrotal Circumference: As scrotal circumference increases, so does the daily production of
high-quality sperm. A scrotal circumference measurement is an indirect estimate of the mass
of testicular tissue, and amount of testicular tissue is directly related to sperm quantity and
quality.
Semen Quality: Semen quality includes ejaculate volume, sperm cell motility, and sperm
cell morphology. Substandard nutrition, extreme environmental temperatures, and disease can
reduce semen quality. Both primary and secondary abnormalities are important when
evaluating sperm quality; primary abnormalities originate in the testis during spermatogenesis
while secondary abnormalities originate in the epididymis, during sperm transport, or with
handling of the sperm. Selection of bulls with greater than 80% normal sperm can increase
overall pregnancy rates in a herd.

11
 Libido: Libido refers to the desire to mate. Libido has positive effects on pregnancy rate. It is
important to evaluate a bull’s desire to mate prior to the start of breeding season. This can be
done by placing a bull in a pen with an estrous female and record the bull’s eagerness to mate
over a five-minute period. A bull’s eagerness can range from no sexual interest to
successfully mating with the female.
Bull to Cow ratio: Bull to cow ratios vary greatly depending on the capability of individual
bulls, since variation exists between bulls in their desire to mate (libido), recommendations
for bull to cow ratios range from 1:10 up to 1:60. Bull age also affects bull to cow ratios as
yearling bulls have a lower serving capacity than older bulls.
Health: Health problems affecting the individual bull (such as Johne’s disease, lameness due
to injury or infection, pinkeye, vesiculitis and other conditions) and infectious diseases
affecting the herd (such as bovine viral diarrhea, trichomoniasis, leptospirosis, vibriosis and
infectious bovine rhinotracheitis or red nose) influence the bull’s ability to service the female
or depress the semen quality. All of these conditions impact the profitability through reduced
number of calves born. Vaccinations to be given, parasite control, and other specific
procedures should be suited to your location.

Cow and heifer selection

The farmer's breeding and production goals will determine a number of selection criteria.
Selecting heifers and culling cows is carried out based on the goals set for the relevant
enterprise but some factors are important irrespective of goals. These include:
1. Fertility: Fertility is a trait that has a low heritability and therefore does not respond rapidly
to selection. Cows that do not reconceive are unproductive, however, before deciding to cull
a cow for not falling pregnant during the breeding season, the situation must be evaluated
with care as non-conception can be caused by a number of factors, including poor nutrition,
bull infertility, poor management, uterine infections etc. A good practice is to allow a cow
one skip in her life time.
2. Adaptation to local environment: Although adaptation is one of the most important factors
affecting efficient production, there is no simple measure, except farmer’s experience, to
determine environmental adaptation.
3. Quality of calf: Calves are selected annually as replacements for a breeding herd and the
remainder divided into groups which are sold according to quality. Should a cow regularly
produce a weaner that does not adhere to the requirements of the enterprise, she should be
considered for culling.
4. Age: Older cows tend to produce calves that are poor performers because the dam is no
longer able to supply sufficient milk for the calf to grow well. Worn teeth, preventing the
dam from grazing efficiently, is the most common cause of poor calf growth rate during the
first 100 days of existence. Regular mouthing of cows will keep the farmer informed as to the
dental status of his breeding herd.
5. Conformation: It is accepted practice to use conformation as one of the selection parameters
for heifers, however, some defects only appear at a later age, for example poor udder
conformation cannot be evaluated in a heifer. As a cow ages, weaknesses in udder
conformation are revealed, as well as problems such as weak legs. In many beef herds where
udder conformation was ignored, many new-born calves had to be assisted to suckle for some
days and even weeks, placing a demand on labour requirements.
6. Injury: Where injuries to cows cause functional defects, they must be culled.
7. Functional deficiencies: There are many functional deficiencies, of which the most common
are wry face and poor leg structures.
8. Inability to conceive: Heifers should be put to the bull and all that do not conceive within a
short breeding season, should be culled.

12
 Pregnancy and Parturition

The life cycle of an animal starts at conception. In cattle, the calf is born after a period of 283
days or approximately 9 months of pregnancy. During the first day after conception, the
chances of successful fertilization and implantation of the fertilized ovum into the uterine
wall is enhanced if the cow is exposed to as little stress as possible. Pregnancy can be divided
into first, second and third trimester, each comprising approximately 3 months.

First trimester
During the first trimester, the cow is suckling a young calf and the foetus of her next calf is in
the early stages of development. The dam's milk production is at its peak at the beginning of
the first trimester and declines as this trimester progresses. Her calf still has a relatively high
milk demand and she must obtain additional nutrients from her diet to build up her own body
reserves. The foetus does not have a high nutrient demand at this stage.

Second trimester
During the second trimester of gestation, the cow’s calf is rapidly maturing into a ruminant
able to provide nutrients for its own requirements through grazing. Weaning commonly takes
place about the middle of the second trimester. The foetus demand for more nutrients from
the dam. Steps must be taken to allow the dam the opportunity to replenish her body reserves
by supplementary feeding. With excessive feed shortages, such as during a drought, early
weaning of the calf towards the end of the first trimester should be considered to prevent an
excessive loss of body condition in the dam.

