1.

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION III

1
(Selection and Breeding)
1. Reproduction- this is the process 4. Vas deferens/sperm ducts-
by which new individuals (offsprings) They conduct sperms from the
are produced. epididymis to the urethra.
2. Fertilization- this is the process 5. Urethra- It acts as a passage
through which the ovum (the female for both semen and urine.
gamete) fuses with the sperm (the 6. Penis- Introduces sperms into
male gamete) to form the zygote the vagina.
which grows to form a new offspring. 7. Seminal vesicles and
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE prostate glands- secrete
SYSTEM IN CATTLE. alkaline fluid to neutralize
1. Scrotum- It protects the testes. acidity in the urethra and
female reproductive system,
2. Testicles/testes- produce nourish and activate the
spermatozoa (male gametes) and sex sperms.
hormones.
3. Epididymis- It stores the sperm
cells. 12-May-21
2 12-May-21
3 12-May-21
4

The female reproductive 4. Fallopian tubes/

system in cattle. uterine tubes or
 It consists of: oviducts- This is where
fertilization takes place.
1. Vulva- allows passage of
the foetus/calf during 5. Ovaries- produce ova
birth ad urine. It also (female gametes) and
allows mating. female sex hormones.
2. Vagina- this is where
sperms are deposited.
3. Uterus/ womb- this is
where the zygote grows
and develops.
12-May-21
Fallopian
tube/
oviduct
Funnel

Ovary
Uterus/
womb
Cervix
Urinary
Vagina bladder
Urethra
5 12-May-21
6

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM PARTS OF AN EGG

OF A HEN

12-May-21
7

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF A 5. Uterus/ shell gland- it has

HEN/ THE PROCESS OF EGG calcium deposits. The shell is
FORMATION. added round the egg. Shell
1. Ovary- produces the ovum. pigments are added. Addition
of albumen is completed. The
2. Funnel/infundibulum- egg stays for 18-22 hours
fertilization takes place and
chalazae are added. The egg 6. Vagina and cloaca- vagina
stays for 15 minutes. lubricates the egg and stores it
temporary before laid through
3. Magnum- thick albumen is the cloaca.
added. The egg stays 3 hrs.
4. Isthmus- shell membranes
are added which determine the
shape of the egg. Water,
mineral salts and vitamins
are added. It takes 1 hour.
12-May-21
8

SELECTION 3. Contemporary comparison.

 Selection is the process of allowing certain  It involves a comparison of the average
animals to be parents of future generation production of the daughters of each bull
while culling others. with that of the other heifer
 Animals kept in the farm for reproduction
(contemporaries) in the herd.
purposes are called a breeding stock. Advantages
Methods of Selection. i. It is possible to compare animals of
1. Individual or mass selection- This different age groups (since heifer
involves the selection of individuals based locations are used).
on their performance and then mating ii. It eliminates differences brought
them at random. about by the environment (since
 It increases the occurrence of the average performance of the herd is
desirable genes in a population. used).
2. Progeny testing- This is the selection iii. It is accurate.
of males using production records of its
female offspring/ progeny e.g. milk
production.
 It takes a long time.

12-May-21
9

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN 4. Health – animals selected

SELECTING A BREEDING STOCK. must be healthy because they
1. Age – young animals (those that are economical to keep.
have not parturated for not more 5. Body conformation –
than 3 times should be selected. animals should be selected
Theis is because they have a longer according to their proper body
productive life. conformation e.g. a dairy cow
2. Level of performance – only should have wedge shape, large
those animals with the highest udder etc.
production level should be selected. 6. Quality of products - Select
3. Physical fitness – animals selected animals that give products of
should be free from any physical high quality.
defect e.g. being monoeyed, limping,
irregular number of teats.

12-May-21
10

7. Temperament/behaviour 9. Adaptability to the

– select animals with good environment – animals
selected should be well
temperament/ desirable adapted to the prevailing
behavior. Animals with climatic conditions of the
undesirable characteristics area.
e.g. cannibalism and egg 10. Prolificacy- animals
eating should be culled. selected should be highly
8. Mothering ability – prolific (i.e. with ability to
animals selected should have give birth to many
a good mothering ability (i.e. offspring at a time/
animals with natural large litter.)
12-May-21
instincts towards their
11

BREEDING. 4. To satisfy the consumer’s taste e.g.

 This is the process of mating selected
fast growth, tender meat.
males and females to produce 5. For economic reasons e.g. high
offsprings of the required growth rate animals will acquire
characteristics. market weight very fast hence
Aims/reasons/objectives of cheap to produce.
breeding.
1. To expand the inherited potential of
the animal.
2. To introduce new genes thus making
the animal better in production.
3. To overcome production problems
created by the environment e.g.
resistance to diseases.

12-May-21
12

TERMS USED IN BREEDING 3. Epistasis- This is a

1. Dominant and recessive combination of genes
characteristics- a recessive which individually could
characteristic is suppressed or have been undesirable/
dominated by other inferior.
characteristics. A dominant  In this way, the effect of
characteristic suppresses the some recessive genes are
other. masked such that they cannot
2. Hybrid Vigour (Heterosis)- be expressed.
this is increased performance
and vigour resulting from
crossing two unrelated
superior breeds. The offspring
obtained is called a hybrid.
12-May-21
13

BREEDING SYSTEMS. 3. To increase phenotypic

 They include inbreeding and
uniformity. This helps to
outbreeding. describe external
characteristics of a certain
A. INBREEDING- this is the breed e.g. black and white
mating of animals which are colour for Friesian.
closely related.
4. Used to get proven sires i.e.
Reasons for inbreeding. sires that have been confirmed
1. To increase genetic uniformity and proven to have very high
of the herd by increasing qualities through backcrossing.
homozygosity. 5. Used in animals of high
2. Used to fix required prepotency i.e. helps to test
characteristics or develop new whether the animal has high
breeds with permanent ability of passing its desirable
characteristics. characteristics to the offspring.

12-May-21
14

Disadvantages of inbreeding. Systems of inbreeding.

1. Loss of hybrid vigour. a) Close breeding- breeding of
2. Decline in fertility. very closely related animals e.g.
brothers and sisters (sib-
3. Reduction in performance. mating), sons and mothers/
4. High rate of pre-natal daughters and fathers (parent-
mortality. sib- mating).
b) Line breeding- mating
distantly related animals that
share the same ancestor e.g.
cousins, half brother and sister,
grand daughter and grandson.

12-May-21
15

B. OUTBREEDING-Refers to Systems of out breeding.

mating of animals that are not a) Outcrossing- breeding of
related. unrelated animals within the
Reasons/importance of same breed e.g. Kenyan
outbreeding. Friesian and Holland Friesian.
1. To introduce new genes into b) Cross breeding- mating of
existing breed. two animals from different
2. To establish a new breed/ a breeds e.g. Friesian and Boran.
grade animal. c) Upgrading/grading up-
3. To exploit hybrid vigour. mating of low grade female
with a pure breed sire.

12-May-21
16

Process of upgrading. MATING IN CATTLE.

 Select a high grade pure breed  A cow comes to heat every 21 days.
bull/sire and a well managed low The oestrus cycle (duration from
grade heifer/indigenous heifer. heat period to another) lasts for 18-
 Mate them to produce a heifer with
30 hours.
half of the sire’s genes.  For successful mating, the cow

 Mate the heifer with a sire of the same

should be taken for service 12-18
pure breed as original sire. hours after showing the first heat
signs.
 Subsequent heifers are mated with the
same pure breed sire as the original
sire.
 Continue up to the sixth
cross/generation to produce a high-
grade heifer with over 98% genes of
the pure breed high grade bull.

12-May-21
17

Signs of heat in livestock. MATING IN PIGS.

Signs of heat in cattle.  Heat period in sows lasts for 2-3

1. Restlessness. days. The best service period is the

second day of heat period.
2. Vulva swells and becomes reddish.
Signs of heat in pigs.
3. Clear or slimy mucus discharge
from the vulva. 1. Restlessness.
4. Bellowing or mooing frequently. 2. Frequent urination.
5. Mounting others and when 3. Swelling and reddening of vulva.
mounted it stands still. 4. Clear or slimy mucus discharge
6. Slight drop in milk production in from the vulva.
lactating cows. 5. Frequent mounting others.
7. Slight rise in body temperature. 6. It responds positively to riding test
(i.e. it stands still when pressure is
applied at the back/ topline)

12-May-21
18

MATING IN RABBITS. METHODS OF SERVICE IN

 DOES ARE ready for service at the age
LIVESTOCK.
of 6-7 months of age. 1. NATURAL MATING.
 Heat signs are repeated after 14 days.  This is the use of a male to serve a

Signs of heat in rabbits. female.