Third trimester
Foetal growth during the third trimester of pregnancy is very rapid and consequently there is
a high demand for nutrients from the cow, thus supplementary feeding is often essential. If a
cow’s current calf is left with her, there will be an unnecessary drain on the dam’s nutrient
resources. However, excessive feeding, resulting in gross fat deposition, should be avoided.
A period of at least 6 weeks during which the dam does not suckle a calf will allow her udder
a period of rest during which time involution of the udder tissue will ensure a good milk
supply for the next calf.

Three stages of labour

Stage one is when the cow is getting ready to calve. During this stage, which will take from
3-6 hours in cows and up to 12 hours in heifers, you are likely to see:

 Separation from the herd

 Tail lifting and swishing
 Mild kicking of the belly
 Increased lying down-getting up
 Presence of ‘water-bag’

If stage one lasts for more than 6 hours, the cow should be examined to determine if there is a
problem.

In stage two, the cervix is fully dilated and the cow will have visible abdominal contractions
(‘straining’), the water bag breaks, the calf enters the birth canal and is born. Stage two
normally takes 30 minutes to four hours. In this stage, the cow needs to be making progress

13
the whole time – for example, if the tip of the feet and nose have been visible for 30 minutes
and there hasn’t been any progress during that time, it indicates there could be a problem and
the cow should be examined.

Stage three occurs 2-12 hours after the calf is born with the expulsion of the foetal
membranes. In a normal calving with the delivery of a healthy calf, the calf will stand and
start suckling during this stage. This results in a release of oxytocin (a hormone) within the
cow which acts on the uterus and helps foetal membranes detach and be expelled. If the cow
does not have a natural release of oxytocin during this time, for example if the calf is born
dead, she is more likely to have retained foetal membranes. To avoid this, the cow could be
milked which will stimulate the release of oxytocin, or she could be given an injection of
oxytocin. It is very important to make sure she has actually calved (and there isn’t a twin still
to be born) before giving oxytocin – oxytocin causes the uterus to contract which makes it
difficult to deliver a calf.

Management during and after calving

1. A cow should be able to calve without assistance, when a cow is assisted, both the cow and
the calf should be marked for culling.
2. Some cows, especially heifers and high milk producers, are prone to severe swelling of the
udder, which is uncomfortable and even painful to the cow, thus it might be necessary to milk
the dam before the birth of the calf to relieve some of the discomfort. Should it be necessary
to milk the cow before the calf is born, it is advisable to keep some colostrum to feed to the
calf after birth (post-partum).
3. Cows close to calving should not be disturbed as they tend to try and delay calving when
there are strangers nearby or when they are exposed to abnormal environmental conditions.
4. Should the front legs and head of a calf not appear first, the dam must be monitored to
ensure that an abnormal presentation (e.g. hind quarter of the calf appearing first) does not
prevent her from delivering the calf.
5. The inclination to assist with birth is natural, but premature aid masks cows prone to
calving difficulties and should therefore be avoided.
6. After calving, a cow will lick her calf and eat the afterbirth, which is usually pushed out
soon after birth. Eating the afterbirth is a natural process and must not be discouraged
because the afterbirth serves as a valuable source of nutrients for the cow. Where cows do not
eat the afterbirth or leave pieces of it behind, these should ideally be buried to prevent the
spread of disease.
7. Should the afterbirth remain in the uterus (i.e. the afterbirth is retained), it is better not to
try and remove it forcibly. If long pieces of afterbirth are hanging out and are in danger of
being trampled on by the cow, the pieces hanging down can be cut off at the level of the
hocks.
8. Daily treatment with pessaries will prevent infections and the cow can be left for 3 to 4
days to eject the afterbirth on her own, or allow the afterbirth to loosen before steps are taken
to remove it.
9. With difficult calving or retained afterbirth, treatment for the prevention of uterine
infections must be applied. Uterine pessaries can be put into the uterus until the cervical
opening closes, after which a pipette is used to deposit disinfectants in the uterus.
10. Healthy calves usually start to try to stand up within minutes after the dam has started
licking it and will then try to suckle. Experienced and good dams usually encourage the calf
to suckle, should the dam prevent the calf from suckling or her udder be so swollen that the
calf has difficulty suckling, assistance must be provided

14
11. Feed colostrum to the calves shortly after they are delivered. Colostrum is the first milk
secreted after parturition. It contains higher amount of minerals and vitamin A which are
essential to combat disease. Ingestion of these through colostrum substantially increases the
calf’s survivability. Absorption of these antibodies provides the calf with an umbrella of
passive immunity. Colostrum give a laxative effect which is helpful in expulsion of
muconium (first faeces). Colostrum contains anti-trypsin which avoid digestion of
immunoglobulin in the stomach and is absorbed as it is.

Calving difficulties
There are several reasons why a cow may have trouble delivering a calf, these include:
 Excessive body condition (greater than BCS 5.5)
 Calf is too big/dam is too small
 Weak or absence of uterine contractions
 Twisted uterus
 Abnormal delivery position of the calf

Some of the causes of difficult calving can be managed by having well grown heifers,
appropriate sire selection and a good transition cow, however, there will be some cows that
will need assistance. Assistance should be given to a cow if there is no progression from
stage one labour after six hours or no progression from stage two labour after two hours. If
uncertain, it is better to intervene early rather than leave it too long.