 There are two ways of carrying out
1. Restlessness.
natural mating:
2. Frequent urination.
a) Flock mating.
3. Swollen vulva.
 The male animal is let loose in a
4. The doe throws itself on its sides. herd or flock. It runs with the
5. The doe rubs herself against the wall females and detects those on heat
or any other solid object. and serves them.
6. The doe tries to contact other rabbits b) Hand mating/ pen mating.
in the next hutch by peeping through  This is where the female on heat is
the cage walls. brought to the male pen.

12-May-21
19

Advantages of natural mating. Disadvantages of natural mating.

1. It is more accurate. This is 1. High chances of inbreeding.
because the male can detect the 2. It is possible to transmit sexual
female on heat thus increasing diseases.
the chances of conception.
3. Males need extra costs of feeding and
2. It is less laborious. This is rearing.
because there s no need of
checking the animals for heat 4. Large males can injure small females.
signs. 5. A lot of semen is wasted.
3. It is useful when heat periods 6. It is difficult and expensive to
of females cannot easily be transport a bull over long distances to
detected. serve a cow.
7. Bulls are expensive to acquire.
8. Most bulls are aggressive hence
difficult to handle.
12-May-21
20

2. ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION. Collection of semen.

 This is the introduction of semen into the i. A teaser cow is restrained in a crush.
female reproductive tract by hand using ii. A bull is then brought to the 'teaser' cow.
syringes/ tubes.
iii. When the bull mounts on the cow and
 Semen is collected from a bull using directs the penis to the vulva, a person
artificial vagina and a teaser cow. grabs the penis immediately and directs
 Semen is collected and diluted and used to it into the artificial vagina.
inseminate many cows. iv. Since there is warm water all round the
 The diluted semen is stored in frozen state artificial vagina, the bull will ejaculate
in liquid nitrogen at -192 degrees celcius. and the semen is collected.
 The payets have different colours Practices carried out after semen
indicating the breed and identity numbers collection.
for different bulls. i. Dilution of semen.
 Special plastic straws called payets are ii. Packaging of semen.
used to store enough quantities of semen
for one insemination. iii. Storage of semen in frozen state.

12-May-21
21 12-May-21
22

Advantages of Artificial 6. It reduces the expenses of

Insemination. keeping a bull on pasture and
1. Semen of one superior bull veterinary bills. Instead a farmer
can be used to serve many can keep additional cow.
cows. 7. A small-scale farmer who
2. It controls the transmission of cannot afford to buy a superior
breeding diseases and bull can have the cows served at
parasites. a very low cost.
3. Sires that are unable to serve 7. Semen can be stored for a long
cows due to heavy weight or time even after the death of a
injury can produce semen to bull.
serve cows.
4. It prevents large bulls from
injuring small cows.
12-May-21
23

7. It is easy to control breeding/ a Disadvantages of Artificial

farmer can time when to breed Insemination.
the cow. 1. Harmful characteristics can be
8. It is easy to control inbreeding spread quickly (from one bull
i.e. the person can time when to the offspring of the bull
to serve the cows. sires).
9. It eliminates dangerous bulls 2. It requires skilled labour.
from the farm. 3. There are low chances of
10. It is a useful research tool (as it conception due to problems in
makes it possible to study a very storage and transportation and
large number of daughters from poor timing of heat periods.
a single sire). 4. It requires more time and
labour (i.e. taking the cow to
insemination centre and
checking heat signs.)
12-May-21
24

3. Embryo transplant- this is Advantages of embryo

the technology where ova/ transplant
eggs are obtained/ harvested 1. Embryos from high quality
from high quality animals, females can be implanted in
fertilized in a test-tube and females of low quality
then the embryos that develop improving performance of the
are implanted into the foster calves obtained.
mothers.
2. The calf is born in the local
 The animal that produces ova is surrounding to minimize
called donor while the animal effects of climatic changes.
that receives the ova is called
recipient. 3. It is possible to screen the male
sexed embryos to minimize the
 The donor is first injected with number of male calves
hormones to enable it produce
more ova at ago.

12-May-21
25

4. It controls sexually transmitted 10. A highly productive female can

diseases/breeding diseases. be spread over a large area to
5. Embryos can be stored for a benefit many farmers.
long time awaiting for a 11. It enables high quality animals
recipient female. that are not able to carry
6. Embryos are cheaper than pregnancy to give offspring.
animals of equal value. 12. Can be used as a
7. Embryos are easy and cheap to study/research tool on a given
transport in test tubes sire because many offspring can
compared to live animals. produced within a short time
for observation.
8. It is easy to plan for breeding.
9. It prevents injury of cow by
heavy bulls.
12-May-21
26

13. It stimulates production Disadvantages of embryo

of milk in females that transplant
were not ready/able to 1. It is very expensive.
produce milk.
2. It requires trained
14. It allows the embryo to personnel/ skill to
obtain passive immunity handle and administer
from the surrogate
3. It requires special
mother.
equipment for
15. It saves the cost of fertilization and storage
production of rearing a of embryos.
bull.

12-May-21
27

SIGNS OF PARTURITION IN SIGNS OF PARTURITION IN A COW.

LIVESTOCK. 1. Restlessness.
Terms used. 2. Enlarged/ swollen vulva.
1. Calving down- 3. Clear mucus discharge from the vulva.
parturition/giving birth in 4. Relaxing/ slackening of pelvic/ hip
cattle. muscles.
2. Lambing- parturition/giving 5. Full and distended udder.
birth in sheep.
6. Thick milky fluid from the teats.
3. Kidding- parturition/giving
birth goats. 7. A water bug appears and bursts just
before calving.
4. Farrowing-
parturition/giving birth in N/B. Gestation period of a cow is 270-285
pigs/sows. days. A normal calving takes 2 hours. The
normal calving/ presentation is muzzle/ head
5. Kindling- parturition/giving with forelegs first. Any other presentation is
birth in rabbits. called malpresentation.
12-May-21
28

SIGNS OF PARTURITION IN SIGNS OF PARTURITION IN

PIGS (SOWS). RABBITS (DOES).
1. Restlessness. 1. It starts to pull hair from its
2. The vulva becomes red and belly.
swells. 2. Restlessness
3. The udder fills with milk. 3. Loss of appetite.
4. The sow starts to build the nest N/B- Gestation period of rabbits is
by collecting the bedding at 29-33 days.
one corner of the pen.
N/B- Gestation period of a sow is 4
months. Farrowing takes place
within 4-6 hours of showing the
signs.

End
12-May-21
 © Sam obare 1

2. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION 4.
(LIVESTOCK REARING
PRACTICES)
22-May-22
 Routine livestock rearing practices
2

1. Feeding. 6. Tooth clipping.

2. Parasite and disease 7. Culling.
control. 8. Dehorning.
3. Breeding practices. 9. Shearing.
4. Identification. 10. Castration.
5. Debeaking

© Sam obare 22-May-22

3

1. FEEDING. Good hygiene practices in

Importance of proper feeding livestock feeding.
1. For faster and early maturity. 1. Cleaning feeders.
2. To produce high quality products. 2. Cleaning waterers.
3. To increase 3. Providing fresh water.
yields/performance/production. 4. Providing fresh feeds.
4. To provide resistance to diseases. 5. Providing adequate waterers.
5. To reduce the cost of production/are 6. Providing adequate feeders.
economical to keep.
7. Providing clean water.
8. Providing clean feeds.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

4

a) FLUSHING- This is the giving of high b) STEAMING UP- this is the practice of
quality feeds to an animal shortly providing extra feed of high quality to
before and after mating. It is an animal during the last weeks of
commonly done in sheep and pigs. gestation/ pregnancy.
Reasons for flushing. Reasons/advantages/importance of
i. Facilitate production of more ova. steaming up.
ii. To increase conception rate. i. To accustom the cow to concentrate
feeding.
iii. To encourage multiple births.
ii. To ensure birth of a healthy calf.
iv. To facilitate zygote implantation.
iii. To build up energy for parturition.
iv. Increases and maintains high milk yield
after birth/ stimulate alveoli cells
development.
v. To promote good health of the cow/
mother.
vi. Provide nutrient for maximum foetal
growth.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
5

c) CREEP FEEDING- this is the Qualities of a good creep feed.

feeding of young ones from birth 1. Highly digestible.
to weaning.
2. High in energy content.
The importance of creep
feeding. 3. Highly palatable.
1. It leads to higher weaning 4. Contain high digestible crude
weight. protein.
2. It prevents a stop/ check in 5. Rich in minerals e.g. iron and
growth because the piglets do calcium and vitamins e.g. Vit
not rely on the sow's milk alone. A, B complex and D.
3. It helps in full development of
the digestive system.
4. It prevents over-suckling of the
mother.
5. To obtain a faster growth rate.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
6

Rearing practices that necessitate 2. PARASITE AND DISEASE

handling of piglets. CONTROL PRACTICES.
1. Drenching.  They include:
2. Treatment A. Vaccination.
3. Vaccination. B. Deworming.
4. Detailing. C. Hoof trimming.
5. Castration. D. Docking.
6. Tooth clipping. E. Dipping/Spraying.
7. Identification. F. Dusting.
8. External parasite control.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

7

A. Vaccination- This is the Methods of introduction/

administration of vaccine into administration of vaccines.
an animal's body to provide 1. Through the eyes.
immunity against a particular
disease. 2. Through the mouth/ orally.
 A vaccine is the preparation of 3. Through the nose/ nasally.
dead, weakened or altered 4. Through the cloaca.
disease-causing agents or 5. Through injections.
pathogens.
 When a vaccine is injected into
the body of an animal, it causes
the production of antibodies
which help to fight disease-
causing organisms.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

8

Types of vaccines. Properties of a good Vaccine.

i. Live Virulent Vaccines.-they i. Immunity it produces should be as
contain active pathogens. good as natural immunity.
ii. Live Attenuated Vaccines- ii. Should have a longer keeping/shelf
life.
they contain pathogens whose
iii. Should be easy to administer to the
ability to cause disease has animal.
been reduced.
iv. Should have no side effects when
iii. Killed or Dead Vaccines- inoculated.
contain dead/killed pathogens. v. Should be compatible with the
iv. Toxoids- they are vaccines other vaccines given to the animal.
that are obtained from toxins. vi. A single dose should produce life
long immunity.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

9

Care in handling vaccines. B. DEWORMING

1. Vaccines should be kept under freezing  This is the process of administration of
temperature (-20- 4 degrees) drugs to control internal parasites.
2. Vaccination equipment should be  This is done orally by the use a bolus
sterilized by boiling. gun (for solid drugs),
3. Correct dosage should be given. dosing/drenching gun/narrow necked
bottle (for liquid drugs).
4. The route of administration should be
correct. Procedure/ process of deworming
i. Restrain the heifer in a crush
ii. Hold it by the nostrils and lift up its
head
iii. Open its mouth
iv. Place the drenching gun/ bottle on
the mouth
v. Release the drug into the mouth as
far back as possible

© Sam obare 22-May-22

10

C. HOOF TRIMMING- This Reasons/importance of

is the cutting back of hoof trimming.
overgrown hooves. i. Facilitates easy movement.
Effects of overgrow hooves. ii. Controls foot rot disease.
i. Cracking of hooves. iii. Prevents the males from
ii. Bleeding of the hooves. injuring the females during
iii. Rotting of the skin due to mating/tupping.
accumulation of dung.
 Tools used for hoof trimming
include hoof trimming
knife, hoof rasp,hoof
cutter.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

11 © Sam obare 22-May-22
12

D. DOCKING/TAILING- Methods of docking.

this is the removal of tail/ 1. Elastrator and rubber
dock. It is done 7-14 days ring- the elastrator opens
after birth. the rubber ring which is
Importance / reasons for placed on the tail. It is done
docking between 1-2 days after birth.
i. Facilitates mating/ tupping. The tail normally drops off
in 7-10 days.
ii. Facilitates a good fat
distribution in the body
iii. Prevents blowfly infestation.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

13

2. Burdizzo and knife- 3. Knife- lambs are tailed

the burdizzo is used to with a sharp knife. Mild
crush the tail, which is antiseptic is applied.
then cut off with a The lambs are best
knife. tailed when 7-10 days
 An antiseptic powder/ old.
spray is applied to 4. Hot iron- the hot
prevent infection. iron is placed between
 Lambs are usually 2-3 the vertebrae joints to
weeks old. cut the tail.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

14

Placement of Crushing with a

rubber ring burdizzo

© Sam obare 22-May-22

15

Cutting off the tail

© Sam obare 22-May-22

16

E. Dipping and F. Dusting- involves

spraying- Involves application of powder
application of liquid chemicals to control
chemicals to control external/ ecto
external/ ecto parasites parasites.
e.g. ticks, lice, fleas,  It is done using a duster
mites. It is done using a on the animal body or to
bucket sprayer, stir up the house where the
pump, knapsack animal lives.
sprayer.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
17

The procedure of hand 6. Spray under the tail head and

spraying. the area around the anus and
1. Spray the back/top line from vulva.
base of head to the tail end. 7. Hold the tail switch on the
2. Spray the sides in a zigzag rump and spray it thoroughly
motion to trap and retain the to ensure complete wetting.
wash from the backline. 8. Spray the neck and the foreleg
3. Spray the belly with the nozzle from the flanks to the heels.
facing upwards. 9. Spray the head and face making
4. Spray the scrotum/udder and sure that the bases of the horns
hind flanks carefully. are thoroughly wetted.
5. Spray the hind legs up to and 10. Spray inside of the ears.
including the heels.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

18

3. BREEDING PRACTICES- b. Tupping and serving-

They are carried out to tupping is the act of mating
enhance successful breeding. in sheep and goats while
 They include: serving is the act of mating
in cattle and pigs.
a) Crutching and ringing-
Crutching is the cutting of  Teaser rams are introduced to
wool around the external a flock of ewes some weeks
reproductive organs of sheep before tupping to:
to prevent infection and 1. To induce heat in ewes.
facilitate mating. Ringing is 2. To accelerate ovulation.
the practice of trimming
wool around the sheath of
the penis of the rams to
facilitate mating.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

19
Study question.
c. Raddling- This is the practice
of smearing the paint on the 1. Name two practices that are carried out
belly of the ram so that when it when preparing ewes for mating.
serves the ewe, it transfers the i. Flushing.
paint.
ii. Crutching.
Importance of raddling.
iii. Treatment against parasites/diseases.
i. To help identify rams which
have mated with ewes/those 2. State four management practices that
incapable of mating. should be carried out during the mating
season in sheep.
ii. To identify sires of lambs
i. Deworming.
iii. To identify ewes that have been
served/fertile/those that are ii. Flushing.
infertile/not served. iii. Crutching.
iv. To identify ewes with iv. Ringing.
repeated heat. v. Raddling
© Sam obare 22-May-22
20

4. IDENTIFICATION- This iii. To facilitate feeding.

refers to giving an animal iv. To facilitate proper record
unique identification marks. keeping.
Importance/ Reasons for v. To facilitate culling.
identification.
vi. For tracing purposes.
i. To facilitate selection and
breeding.
ii. To facilitate disease control
and treatment.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

21

Methods of identification
a) Ear-tagging- plastic or
metal tags bearing the
numbers or letters are fixed
on the ears of the animal.
 The tags are fixed using ear

tagger.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

22

b) Tattooing- This involves

making tattoo
marks/shapes/ numbers/
letters on the animal skin
with a permanent ink/dye.
 The marks are put on light
coloured parts of the skin e.g.
ear, udder, muzzle using a
tattoing machine. It is suitable
for pigs and rabbits.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

23

c. Neck strap and chain-

It involves hanging a piece of
wood/ metal with different
shapes/ numbers/ letters
around the neck of the
animal using canvas, leather
strap or metal chain.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

24

d. Ear notching- involves making

different shapes/ notches on the
animal ear using an ear notcher.
 Each shape stands for a certain value.
When all the values represented by the
shapes are added together, they give the
number or identity of the animal.
Disadvantages/ limitations/ why it is
not recommended/ discouraged.
i. It is painful.
ii. It causes wounds which act as a route
for secondary infection.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

25

e. Branding- involves marking of

animals on the skin using permanent
marks.
 It is usually done using a hot iron. The
marks are usually made below the
hock or on the side of animal jaw.
Limitations.
i. It is painful.
ii. It reduces the quality of hides and
skins.
iii. It may cause wounds that may act as
a route for secondary infections.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

26

5. DEBEAKING- This is the cutting of the upper

beak of birds.
 A third of the top beak is cut with the use of a
debeaker, knife, scissors or hot iron.
 The hot iron is recommended because it
cauterizes the wound/ prevents bleeding/
prevents infection/ sterilizes the wound.
 It is done to control vices in poultry i.e. egg
eating and cannibalism.
Procedure.
i. Restrain the bird.
ii. Open the mouth and put a finger in between
the beaker.
iii. Cut a third of the upper beak using a debeaker.
iv. Causterize the cut to minimize bleeding.
v. Release the bird.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
27