The normal presentation for a calf being born is two front feet and headfirst (see diagram)
however, it is not that abnormal for a calf to be born backwards. Malpresentations include
‘head back’, ‘head to the side’ and ‘rump first’. It is very important to feel and work out what
you are dealing with before starting to pull the calf out. You need to be sure you have the two
front legs, or the two back legs and not a combination of both, or a leg from a second calf. If
you are not able to determine the position of the calf or are uncertain about what to do, ask
for help – either from someone with more experience or a vet.

15
 Management of Heifers

Better care and management of heifer will give high quality replacement stock to the farm.
The following care and management practices are recommended for a heifer.

 Feed the heifer sufficiently to produce normal growth. During the early stage,
relatively more protein than energy is needed. Most heifers grow well if excellent hay
is given as much they can eat. The amount of growth depends upon the quality of
forage fed.
 The heifers should be provided with a dry shelter free from drafts. A loose housing
system with a shelter open to one side is sufficient.
 The size rather than the age of a heifer at breeding time is important. Breeding under-
sized animals may make them stunted or slow to reach maximum size. Small heifers
are more likely to have difficulty in calving.
 Place the heifer in a separate shed about 6-8 weeks before she is due to calve.
 Feed 2 - 3 kg of concentrate daily and all the forage she eats.
 Before calving, let the heifer become accustomed to handling and to the procedures
used in the milking herd. Always handle her gently and with kindness.
 Heifer’s health can be maintained by hygienic housing, water balanced feeding and
taking necessary preventive steps against common diseases.
 Periodically, the heifers in the herd should be checked for their proper growth and
other progress. Animals lagging behind below the required standards should be
removed from the herd.

16
  Heifers might have difficulty in calving as it is calving for the first time, so take extra
care during calving.

Management of Milking cows

To get high milk during any lactation, the milking animal should be properly fed and
necessary care and management practices should be followed.

 Provide green succulent forage together with leguminous hay or straw as much as
animal can consume, so that all its maintenance requirements are met through forage
only. Extra concentrate at the rate of 1 kg for every 2 to 2.5 liters of milk should be
provided. Salt and mineral supplements should be given to maintain the lactation.
 Never frighten or excite the animals. Always treat them gently and with kindness.
 With proper feeding and care, a cow will come to heat within 16 days of calving. Do
not withhold service unnecessarily after the signs of heat are noticed in a cow. The
shorter the interval between calving, the more efficient the animal is as a milk
producer. By maintaining proper records of breeding and calving of the animals, this
will ensure a study flow of milk throughout the year.
 Individual attention to feed each animal according to its production is a must. For this
purpose, maintain individual production records.
 Keep up regularity of feeding. Concentrate mix is fed before or during milking, while
roughages after milking. This practice will avoid dust in the shed.
 Water should be provided to drink at will or at frequent intervals.
 Regularity in milking is essential. Increased milk in the udder will reduce further
secretion of milk. Milking thrice is better than twice since 10 - 15 % more milk can be
produced.
 Rapid, continuous, dry hand milking should be practiced without undue jerking of
teats. Milking should be done with whole hand, but not with thumb and index finger.
 Cows should be trained to let down milk without calf suckling. This will help to wean
the calves early.
 Loose housing with shelter during hot part of the day should be provided. The animals
will get maximum exercise in loose housing system.
 Washing of the cows before milking help in clean milk production. Daily brushing
will remove loose hair and dirt from the coat.
 Common ailments should be properly detected and treated.
 Common vices should be properly detected and care should be taken e.g. Kicking,
licking, suckling etc.
 Provide at least 60 - 90 days dry period between calving. If the dry period is not
sufficient, the milk yield in subsequent lactation will be reduced.
 Vaccinate the cows against important diseases and also guard against insects and
pests.
 Every animal should be numbered and particulars pertaining to milk, fat %, feed
taken, breeding, drying and calving dates should be recorded.
 Check for mastitis regularly.

17
 Management of Growing and Young animals

From birth, the young animal is vulnerable to disease. It is completely dependent on the
mother for food and if the mother dies, the orphan will need a foster mother if it is to survive.
Operations such as castration, cutting the tail and disbudding the horns must be done at a very
early age to avoid unnecessary risks and least stress to the animal.

Feeding of Calves:

 The calf should be allowed to take all the milk it needs from his mother for the first
two months of its life.
 Whole milk should be given after 3 days, it is better to teach to drink the milk from
the pail or bucket. Feed twice a day which should be warmed to body temperature, for
weak calves feed thrice a day.
 The limit of liquid milk feeding is 10 % of it’s body weight with a maximum of 5-6
liters per day and continue liquid milk feeding for 6-10 weeks. Over feeding causes
‘Calf Scours’.
 Milk replacers can be given to replace whole milk.
 Give calf starter diet after one month of age.
 Provide good quality green fodder and hay from 4th month afterwards.
 Feeding of antibiotics to calves improves appetite, increases growth rate and prevents
calf scours e.g. aureomycin, terramycin etc

Feeding lambs and kids

 Lambs and kids will suckle from the mother until they are 4 months old, but they will
start to show an interest in green plants from 3 weeks of age.
 Remember that most newborn animals die because of lack of food, its therefore
necessary to ensure they feed properly.
 Cold and wet conditions are very bad for the newborn and can cause lung diseases
which may kill the animal and so, should be avoided.