6. TOOTH CLIPPING- This Reasons for tooth clipping.

is the cutting or removal of i. To avoid causing injuries on
needle like teeth / canine
teeth/ fangs the piglets are the teats by piglets while
born with. sucking.
 It should be carried out a day/ ii. It helps to control mastitis.
24 hours after farrowing using iii. It prevents the piglets from
a teeth clipper/cutter or hurting each other when
pliers.
fighting.
iv. It prevents the piglets from
hurting the farmer when
carrying out routine practices
e.g. castration, deworming
e.t.c.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

28

7. CULLING- This is the removal iii. Poor/Low production.

of unproductive animals in the iv. Physical deformities.
herd or flock.
v. Hereditary defects.
 The male animal culled are

castrated and fattened and sold for vi. Poor mothering ability.
meat while females are removed vii. Poor fertility/infertility/
directly and sold for meat. inability to produce
Factors to consider/ Reasons young ones.
for culling livestock/ factors viii. To avoid inbreeding
that necessitate culling.
i. Poor health.
ii. Old age.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
29

8. DEHORNING ANND Methods of dehorning/ disbudding.

DISBUDDING-Dehorning is the a) Use of caustic potash stick/
removal of horns in cattle while potassium hydroxide.
disbudding is the removal of horn
buds in young animals/cattle. Procedure.
Reasons for dehorning/disbudding. i. Hair around the horn bud is clipped
off.
i. To make them docile and easy to
handle. ii. The bud is rubbed with caustic potash
paste.
ii. To reduce incidences of the animal
injuring each other. iii. The animal is restrained for ½ an
hour to prevent the paste from
iii. To prevent the animal from injuring getting into the eye or rubbing off.
the farmer.
iv. The animal is released
iv. To reduce incidences of the animal
damaging the structures.
v. To increase feeding, watering and
transportation space.
vi. To add aesthetic value to the animal.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

30

b) Use of a hot d) Use of an elastrator and

iron/disbudding iron- rubber ring- Rubber
The dehorning iron is rings are fixed at the base
burnt until it is red hot, of the young horns which is
then pressed on the horn gradually cut off.
buds to scoop the buds. e) Use of dehorning
c) Using a dehorning collodion- it is applied on
wire/saw- The grown the horn bud using a piece
horns are cut hack saw/ of cloth and the chemical
tenon saw/ twisted wire. eats away the horn bud.
Fly repellant is applied on
the wound to keep away
flies.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

31

9. SHEARING- This is the cutting of iv. Likewise turn over the animal and
wool from the body of woolen shear the right flank.
animals e.g. sheep, wool (mohair) v. Roll the sheep over and shear the
goats and Bactrian camels using back up to the rump.
wool shear.
vi. Shear the wool on the head and
Procedure of shearing. the neck.
i. Let the vii. Shear the wool on the rump, tail
ii. Open up the fleece at the base of the and hind legs.
neck using a pair of wool shears. viii. Release the sheep after complete
iii. Clip all the wool from the neck shearing.
through the stomach up to the ix. Place the fleece on a clear wool
udder or scrotum. table.
iv. Turn the animal over and shear the x. Sort and grade the wool (by
left flank from the base of the neck separating dirty and soiled wool
through the left shoulder up to the from clean wool).
position where it sits on

© Sam obare 22-May-22

32 © Sam obare 22-May-22
33

Precautions taken when 10. CASTRATION- This is the

shearing in sheep. process of making male
i. Complete cuts should be animals unable to breed.
made Reasons for castration:
ii. Shearing should be done i. To control breeding diseases
on clean floor (without e.g. brucellosis, vaginitis.
grease/ vegetable oil). ii. To control breeding.
iii. Shearing should be done iii. For faster growth rates.
using a clean equipment. iv. To increase the quality of
iv. Care should be taken to meat (by removing
avoid cutting body parts unpleasant smell especially
e.g. skin, testicles, udder, in goats).
vulva or penis. v. To control inbreeding.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
 Methods of castration.
34

a) Open method/ use of knife/scalpel- Limitations/ disadvantages

This involves making a cut on the scrotum i. Causes wound which act as route for
and removing the testicles. It is done by use secondary infection.
of disinfected knife or sterilized to avoid
infection. ii. It is painful.
 It is done on bull calves, male kids, male iii. It causes excessive bleeding.
piglets, cocks and rabbits.
Procedure of open castration
i. Restrain the animal properly.
ii. Using one hand, pull the testicles slightly
and hold.
iii. With the help of the other hand, make a
cut at the base of the scrotum.
iv. Squeeze the testicles until the spermatic
cords are extended and exposed then cut.
v. Remove the testicles and disinfect the
scrotum using antiseptics e.g. healing oil.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

35

b) Closed/ bloodless method- it Procedure

is done by: i. Restrain the animal
i) Use of elastrator and rubber appropriately.
ring- Rubber is applied on the ii. Fit the rubber ring into the
scrotum of kids and lambs when tongs of the elastrator.
they are 3 days old.
iii. Press the elastrator handles to
Reasons why farmers prefer expand the rubber ring.
using elastrator and rubber ring.
iv. Pass the expanded ring
 It is bloodless.
through the base of the
 It is less painful. scrotum until it reaches the
 It is less stressful
scrotum neck and fit it.
 Less skills are required.
v. Release the animal. The rubber
ring will slowly cut through
the skin until it cuts off the
male organs completely.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
36

ii. Use of burdizzo- The jaws of v. Repeat the pressing on the same
burdizzo are used to crush the spermatic cord but at a lower
testicles. position below the cut.
 Lambs and kids are castrated using a vi. Repeat the procedure of cutting
burdizzo 6 weeks after birth while bull the spermatic cord on the other
calves 6 weeks and above. testis.
Procedure of using a burdizzo vii. Release the animal.
i. Restrain the animal.
ii. With one hand, pull the testes to let
them free from the scrotal neck.
iii. Using the other hand, place the
cusps of the burdizzo to clasp the
scrotal neck.
iv. With your free hand, locate the
spermatic cord of one testis and
press the handles of the burdizzo till
the snap sound is heard.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
37

© Sam obare 22-May-22

38

c) Caponization- this is the iii) Implanting pellets of

method of making male female hormone
birds lose their male underneath the skin of the
characteristics. It is a neck (to suppress the male
method used to castrate hormone).
cocks.  The cocks will lose the male
Methods /ways of characteristics i.e. combs and
caponization. wattles become much
i) Injecting a hormone called smaller and stops crowing.
stilboestrol when birds
are one day old.
ii) Open/ surgical method.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
 Management of cows during parturition
/ calving down.
39

 The gestation period normally 5. Let the cow lick the calf dry to
lasts 275 - 285 days. stimulate blood circulation in
Management. the calf.
1. Put an in-calf cow in the nurse 6. Tie, cut and disinfect the navel
paddock a week to parturition. cord using a sterilized scalpel.
2. Keep a close watch on the cow 7. Weigh the calf and record the
and provide assistance when it birth weight.
is needed. 8. Ensure that the calf sucks
3. Do not disturb the cow when colostrum within 8 hours after
calving down, but stand nearby. birth by assisting it locate the
teats.
4. After birth, ensure that the calf
is breathing/apply artificial 9. After suckling, remove the calf
respiration. and place it in a warm place
during chilly/cold weather
conditions.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
40

10. Dispose off the after Practices carried out on

birth/placenta. newly born calf with
11. Provide the cow with a lot of breathing difficult.
water after calving down. i. Place salt on the tongue.
12. Provide high quality feeds to ii. Pour cold water on head
regain the energy lost. and chest to activate the
13. Provide a shelter(calf pen) nerves.
for housing the calf. iii. Clear mucus from the
nostrils.
iv. Hold the calf upside down
with hind legs and swing it.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
41

Signs of complications during the Types of calving complications.

process of calving down. 1. When one or both fore legs are bent
i) A long delay in the appearance of the backwards or the head protrudes.
calf once the water bag breaks. 2. If the head is twisted backwards to
ii) If calving is taking more than 3 hours either side.
after some parts of the calf appear. 3. Breech presentation of the calf.
iii) If the calf is coming out abnormally This is the situation where the rear of
e.g. rear parts trying to come out the calf comes out first instead of the
first/breech presentation. fore legs.
iv) If the cow is in distress e.g. there is no 4. When the whole reproductive tract is
sign of water bag after many hours of twisted.
straining.
v) Only one limb appearing after the
water bag has burst.
vi) Discharge of smelly fluid indicating
death of the calf.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

42 © Sam obare 22-May-22
43 © Sam obare 22-May-22
44 © Sam obare 22-May-22
45 © Sam obare 22-May-22
 Management of pigs during
parturition/ farrowing.
46

 Parturition in pigs/sows is called 5. Provide a farrowing crate so

farrowing. that the piglets are born.
 The gestation period is 4 6. Create a creep area with infra-
months. red light to keep the young
Management. piglets warm and protects
them from pneumonia.
1. Deworm the sow to control
endo parasites. 7. Feed the sow entirely on bran
two days to farrowing which
2. Wash and spray the sow against acts as a laxative.
ectoparasites.
8. Ensure the piglets are breathing
3. Take the sow to the farrowing properly.
pen one week before the
expected date of farrowing.
4. Clean and disinfect the
farrowing pen.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

47

9. Ensure the piglets suckle Reasons why piglets are weighed

colostrum within 6-12 hour immediately after farrowing.
after birth.
10. Ensure the piglets are safe by 1. For selection purposes.
moving them away from the 2. To know the weight
sow as each is born. gain/determine growth rate.
11. Tie, cut and disinfect the navel 3. To determine the genetic
cords of the piglets by applying
iodine solution. potential of the sow.
12. Weigh each piglet and record 4. To determine the level of
the birth weight. management of the sow during
13. Remove and dispose the after- gestation period.
births and any stillborns. 5. To determine the sow’s
14. After parturition provide high mothering ability.
quality feeds and clean water.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
 Management of goats during
parturition/kidding .
48

 In goats, gestation period is 150 5. Tie, cut and disinfect the navel
days. The females are called cord using iodine solution.
nannies and parturition is called 6. Weigh the kid and record the birth
kidding. weight.
Management. 7. Ensure the kid sucks colostrum
1. Place a nanny in a clean pen a few and assist it to locate the teats if
days before kidding. necessary.
2. Provide plenty of water and dry 8. After sucking, take the kid to a
beddings. warm place during chilly weather
3. Do not disturb the nanny during conditions.
labour but provide assistance 9. After kidding, provide a lot of
during prolonged labour. water and high quality feeds to
4. After kidding, let the nanny lick regain the lost energy.
the kid dry of the mucus cover,
especially on the nostrils.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

49

Reasons why kids are weighed Management of sheep during

after birth. parturition.
i. To manage market weight.  In sheep, parturition is called
lambing and gestation period is 21
ii. To determine birth weight. weeks/150 days. The female sheep
iii. To determine growth rate. is called ewe.
iv. To manage feeding. Management.
v. To determine weaning stage. 1. Place the ewe in a separate pen (a
lambing pen) or nurse paddock.
vi. To determine mothering
2. Provide a lot of water in the pen.
ability.
3. Do not disturb the ewe but
provide assistance when necessary.
4. Ensure that the lamb is feeding.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
50

5. Tie, cut and disinfect the Types of lambing.

navel cord. a) Drift lambing-This is
6. Weigh the lamb and record where all pregnant ewes are
the birth weight. put together in one
7. Ensure that the lambs suck paddock and then separated
colostrum. as they lamb down.
8. Provide a lot of clean water b) Pen lambing- In this
to the ewe after lambing. method, the ewes are
separated from others after
9. Give laxative feeds to showing signs of lambing.
remove foecal matter.
 They are then put in their
own individual clean pens to
lamb down under
supervision.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
51

Importance of lambing pen. Study question

i) The pen ensures the new born lamb is State four routine management
not trampled on by other sheep. practices that should be carried out
ii) The pen prevents the lamb wandering on a lactating ewe.
away from the ewe and getting chilled. 1. Proper feeding
iii) The pen helps reduce the disowning of 2. Control internal parasites
lambs. 3. Control external parasites
Reasons why ewes disown their lambs 4. Vaccination
soon after lambing.
5. Hoof trimming
1. Painful udder.
6. Provision of adequate clean water
2. Too weak lambs after birth.
7. Treat in case of infection
3. Poor maternal instinct/poor mothering
ability.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

 Management of rabbits during
parturition/ kindling.
52

 Parturition in rabbits is 3. Do not disturb the doe.

called kindling. Gestation 4. Feed the doe on enough
period is 28-32 days and protein feeds.
the female rabbit is called
doe. 5. Provide clean water ad
libitum.
Management.
1. Put a nest box inside the
cage, five to seven days
before the kindling date.
2. Remove any dead
kindlings after 1 or 2
days.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

 BEE KEEPING (APICULTURE).
53

Importance of keeping Types of bees

bees/apiculture. a) The African wild bee.
1. They produce honey is used as Characteristics.
high energy food, sweetener in
beverage and soft drinks and i. Well adapted to local
medicine (to dress fresh conditions e.g. high
wounds). temperatures.
2. Honey and beeswax are sold to ii. Has high flying power has can
earn income for the farmer. fly for long distances.
3. They require little capital and iii. It is more active in search for
land to keep. water and food and protection
of hive.
4. They are pollinators for many
crops. iv. It is fairly resistant to diseases.
v. It is aggressive if man handled.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

54

b) The European bee. A. THE QUEEN

i. More gentle and larger that  There is only one queen in any
African bee. given bee colony also referred to
ii. Less active and less aggressive. as the mother bee of the
colony.
iii. It is very susceptible to
 It is the largest of all bees in the
common bee diseases.
colony.
BEE COLONY
Functions.
 Bees live in a colony (also
called a swarm or flight). 1. Laying eggs.
 A colony of bees is made up of:
2. Produces a queen substance
called pheromone which
a) 1 queen. keeps the colony together and
b) About 300 drones. for
c) About 60,000 worker bees. identification/communication.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

55

 Under favourable conditions, the B. THE DRONES

queen can lay between 1,500 to 2,000  Drones are male bees and are usually
eggs per day. about 300 in a given colony. Drones
 Mating occurs during the nuptial flight have longer and more hairy bodies
in the air. The queen stores the sperms than the workers. Drones do not
in a sac called spermatheca in her have stings.
abdomen and hence mates only once in Functions.
her life time.
1. They fertilize the queen.
 When the queen releases the sperms
stored in spermatheca onto an egg, 2. They control the temperatures or
fertilization occurs and the eggs cool the hive (by flapping their
hatch into worker bees. wings at vey high speed).
 If she does not release the sperms, the Note: Once a drone has fertilized a
eggs develop into drones. queen, it is normally killed by the
worker bees upon return to the hive.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

56

C. THE WORKER BEES 4. They protect the hive from

 These are sterile female bees in a
intruders.
colony and are about 60,000 in 5. They collect nectar, pollen
number. They are the smallest in grains, resins and water used to
size. make honey.
Functions. 6. They make honey and bees
1. They clean the hives. wax.
2. They nurse and feed the 7. They act as scouts/look for
queen , drones and the new locations/home during
larvae/young bees/brood. swarming.
They secrete royal jelly used
as food for the queen and
brood
3. They build combs and seal the
crevices and cracks in the hive.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
57 © Sam obare 22-May-22
 The life cycle and work of a bee.
58

 Fertilized queen move  Each larva spins a cocoon

from one cell to another and after 2 days it moults
laying an egg in each. into a pupa.
 Eggs hatch into larvae  The pupa becomes a
after 3 days. young bee after 10 days
 The larvae are fed (by and emerges from a
worker bees) on special cocoon.
pulp, then a mixture of
pollen and honey

© Sam obare 22-May-22

 Creation of a new queen.
59

 A colony needs a new queen  The queen then crawls out of the
when the old queen disappears cell after about 16 days.
or becomes feeble, or dies.  After the young queen emerges
 The workers then select a larva from the special cells, she is fed
to become a queen. on honey.
 They feed this larva on royal  The queen then leaves the hive to
jelly only. mate with one or several (up to
 At the same time, other workers 7) drones.
build special cells for the queen Note:
to grow.  A queen can live for as long as 5
 After about 3 days, the eggs years and lay up to one million
hatch and the queen larva moults eggs during her life time.
into a pupa after sometime.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

 Siting of the apiary.
60

 An apiary is a place where beehives 4. Dampness and bad odours-

are placed. the site should be free from
Factors to consider when siting dampness and bad odours.
the apiary. 5. Shelter- the site should be
1. Availability of water- water protected from strong sun and
should be available within a 3km wind.
radius to facilitate collection by 6. Homestead and livestock- the
bees. site should be away from livestock
2. Availability of flowers- flowers and human beings to avoid
should be readily available to disturbance.
facilitate collection of pollen and
nectar by bees.
3. Noise and other
disturbances- the place should
be free from pests and diseases.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