Fostering
Fostering of the young animal will be necessary if the natural mother has died or fails to
produce enough milk for her young. The sheep or goat can only properly feed two young, so
any other young must be fostered. Fostering can be done by:
 Remove the skin of the foster mother's dead young and tie it around the orphan. After
several days remove the skin.
 Rub the orphan with the afterbirth and fluids or under the tail of a mother who has just
given birth. Allow the orphan to suckle with its back towards the mother's head so
that she can smell it. This method is mainly used with sheep and goats.
 The foster mother can be tied up by the head in a small pen or shed and the orphan
left with her. The orphan will usually suckle if the foster mother is prevented from
kicking or moving away. This method can be used with sheep and goats but is also
successful with cattle and buffalo. In the case of large ruminants, tying a rope around
the belly will stop the mother from kicking the calf as it suckles.
 Place the orphan and the foster mother in a small shed or pen and tie or leave a dog
with them. The female will protect the orphan from the dog and will then allow it to
suckle.

18
Hand rearing orphans
 If no foster mother is available, the orphan will need to be fed by hand.
 You must make sure that the orphan has colostrum, if possible for 4 days or 8
feedings.
 Collect the colostrum from other mothers into a clean bottle.
 Do not boil colostrum as it will curdle.
 Lambs and kids can be fed warm milk from a bottle fitted with a rubber teat or nipple.
 Clean the bottle thoroughly after each feeding.
 They will need 4 to 6 feedings a day.
 Calves can also be fed from a bottle but it is best to get them used to drinking milk
from a bucket when they are a few days old.
 To get the calf to drink from a bucket get it to suck your fingers and then as it sucks
gradually put your hand into the bucket of milk. Do this several times, holding the
bucket at knee height, and the calf will feed from the bucket after a few lessons.
 The calf will need feeding 3 to 4 times a day.
 Clean and wash all bottles and buckets after each feeding.

Hand Rearing Orphans

Management Practices

 Identity the calf by tattooing in the ear at birth, and branding after one year.
 Dehorn the calf within 7-10 days after birth with red hot iron or caustic potash stick or
electrical method.

 Deworm the calf regularly to eliminate worms using deworming drugs. Deworm at 30
days interval.

 Fresh water should be given from 2 -3 weeks onwards.

19
  House the calves in individual calf pens for 3 months, afterwards in groups. After six
months male and female calves should be housed separately.

 Weigh the calves at weekly interval up to 6 months and at monthly interval afterwards
to know the growth rate.

 Mortality in calves is more in first month due to pneumonia, diarrhea (calf scours) and
worms.

 House them under warm, clean condition to avoid the above condition.

 Extra teats beyond 4 should be removed at 1-2 months of age.

 At 8-9 weeks of age, males should be castrated.

 Keep the body of the calves clean and dry to avoid fungal infection.

 Mineral-blocks should be provided, so that the calves can lick to avoid cases of
mineral deficiency.

 Wean the calf from the mother and feed through pail feeding system.

Management of Draft Animals (Bullock)

1. Bullocks are normally used for agricultural operations and or transport purpose.
2. Some bullocks are ferocious and so control them properly with nose rope or nose rings.
3. The hooves of the bullocks should be provided with metal shoes to protect the hooves from wear and tear.
4. The working hours for bullocks are recommended as follows:
Normal Work - 6 hours of carting or 4 hours of ploughing.
Heavy Work - 8 hours of carting or 6 hours of ploughing.
5. Sufficient roughages and 1-2 kg of concentrates may be provided for feeding of bullocks during break period
in woiin works, the animal may be left for free grazing.
6. The bullocks are housed in separate sheds with sufficient space and protection from hot and cool conditions.

7. Free access to drinking water is essential. Regular grooming of animals should be practiced.

HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT

HOUSING FOR CATTLE

There are two common housing methods for cattle viz:

1. Loose Housing
 It is a system of housing in which animals are kept loose in an open paddock
throughout the day and night except at the time of milking and treatment.
 In this system, shelter is provided along one side of open paddock under which
animals can retire when it is very hot or cold or during rains.
 Common feed manger and water tank is provided and concentrates are fed at the
milking time which is done in a separate milking barn or parlour in which cows are
secured at milking time and are milked.

20
  The open paddock is enclosed by means of half walls or plain wire fences of
convenient height.

Advantages
 Cost of construction is cheaper.
 Future expansion is possible.
 The animals will move freely so that it will get sufficient exercise.
 The animal can be kept clean.
 Common feeding and watering arrangement is possible.
 Clean milk production is possible because the animals are milked in a separate
milking barn.
 Oestrus detection is easy.
 At least 10-15 percent more stock than standard can be accommodated for shorter
period.

Disadvantages
 It is not suitable for temperate Himalayan region and heavy rainfall areas.
 It requires more floor space.
 There is competition for feed.
 Attention of individual animal is not possible.
 A separate milking barn is needed for milking of animals.

2. Conventional Barns or Stanchion Barns

 In this system of housing, the animals are confined together on a platform and secured
at neck by stanchions or neck chain.
 The animals are fed as wells as milked in the same barn.
 These barns are completely covered with roofs and the sidewalls are closed with
windows or ventilator located at suitable places to get more ventilation and lighting.
 It is applicable for temperate and heavy rainfall region.
 The same type of housing can be utilized for tropical region with slight modification.

Advantages
 The animals and men caring for animals are less exposed to harsh environment.
 The animals can be kept clean.
 Diseases are better controlled.
 Individual care can be given.
 Separate milking barn is not required.

Disadvantages
 Cost of construction is more.
 Future expansion is difficult.
 Not suitable for hot and humid climatic conditions

Components of housing for cattle

Milking Animal Shed

The milking animal shed should have the following parts

1. Feeding passage

21
 2. Manger
3. Standing space
4. Gutter or drainage channel
5. Milking passage

The milking animals can be housed according to number of animals available.

Single row system: In single row system, 12-16 numbers of animals can be kept.
Double row system: If it is greater than 16, then double row system is preferable. In double
row system, up to 50 animals can be maintained in a single shed. The distance between two
sheds should be greater than 30 feet or it should be twice the height of the building.

There are two methods available in the double row system namely:

1. Tail to tail system (out-method)

Advantages
 Cleaning and milking of animals easy.
 Supervision of milking also easy.
 Less chance for transmission of diseases from animal to animal.
 Animals can get more fresh air from outside.

2. Head to head system (in-method)

Advantages
 Getting animals into the shed is easy.
 Feeding of animals also easy.
 Disinfection of gutter will be more due to the direct fall of sunrays over the gutter.
 Animals are better exhibited to visitors

Disadvantages
 Milking supervision is difficult.
 Possibilities of transmission of disease are more.

Milking Barn / Milk parlour

 This is a barn where milking animals are milked and is fully covered.
 It should be located at the centre of the farm with all other farm buildings arranged
around it.
 There shall be an individual standing in the milking barns and the number of
standings required should be 25% of total number of milking animals in the herd.
 The milking operation should be carried out in batches.

Down calver shed/ calving pen

 Pregnant animals are transferred to a calving pen 2 to 3 weeks before the expected
date of calving.
 Calving pen of 3m x 4m (12 m2) is essential to keep the animals in advanced stage of
pregnancy.
 It should be located nearer to the farmer’s quarters for better supervision.

22
  The number of calving pens required is 10% of the number of total breedable female
stock in the farm.

Calf pen
 This is meant for housing young calves separately.
 It can be located either at the end or on the side of the milking barn.
 This facilitates taking calves to their dams quickly.
 If there are large numbers of calves, the separate unit of calf shed should be arranged
and located nearer to the milking barn.

Young stock/ heifer shed

 It is meant for housing young heifers separately.
 Older heifers calves from about six months of age to breeding age are to be housed
separately from the suckling calves.
 When a large number of young stocks are there, they should be divided into different
age groups and each group housed separately.

Dry animal shed

 In large farms, milch and dry cows are housed separately.
 The floor in the covered area should preferably be made of cement concrete.
 Under Indian conditions, in smaller farms, milch and dry animals can be housed
together.
 Normally, one third of the animals in a farm will be in dry or in dry cum pregnant
stage.

Bull shed
 It is meant for housing bulls separately in a farm.
 It should be constructed towards one end of the farm.
 There shall be one shed for each bull.
 The number of bulls required being one for every 50 breedable females on the farm, if
natural breeding is practiced.
 When artificial insemination service facilities are available, no necessary to keep the
bulls on the farm.
 The bull shed shall have covered 3x4 metre dimensions, leading into a paddock of
120 square metres.

Isolation shed
 It is the separation of sick animals from apparently healthy animals to avoid
transmission of diseases to healthy stock.
 It should be located at the corner of the shed so that these sheds are inaccessible to
other animals.

Quarantine shed
 It should be located at the entrance of the farm.
 The newly purchased animals entering into the farm should be kept in quarantine shed
for a minimum period of 30 to 40 days to watch out for any disease occurrence.

23
Accessory buildings

Store room
 All the four walls should be closed and it should be rat proof.
 There should be one concrete store room with feed mixing unit at a distant place and a
smaller feed store room behind the milking parlour.

Milk room
 It is essential to keep the milk and also to chill the milk in larger dairies having 400 to
700 litres production capacity that requires 3.7 m x 5m size of room and an additional
0.37 m2 for every 40 litres of milk production.
 For a smaller dairy unit below 100 litres a small room with a dimension of 3.75m x
3m can be sufficient for storing milk and concentrate feed.

Hay or straw shed

 An adult animal consume about 5 to 10 Kg of hay or straw per day, while young stock
consume about 2 to 5 kg of hay or straw per day.
 The annual requirement can be calculated and the space requirement can be arrived.