 61

Types of Beehives. Advantages of the Kenya Top Bar

 They include: Hive.
1. Log Hive.
1. Top bars can be removed and replaced
to inspect the combs.
2. Box Hive. 2. Honey combs are harvested without
3. Langstroth hive. disturbing the brood.
KENYA TOP BAR HIVE (KTBH). 3. Good quality honey is harvested
without brood combs.
 The Kenya Top Bar Hive has a series of 27 top bars
arranged to form the top of the hive. 4. More wax is harvested because combs
are not returned to the hive.
 The bees attach their combs to the bars which can be 5. It is easy to construct and repair.
removed for examination.
6. It utilizes the queen excluder to
 If the bees are to be fed, a feeder box replaces one of separate honey combs from the brood
the top bars to leave about 26. combs.
 Again another top bar can be replaced with the queen 7. It is cheap to construct the hive.
excluder to restrict the queen from laying eggs on all 8. It is cheap to extract honey.
the top bars, thus ensuring high quality honey which
is not mixed with brood.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
62 © Sam obare 22-May-22
63 © Sam obare 22-May-22
64 © Sam obare 22-May-22
65 © Sam obare 22-May-22
66 © Sam obare 22-May-22
 Stocking the bee hive.
67

 This refers to introducing bees 3. Use a catcher box

into a new bee hive.  This is a small box placed near
Ways of stocking a hive. a bee cluster.
1. Smear a hive with an aromatic  When bees collect in it,
old comb to attract bees. transfer the box close to the
2. Transfer a swarm cluster to a hive bees will move to the hive.
new hive using a catcher 4. Place the hive in a convenient
/swarm net. area to increase the chances of
N/B a swarm occupying it.
 Catching of bees is best done in
the morning when it is cool
and the bees are less active.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

68 © Sam obare 22-May-22
69

Materials collected by bees. Management of bees in the

1. Nectar-This is a juice collected hive/apiary.
from flowers used to make honey. 1. Supplementary/extra
2. Pollen-This is collected from feeding the bees.
flowers by the pollen bag on bees  Provide syrup (sugar solution) and
and is used to feed the brood. water near the hive.
3. Propolis-It is collected from Reasons for feeding bees.
trees and is used to fill the cracks
and crevices in the hive. i) To maintain the colony- well fed
bees do not have the tendency to
4. Water-It is essential for the swarm and leave the hive.
survival of bees.
ii) To encourage multiplication- a
well fed queen breeds regularly.
iii) To supplement what bees get
from flowers- this is done during
dry seasons when flowers are few.

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70

Reasons for keeping syrup (sugar solution) in 2. Predator and pest control.
the apiary/close to the bee hive.  Pests include:
1. To maintain the bees during scarcity. a) Honey badgers- Honey badgers are
strong animals which enter unsecured
2. To attract bees to the new bee hive. hives and cause a lot of destruction.
3. To encourage multiplication of bees.  They cause damage to the bees and their
products.
4. For easy access to the feeds.
Control.
5. To prevent bees from absconding. i. Suspend hive on wires to guard off honey
Study question badgers.
ii. Ensure there are no cracks and crevices on
State two conditions which would make it necessary the hives.
to feed bees. (1mk)
1. During drought/ when there are no flowers.
2. In case of a new colony.
3. When the colony is small/ to encourage faster
multiplication.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

71

b) Ants. d) Predatory birds.

 Ants (especially, army ants) cause  Control predatory birds which eat
great damage in the hive by making bees or honey.
holes on it.  This can be done by placing of
 Control the ants by suspending meshed wire netting near the
the hives, using chemicals like entrance to the hive or by use of
creosote and allow no scarecrows.
vegetation touch the hives. e) Bee louse.
c) Wax moth.  Bee louse lays eggs on the combs
 Wax moth larvae make tunnels in which hatch into larvae.
the honey combs destroying the  The larvae damage the combs.
broods.
 To control the bee louse, place a bit
 They contaminate honey with their of creosote into the smoker and puff
excreta. into the hive.
 Remove and dispose infested combs
properly.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
72

3. Disease control. SWARMING OF BEES.

 The common diseases of bees  A swarm of bees is a colony or
are: part of it that is in flight.
1. Acarive. Reasons for swarming.
2. American foul Brood. 1. Shortage of food and water in
 These diseases are controlled their surroundings.
through: 2. Outbreak of diseases and
i. Proper feeding of bees. parasites.
ii. Proper construction of the 3. Damage of brood combs.
hives to prevent damp 4. Lack of adequate ventilation.
conditions in the hive. 5. Dampness and bad smells.
6. Sick or infertile queen.
7. Overcrowding.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

 Process of swarming.
73

 After leaving the hive, bees alight  During this flight the queen
on some branch and await the moves vertically followed by the
return of a scout or messenger drone and mating takes place.
bee.  The first flight when mating takes
 The type of dance the messenger place is known as the nuptial
bee displays indicates the flight.
condition of the area surveyed.  Sometimes a cluster of bees
 It leads the cluster towards the decide to leave the hive because
area where they are going to of unfavorable conditions.
settle.  This is referred to as
 Swarming may take place with or absconding.
without the queen.
 When a new queen is prepared, a
cluster of bees take the queen
and the drone for the first flight.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
74 © Sam obare 22-May-22
75 © Sam obare 22-May-22
 Handling Bees.
76

Points to remember when 5. Movement towards the hive

handling bees. should be made quietly to avoid
1. Bees should not be frightened alerting them.
as doing so makes them wild 6. When stung, the beekeeper
and sting. should not run away or throw
2. Beehives should not be the combs down.
approached from the front. 7. The bee sting should not be
3. A smoker must be used rubbed. A sharp nail of razor
properly. 2 or 3 puffs are first blade should be used to scrap it
blown round the hive. After a off. Pressing causes the poison
few minutes smoke out directly bag of the sting to release more
through the entrance hole. poison.
4. Bees should not be crushed 8. Always wear protective
during handling. This makes the clothing e.g. overall, glove and
whole colony excited. gum boots.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

 Honey harvesting.
77

• Harvest early in the morning or 3. Lower the bee hive to the

late in the evening when the bees ground and remove the hive's
are less active. top cover.
Procedure /steps of honey 4. Then systematically remove the
harvesting. top bars each in turn and check
1. Approach the hive quietly. for comb formation. If the
comb is light in colour, it
2. Using a smoker, puff/blow
contains honey but if it is dark
smoke all round the sides of the
coloured, then it has brood.
hive. Then introduce smoke
inside the hive gradually. The 5. Scrap off the bees from combs
smoke makes honey start with the use of the bee brush.
eating honey thus becoming 6. Cut the comb from each top bar
heavy and inactive leaving 3 cm from the surface for
attachment of new combs.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
78
7. Place the cut comb in a clean
container and cover tightly to 2. Bee brush –brush off bees
prevent bees continuing eating from the combs into the hive
honey. before cutting the combs.
8. Place back the bars and do not 3. Hive tool- It is used for
disturb the brood. cutting honey combs during
harvesting and also separate the
9. Return the hive to its position. top bars (by scrapping the
Honey harvesting equipment. propolis holding the bars
1. Protective gear- Overall- It together).
protects the body from bee 4. Container with tight
stings, Veil- It protects the cover- Used to hold honey
head and covers the face up to after harvesting.
the neck, Hand gloves- they 5. Smoker- puffing smoke into
protect the hands, Gum the bee hive.
boots- They protect the legs.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

79 © Sam obare 22-May-22
80 © Sam obare 22-May-22
 Honey processing.
81

 It refers to extraction of honey A. Heat Method.

from the honey combs.  Heat some water in a sufuria.
Methods of extracting/  Put honey combs in an enamel basin or
processing honey: any other container which is not made of
A. Using heat to melt the honey. iron.
B. Crushing and straining.  Put the container with honey combs on
C. Using a centrifugal extractor. the boiling water.
 Heat until most of the honey melts.
 Separate the melted honey from the
combs by straining through a muslin cloth.
 Keep honey in a container to cool down.
 Remove the wax layer that may form on
the surface of the honey.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

82 © Sam obare 22-May-22
83 © Sam obare 22-May-22
84

B. CRUSHING AND STRAINING C. USING A CENTRIFUGAL

METHOD. EXTRACTOR.
Procedure:  A centrifugal extractor is used in large

i. Crush the combs and strain using a scale production.

muslin cloth into the enamel basin.  The Centrifugal/rotary motion

ii. Remove the scum formed using extracts/forces out honey and combs are
wooden spoon. left clean.
iii. Put honey in a suitable container Factors determining the quality of
(plastic or glass jars) that is tightly honey.
closed. i. Type of plant from which nectar was
obtained.
ii. Maturity stage of honey at the time of
harvesting.
iii. Method of harvesting.
iv. Method of processing honey.
v. Rate of smoking/ amount of smoke
used.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

85

BEESWAX 3. In laboratories, it is used in the

 Wax is secreted by a pair of glands in dissection of small insects.
the abdomen of the worker bee. 4. In pharmaceuticals it is used to make
 It is used by the worker bees to make pill coatings.
the combs which are used to raise the
young brood and store honey.
Uses of processed wax.
1. To manufacture creams, ointments,
candles, shoe and floor polish.
2. In dentistry, it is used to make teeth
impressions for filling and
replacement.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

86

Process of wax processing.  Cool the mixture overnight.

 Put combs whose honey has  Drain water and remove any
been extracted into a basin. foreign materials.
 Add water to the basin.  Re-melt the wax over a
 Heat the mixture until the water bath and put it in a
wax melts. clean container.
 Strain the mixture through a
muslin bag
 Squeeze the residue strongly
until wax is forced out.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

 FISH FARMING (AQUACULTURE/
PISCICULTURE).
87

Importance of fish farming. Reasons why tilapia is common/

1. It supplies a cheap source of abundant in Kenyan lakes and rivers.
protein for the family.
1. They feed on kitchen wastes and crop
2. Require little land hence possible
where land is limiting. residues.
3. It is a source of income to the 2. They grow and breed very fast.
farmer. 3. They are readily adaptable to artificial
4. Makes fish to be available within conditions of the farm ponds.
the locality.
Types of fish reared in Kenya. 4. They do not contain many parasites.
(a) Fresh warm water fish e.g. 5. They are able to feed on algae and
tilapia, carps, blue gill, bass, mosquito larvae, hence act as cleaning
tench, cat fish, nile perch. agents.
(b) Fresh cold water fish e.g. trout.

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88

Requirements for fish farming. Characteristics of a good site for a

i. Water supply- free flowing fish pond.
water to ensure enough oxygen i. Gentle sloping topography.
supply. ii. Reliable water source/continuous
ii. Slope of land- gentle slope to water flow.
ensure free flow of water. iii. Avoid areas with cracks/anthills.
iii. Soil- clay soil because it has high iv. Clay soil.
water holding capacity/ does not
allow water to seep through. v. Security from predators.
vi. Area should be accessible.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

89

Factors to consider when siting a fish 3. Cleaning the pond to remove

pond. foreign materials.
i. Topography- gentle sloping area. 4. Repairing broken fences.
ii. Accessibility/near homestead. 5. Control of predators.
6. Regular fertilization of the pond to
iii. Near the market allow growth of planktons.
iv. Security of the area. 7. Control of stocking rate/ cropping.
v. Nearness to the water sources. 8. Supply of adequate feeds regularly.
vi. Type of soil- clay soil. 9. Removing silt.
10. Aerate the water by ensuring constant
vii. Away from natural source of fish inflow and outflow of water.
Maintenance practices of a fish pond. 11. Maintain appropriate water level in
the pond always.
1. Clearing bush/ undesirable vegetation
around the pond. 12. Harvest at the correct maturity
age.Control water pollution.
2. Planting grass on the dykes/ wall tops to
control soil erosion and to provide food to
fish. © Sam obare 22-May-22
90

Construction/Structural 3. A screen on the inlet and outlet

requirements/features of to prevent the entry of
the fish pond. predatory fish and escape of
fish.
1. A spillway/overflow pipe to
4. An inlet for fresh water supply/
allow away excess water
entry into the pond.
back into the river. It
prevents the water from 5. A fence to keep away
predators/for security.
overflowing on the dykes.
6. Dykes/embarkments to retain
2. An outlet to drain the pond
water
during harvesting/ cleaning.

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91

Procedure of establishing a fish • The floor of the pond should be

pond. slanting because of the following
reasons:
1. Site selection- select a suitable
place where water flows freely. i. To provide a shallow end for
feeding.
2. Marking the site- use pegs to
mark the channel from the river, ii. To ensure continuous flow of
the entrance and exit and the water to the lower end.
channel back to the river. 5. Construction of the dyke-
3. Clearing the land- all construct a wall around the pond
vegetation should be removed. and compacted with clay or
concrete to prevent seepage. Plant
4. Digging the pond- soil is dug grass on the dykes to hold soil
out. The upper side should be together/ prevent soil erosion.
shallow (0.5m) for feeding and
the deeper lower end (1.5m) to
provide a breeding ground
for fish.

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92

 A stone wall or double timber wall may  A spillway should be constructed on

be constructed to reinforce the soil. one corner at the top of the wall on the
 The bottom should be made as smooth lower side to take away excess water.
as possible so that fishing nets can be This prevents water from flowing over
dragged along without hindrances. the lower pond wall which may cause it
to break.
 Stones and tree stumps should be
removed and any gapping holes filled.  An outlet/ drain pipe is constructed/
placed at the bottom of the wall on the
 After the wall and bottom are done, an lower side to drain off water during
inlet furrow/ pipe should be dug/ cleaning or harvesting fish.
constructed to on top of the dyke/ wall
on the upper side to allow in fresh water  A screen should be placed at the inlet
from the source. and outlet pipes to prevent the entry of
predatory fish and escape of fish.
 A fence should be constructed around
the fish pond to keep away predators and
trespassers/for security.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

 Dyke/wall.

93 © Sam obare 22-May-22

94 © Sam obare 22-May-22
 Inlet pipe
Spillway/
overflow pipe

Outlet pipe

95 © Sam obare 22-May-22

 Management of fish.
96

1. Transportation of 2. Stocking of fish pond/- It

fingerlings- refers to the transfer/
 Use clean and oxygenated introduction of fingerlings into
polythene bags, milk cans and the pond.
drums to avoid infection and  Lower the container with
death of fingerlings. fingerlings into the pond and tilt
 Use clean water in transporting it for the fingerlings to swim
containers. away.
 Ensure that the temperature of Factors to consider before
water is as close as possible to the stocking fish pond.
recommended pond i. Fertility of the pond.
temperature. ii. Type of fish reared.
 Avoid causing injury to the iii. Frequency of harvesting.
fingerlings.
iv. Method of harvesting.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

97

3. Security against predators 4. Fertilization/Manuring of

and thieves. the pond.
 Construct a strong wire mesh  This refers to adding manure or
(wire netting) fence around the organic waste/inorganic
pond to keep off predators and fertilizers into the fish pond.
strangers.  Apply 50 kg of
 Provide a screen above the pond manure/inorganic fertilizer per
to guard against predatory birds. week.
 Place screens/wire mesh in the  Manuring encourages the
inlets/outlets to prevent the development of natural foods for
entrance of the predatory fish. fish in the pond e.g. worms,
insects, algae, planktons and
water plants.
 Manure during cold conditions
to avoid decomposition.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
98

5. Feeding/ supplementary 6. Maintenance of water level.

feeding.  The inlet pipe should be raised in
 Feed the fish on groundnut cake, order for water to drop and aerate
rice bran, cassava leaves, kitchen the pond.
wastes e.t.c.  The water should flow in and out of
 Feed fish at regular intervals and the pond continuously.
change the feed from time to time .
 Feed fish in the shallow part of the
pond so as to observe their feeding
to allow the farmers to establish
an average amount of food for the
fish.
 Provide just enough food to the fish
since food remains act as pollutants
in the pond.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

 Study question.
99

Describe how a newly constructed  Introduce the fingerlings during the day
pond is prepared and stocked with when temperature is almost the same as
fingerlings. that of the container they were
transported in.
 Open the inlet channel or pipe to
 Lower the container into the pond and
allow fresh water fill the pond slowly. let it stay for some time for
 Add lime to sterilize the pond. acclimatization.
 Add manure or fertilizer to encourage  Allow the fingerlings to swim out of the
growth of planktons. container.
 Introduce fish after 2-4 weeks when
 Stock at the average rate of 5-10
planktons and other plants have fingerlings for 5m2.
grown.  Feed the fingerlings/provide enough
feed.
 Obtain fingerlings from a recognized
hatchery.
 Transport them with care using a
suitable container with a temperature
of 10 degrees Celcius.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
 Cropping of fish.
100

 Fish Cropping is the removal of Advantages of using seine nets over

marketable size fish from the pond to hooks and lines.
create more space for those left behind. 1. Only marketable size fish are caught
 It is done after 4 months using a seine leaving smaller ones in the pond.
net is used to allow catching of the big 2. Fish are not injured.
size fish only.
3. Ensures a large number of fish are
Methods of cropping. cropped/ caught.
1. Use of hook and line- baited hooks 4. It saves time.
are lowered into the water for the bait
to attract fish. The common baits are
fishing flies.
2. Use of seine nets-has meshes of
3.0-3.5cm for catching marketable
size fish.
3. Use of spears
4. Use of skets

© Sam obare 22-May-22

 Fish harvesting.
101

 Fish harvesting refers to Maintenance practices carried

removing all fish from the pond. out on the pond after harvesting.
Procedure: 1. Repair the dyke/wall or any
i. The inlet is closed to stop inflow structure on it.
of water. 2. Clean the pond and remove all
ii. Normal cropping is done to foreign materials.
remove all the large fish using a 3. Remove the undesirable
seine net. vegetation.
iii. The outlet is then opened to 4. Remove the silt.
allow water to flow out. N/B. After 2-4 weeks, the fingerlings
iv. A scoop net is used to catch are taken back to the pond by use of
fingerlings which are then kept in scoop nets. This ia called restocking
a holding pond.
v. Water is then completely drained
for the pond to dry up.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

102

Fish processing METHODS OF FISH PRESERVATION.