Considerations while making house for your cattle include:

1. The selected place for housing will be higher than other places surrounding the house,
so that you can easily remove rain water and other materials.
2. Soil of the selected place will be enriched with sand and must have to be dry always.
3. Ensure entrance of sufficient air and light inside the house. Because sunlight helps to
dry the house and help to prevent germs or virus.
4. South faced houses are very comfortable for the cattle.
5. It will be better if the houses are not surrounded by many trees.
6. Don’t let the house to damp anyhow.
7. Make a proper drainage system inside the cattle house, so that you can easily remove
dung and trash. Both dung and trash are suitable place for mosquito, flies and other
parasites or virus and your cattle can get affected by various types of diseases easily.
8. You can make a simple cattle house by using bamboo pillar, straw and roof of leaves.
9. You can also make the house by using tree pillar and with a roof of metal sheets. In
this system, you have to make a ceiling under the roof to keep the cattle free from hot
temperature.
10. It will be better, if the houses are surrounded by bamboo or net fence made with
strong wire.
11. Keep 5 squire meter space per cattle inside the house.
12. Keep a separate place for rearing calf.
13. Don’t make the floor of the house smooth.
14. Always clean the floor and never make it slippery.
15. Make the house in such a way so that it become a safe and suitable living place for the
cattle.
16. The height of the house will be about 9 to 10 feet.
17. Always keep sufficient amount of drinking water inside the cattle housing system.
18. Keep some free space inside the house for freely movement of the animals.
19. Try to keep the house dry, neat and clean always.

24
 20. Keep the dung and trash of cattle in a separate place, slightly far from their house.
These materials can be used as fertilizer in the crop field.
21. Make proper supply of fresh and clean water inside the cattle housing system. Also
ensure a good water source for washing the cattle, house, equipment etc.

Housing of Sheep and Goats

General considerations for sheep and goat housing

Low cost house Open type housing with run space

Sheep in open space Fodder Cultivation near by shed

 Provision of simple shed with low cost housing materials is enough for sheep and
goat for its optimum production efficiency.
 Sheds with mud floor are suitable for most of parts of the country except where high
rainfall is observed.
 The sheds should be constructed in an elevated area to prevent water stagnation.
 Fodder trees can be grown around the shed, which acts as a source of feed for the
growing goats.

25
  Clean drinking water should be available for goats.
 Sheds should be constructed with proper ventilation.
 Walls of the shed should be free from cracks or holes, while constructing.
 Floors of the shed should be firm and should have the capacity to absorb water. The
floors should be constructed in such a way, so that it should be easily cleaned.
 Types of sheds depend on the system of rearing.
 Open type housing with a covered area and run space is generally enough.
 The run space should be covered by chain links.
 The covered area is used for shelter of animals during night and adverse climatic
conditions.
 For a comfortable house east-west orientation with generous provision for
ventilation /air movement to dry the floor will be suitable.
 Thatched roof is best suited one due to cheaper cost and durability.
 However corrugated asbestos sheets can also be used for organized farms to minimize
the recurring costs and to have longer durability.
 Gable roofing is generally preferred.
 For small sheds lean to type roofing is advisable.
 When the animals are taken for grazing during the day time and sheltered only during
night, the covered space will be enough.
 When the animals are housed intensively, the pen and run system of housing is
suitable.
 There is no restriction for the length of the shelter, however breadth of shed should
not exceed 12 meter and optimum breadth of shelter is 8 meter.
 Height of ewe should be 2.5 meter and height at ridge should be 3.5 meter.
 The height of chain link used for open space should be 4 feet. The length of the
overhang should be 75cm – 1 meter.
 Separate feeders and water troughs should be placed for concentrate feeds, green
fodders and water.

Floor space requirements

Recommended floor space requirements for Indian conditions
Age groups Covered space(sq.m) Open space (sq.m)
Up to 3 months 0.2-0.25 0.4-0.5
3 months to 6 months 0.5-0.75 1.0-1.5
6 months to 12 months 0.75-1.0 1.5-2.0
Adult animal 1.5 3.0
Male, Pregnant or lactating ewe/ 1.5-2.0 3.0- 4.0
doe

Floor space requirement per animal (BIS standard)

Types of animals Minimum floor space per animal (59.m)

26
 Ram or buck in groups 1.8
Ram or buck - individual 3.2
Lambs or kids - in group 0.4
Weaner in groups 0.8
yearling or goatlings 0.9
Ewe or doe in groups 1.0
Ewe with lamb 1.5

Feeding and watering space requirement

Type of animal Space per Width of Depth of manger/ Height of inner
animal (cm) manger/ water trough (cm) wall of manger/
water water trough (cm)
trough(cm)
Sheep and goat 40 - 50 50 30 35
Kid/lamb 30 - 35 50 20 25

Sheds

Different sheds in an organized sheep and goat farm

The sheds of the following types are required for housing the animals,

 General flock shed (Ewe / Doe shed)

 Ram or buck shed
 Lambing or kidding shed
 Lamb or kid shed
 Sick animal shed
 Shearing and storeroom
 Attendant's room

General flock shed (Ewe / Doe shed)

27
  The flock shed shall be used for housing ewes or does kept for breeding purpose.
 The shed shall be 15m (l) x 4m (w) x 3 m (h) and can accommodate not more than 60
ewes or does.
 The shed should be three metre high and should have brick-on-edge floor.
 In low lying and heavy rainfall areas, the floors should preferably be elevated and in
temperate regions they may be made of strong wood.

Ram / buck shed

 Rams or bucks kept for breeding purpose are housed individually in these sheds.
Alternatively, wooden partitions can be raised in bigger shed to partition in to stalls.
 The dimension is of 4m (l) ×2.5m (w) ×3m (h) and can accommodate about 3 rams/
bucks.
 The shed shall be partitioned lengthwise to form three equal compartments.
 The partition between each shed should not exceed one metre.
 The partitions may be either of wooden planks or half-cut ballis.
 The partition shall be not more than one metre high from the floor.

Lambing / kidding shed

28
  These sheds shall be used as maternity rooms for pregnant ewe or doe and are housed
individually in these sheds.
 The shed shall be 1.5m(l)×1.2m(w)×3.0m(h), a manger for holding feed and hay and
a bucket for keeping water shall be provided in the shed.
 These sheds shall be made draught free.
 In cold climates some warming device, like a room heater shall be fixed in maternity
pens, so that new borns are protected from cold during winter.

Lamb/ kid shed

29
  Lambs or kids from weaning upto attaining maturity are housed in these sheds at the
rate of about 25 animals per shed.
 By making suitable partitions in a larger shed, unweaned, weaned but immature and
nearby maturity lambs can be housed separately.
 On larger farms however, three separate sheds may be constructed to house three
categories of kids or lambs.
 The shed shall be with a dimension of 7.5m (l) ×4m (w) ×3m (h) to accommodate not
more than 75 animals.
 The shed shall be partitioned breadth wise dividing into two compartments. The
compartments having dimension of 5m (l) ×4m (w) ×3m (h) shall be used to keep the
unweaned animals and other compartment with dimension of 2.5m(l)×4m(w) x3m(h)
shall be used for keeping the weaned animals.

Sick animal shed

30
  There shall be a sick animal shed for segregating ailing and disabled animals.
 Away from the other sheds one or more sick animal sheds may be constructed with a
dimension of 3m (l) ×2m (w) × 3 m (h).
 The lower half of the door may be made of wooden planks and the upper half of wire-
netting.
 There may also be a window of 0.7 m broad and 1.2 m high with a wire net covering.

Shearing and storeroom

 The shearing and storeroom consist of two compartments with a dividing wall.
 One room may be exclusively meant for storing wool and shearing equipment and the
other for keeping feed and medicines.
 The other room used for shearing may be 6m (l) x 2.5m (w) x 3m (h).
 There shall be a door one metre wide and two metres high in front side of the room.
 The door leaf may be made of wooden battens. It may also have two windows, one on
each side of the long sides of the room.
 This room should have clean smooth floors and walls lined with glazed tiles upto a
height of one and half metre.
 The room should be made damp and dust proof.
 There shall be three windows on three sides.

Attendant's room

 The shepherd's house meant for caretaker shall be located at a convenient place in the
yard.
 The house may be 6m (l) X 4m (w) X 3 m (h). There shall be a door of one metre
wide and two metres high on the long side of the shed facing the passage of the yard.
 The door leaf may be of wooden planks. There may be four windows; one of these
facing the passage of the yard and the other three facing outside.
 Each window may be 0.7 m broad and 1.2 m high and covered with wire netting.

Dimensions of different sheds in a sheep and goat farm

Name of the shed lx w x h (m) No. of animals Housed Remarks

31
Ewe/ doe shed 15 x 4 x 3 60 -
Ram/ Buck shed 4 x 2.5 x 3 8 Make partition length wise
Lamb/ kid shed 7.5 x 4 x 3 75 Make partition width wise
Lambing/ kidding shed 1.5 x 1.2 x 3 1 Provide manger and waterer
Provide proper ventilation and
Isolation / sick animal shed 3x2x3 1
bedding materials
Shearing shed 6 x 2.5 x 3 1 Make arrangement for storage of wool
Shepherd house 6x4x3 - It should be located nearer to flock

Milch doe shed 1.2 x 0.8 x 3 1 -

Units
Constructional details of different units
Floor

 The flooring may be either of moorum or of strong wooden battens and, where the
rainfall is quite heavy; the latter type of flooring may be preferred.
 In the case of wooden-batten flooring, the width of each plank shall vary from 7.5 to
10.0 cm and the thickness between 2.5 cm and 4.0 cm.
 The sides of the planks shall be well rounded and the clearance between two planks
shall range between 1.0 cm and 1.5 cm to facilitate the disposal of dung and urine.
 The wooden-batten flooring shall be constructed at a height of at least one metre
above the ground level.
 In this case, a suitable ramp or steps of wooden planks shall be provided.
 In the case of moorum flooring, a plinth wall between 15 cm and 30 cm in height
shall be provided.
 For the shearing and store room and shepherd's house, the flooring may be of moorum

32
 or brick in cement mortar, and the floor shall be levelled properly.

Roof

 The roof may be made gabled.

 The roofing material may be either plain or corrugated galvanized steel sheets or
asbestos cement sheets and where the rainfall is not heavy, it may be of thatch.

Gate

 Each shed may be provided with one or more gates either on the long or broad sides
of the sheds depending upon the dimensions of the shed.
 The dimensions of each gate may be 0.8 m broad and one metre high. The gate leaf
and frame may be made of wooden battens. It shall fit the entrance closely.

33
Manger

Manger and water trough Manger and water trough

Manager and Water trough Manager and Water trough

 The manger may be either of cement concrete or of wood with two compartments for
providing feed and hay.
 A separate hay rack may also be provided by fixing at level or slightly below the
heads of the animals.
 With the help of clamps, the manger may be raised within the height ranging between
450 and 600 mm from the ground.
 The water trough may be of cement concrete or galvanized steel pails or buckets and
may be fixed or hung from a hook fixed to the walls.
 The manger may also be of portable type. The number of mangers and water troughs
in each shed may vary according to the number of animals.

34
Dipping Tank

Dipping tank

 To protect the animals from infection a dipping tank may be made either of
galvanized steel sheets or constructed of stone or brick in cement mortar, whichever is
likely to prove economical, according to local conditions.
 If a galvanized steel tank is used, it shall be well bedded down and the soil rammed
tight against it to prevent the sides of the bath from bulging when it is filled.
 If the base of the soil is unstable, the tank may be bedded in cement concrete.
 The dipping tank may be at one side of the yard.

Footbath

 A footbath made of galvanized steel sheets or brick in cement mortar shall be

provided at the entrance to the yard to protect the animals from foot-rot disease.

 These baths may be embedded in the soil suitably.

SOME COMMON EQUIPMENT USED ON FARMS

1. Feeding Equipment:
- Feeders (hoppers, troughs, and bunkers)
- Waterers (buckets, tanks, and nipple drinkers)
- Hay balers and feed wagons

2. Housing and Fencing Equipment:

- Barns and shelters
- Fencing materials (barbed wire, electric fencing, and netting)
- Gates and gate handlers

3. Health and Hygiene Equipment:

- Vaccination and injection equipment
- Medication dispensers and drenching guns

35
 - Sanitizing and cleaning equipment (hoses, sprayers, and disinfectants)

4. Breeding and Reproduction Equipment:

- Artificial insemination (AI) equipment
- Pregnancy testing and ultrasound equipment
- Lambing and calving pens

5. Milking and Dairy Equipment (for dairy farms):

- Milking machines and parlors
- Bulk tanks and milk coolers
- Pasteurizers and homogenizers

6. Manure and Waste Management Equipment:

- Manure spreaders and injectors
- Slurry pumps and tankers
- Composting and anaerobic digester systems

7. Handling and Restraint Equipment:

- Chutes and alleys
- Scales and weighing systems
- Restraint systems (gates, crushes, and stocks)

8. Monitoring and Identification Equipment:

- Ear tags and identification systems
- Electronic monitoring systems (temperature, humidity, and motion sensors)
- Data loggers and record-keeping software

9. Shearing and Grooming Equipment:

- Shearing machines and combs
- Clippers and trimmers
- Brushes and grooming tables

10. Hoof Care and Trimming Equipment:

- Hoof trimmers and nippers
- Hoof picks and brushes
- Farrier tools (anvils, hammers, etc.)

11. Fencing and Enclosure Equipment:

- Post drivers and extractors
- Wire tighteners and stretchers
- Electric fencing testers and energizers

12. Livestock Transportation Equipment:

- Trailers and stock trucks
- Loading ramps and chutes
- Livestock crates and containers

13. Pasture Management Equipment:

- Mowers and hay balers
- Pasture aerators and renovators

36
 - Fertilizer and pesticide applicators

14. Barn and Facility Maintenance Equipment:

- Forklifts and telehandlers
- Skid-steer loaders and tractors
- Pressure washers and cleaning equipment

15. Animal Monitoring and Surveillance Equipment:

- CCTV cameras and monitoring systems
- Motion detectors and alarm systems
- Temperature and humidity monitoring systems

16. Veterinary and Diagnostic Equipment:

- Ultrasound machines and X-ray units
- Microscopes and laboratory equipment
- Diagnostic software and record-keeping systems

17. Automated Feeding and Milking Systems:

- Automated feeders and feeding robots
- Robotic milking systems and automation
- Computerized feeding and milking software

18. Farm Safety and Emergency Equipment:

- First aid kits and emergency response plans
- Fire extinguishers and smoke detectors
- Personal protective equipment (PPE) and safety gear

19. Livestock Scales and Weighing Systems:

- Electronic scales and load cells
- Weighbridges and truck scales
- Livestock weighing software and data analysis

20. Farm Lighting and Ventilation Systems:

- LED lighting and lighting controllers
- Ventilation fans and curtains
- Climate control systems and sensors

Note that the specific equipment used may vary depending on the type of farm (beef, dairy,
poultry, swine, etc.), size and production system.

37