 It refers to preparation of fish for 1. Freezing/refrigeration- It involves
marketing. keeping fish deep freezers/under low
Practices carried out on fish before temperatures to kill micro-organisms
preservation and prevent decaying of fish.
i. Clean the fish to remove mud and any 2. Salting- Fish is kept in salt
worms. solution/rubbed with salt to reduce
the moisture content hence reduce
ii. Remove scales and slime. bacterial growth.
iii. Open the fish on the side to remove 3. Sun drying- Fish is exposed to
the gut. This is called gutting. strong sun/ spread on racks and mats
iv. Clean the abdominal cavity to reduce moisture content and
thoroughly. reduce bacterial growth.
v. Keep the fish in open containers. 4. Smoking- Fish is put in a drum
smoker at temperature of 70 degrees
celcius to preserve it.

© Sam obare 22-May-22

103

Management practices 6. Harvest/crop fish at the

that ensure maximum correct maturity age.
harvest of fish. 7. Control the stocking
1. Provide/supply adequate rate/have the correct
food. stocking rate.
2. Provide appropriate feed. 8. Aerate water regularly by
ensuring constant inflow
3. Control predators and and outflow of water.
thieves.
9. Remove weeds/grass
4. Maintain the appropriate around the fish pond.
water depth/level.
10. Add manure or fertilizer in
5. Control water pollution. pond to encourage growth
of planktons.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
104

Appropriate handling of 2. Ropes, halters, lead stick and

livestock during routine bull rings should be used to lead
management.
and handle the animals e.g.
 Careful handling should be done
by the farmer/ stockman to during the shows.
avoid inflicting pain on the 3. When drenching the head
animal. should not be raised too high
 Handling is done during
which may prevent proper
management practices e.g.
docking, dehorning, castration, swallowing.
hoof trimming, vaccination and 4. When injecting the animal the
treatment. equipment must be clean and
1. Structures e.g. crushes, head sterilized. Where possible fresh
yoke, and isolation yard should
be used to restrain the animals. needles for each animal to avoid
the risk of transfer of infection.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
105

5. When spraying for tick Ways of restraining cattle

control it should be done in during routine
the open and avoid spraying management.
against wind. This is to avoid
the animal inhaling the 1. Use of
chemical. ropes/halters/casting.
6. Dead animals should be 2. Use of lead stick and bull
removed from the rest and ring.
disposed properly to avoid 3. Use of a crush.
spread of infection.
4. Use of head yoke.
5. Use of a
holding/isolation
pen/yard.
© Sam obare 22-May-22
 3. FARM STRUCTURES.
1
 A farm structure is any physical C. Site preparation- involve bush /grass/
construction on the farm. vegetation clearing and leveling.
Construction of farm structure. Factors to consider when siting farm
 Construction of farm structures structures.
involve planning, site preparation, 1. Location of the homestead/
siting and selection of construction panoramic view of the farm- A farm
materials. structure should be sited where it possible to
A. Planning for farm structures- have a good view from the homestead/ the
when planning for a farm structure homestead should be sited at a point where
the following factors should be it is possible to have a good view of the farm.
considered: 2. Accessibility- A structure should be sited
1. The various activities to be carried where it is easy to reach from most parts of
out. the farm.
2. The size of the enterprise. 3. Security- The structure should be safe
3. The potential for expansion. from thieves, trespassers and predators.
4. Accessibility.

© Sam obare 2-May-22

 2
4. Drainage/Topography of the area- 8. Relationship between structures-
The area/site should be well drained Structures with related uses e.g. milking
(gently sloppy) to avoid destruction by shed and calf pen should be sited close to
water and infections due to dampness. each other to save time and labour.
5. Direction of the prevailing wind- 9. Nearness/Proximity to physical
Structures with foul smell should be amenities- The structures should be
sited/constructed on the leeward side. constructed near water/electricity .g.
roads, water supply, electricity e.t.c.
 Also some structures require good
10. Future expansion- There should be an
ventilation but free from draught.
area for future expansion incase a need
6. Farmer’s tastes and preferences- arises.
Siting should be based on the liking/ 11. Soil type-the structure should be
preference of the farmer. constructed on strong soil for stability.
7. Government policy/ regulations-
siting should follow the government
regulations.

© Sam obare 2-May-22

 3
Factors to consider when selecting 6. Workability/applicability of the
construction materials. materials- the materials easy to work
1. Availability of materials- readily with should be selected.
available materials are selected. 7. Type of structure-whether the
2. Cost of materials/ availability of structure is temporary or permanent.
capital- cheap materials should be 8. Farmer’s tastes and preferences-
selected. materials should be selected based on
3. Suitability of the materials- they the liking of the farmer.
should be suitable to the structure/ 9. Availability of skill- selection of
non- toxic materials should not be used materials should be based on the
for animal structures. availability of the skill to use them.
4. Suitability to the prevailing 10. Environmental conditions-
weather conditions- they should conditions e.g. presence of pests and soil
withstand the effect of environmental type determine the materials selected.
conditions.
5. Durability/ strength/quality of
materials- long lasting/ strong
materials should be selected.

© Sam obare 2-May-22

 TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS.
4
1. Stones. Disadvantages of using
 They are used to make strong stones.
foundations, walls and i. They are bulky hence difficult
foundations. to transport.
Advantages of using stones. ii. They require a lot of labour
i. They are durable. to shape them.
ii. They are resistant to fire and iii. They require skill when
weather elements. laying and applying.
iii. They are resistant to insect
attack and rotting.

© Sam obare 2-May-22

 5
2. Concrete and concrete blocks. Advantages of concrete/ concrete
 Concrete is made of cement, sand and block.
ballast (aggregate) in the volume ratio i. They are resistant to fire and
of 1:2:3 respectively. weather elements.
 The amount of water is controlled to ii. They are resistant to insect damage
ensure that the mixture is not very wet and rotting.
or dry. iii. They are durable.
Parts of a building reinforced by
concrete.
i. Foundation.
ii. Floor/floor slap.
iii. Lintel.
iv. Pillars.
v. Walls.
© Sam obare 2-May-22
 6
Factors that lower the quality of 3. Mud blocks.
concrete.  They are made up of a mixture of clay
i. Impurities/foreign particles. and sand thoroughly mixed with water
ii. Inappropriate mixing/wrong ratio. and then molded into blocks.
 The blocks are dried in the open sun
iii. Quick drying/premature drying.
and are used to make walls.
iv. Presence of large sized individual  Chopped grass is incorporated to
aggregates. strengthen the blocks.
Properties of concrete that make it  They are durable as long as they are
suitable for construction. not exposed to rain or if the wall is
i. It is easy to clean. plastered with cement-sand mortar.
ii. It is easy to mold into different
shapes.
iii. It is resistant to pest attack and
rotting.

© Sam obare 2-May-22

 7
4. Bricks. 5. Timber/wood
 They are made from clay mixed  It is used for construction of the following
with water then molded into parts of a building:
blocks by special boxes. i) Roof.
 They are then baked in a kiln then ii) Floor.
used to make foundations and iii) Ceiling.
walls. iv) Door.
Advantages. v) Wall.
i. They are durable. vi) Window.
ii. They are resistant to fire and  It is used for construction of the following
weather elements. parts of the fences:
iii. They are resistant to insect i) Posts.
attack and rotting. ii) Rails

© Sam obare 2-May-22

 8
 Sawn timber is used in Disadvantages of using
construction of walls, timber.
floors, ceilings, furnishes i. It is not resistant to fire
and fascia board. and weather elements.
Advantages of using ii. It is not resistant to
timber/wood. insect/pest damage.
i. It is cheap. iii. It is susceptible to
ii. It is attractive. rotting/fungal attack.
iii. It is easily available.
iv. It is easy to work with.

© Sam obare 2-May-22

 9
Methods of treating timber- Examples of timber pests.
Treatment of timber is done to make it i. Termites.
resistant to pest/insect damage, weather
elements and fungal attack/ rotting. ii. Beetles.
 The methods include: iii. Bacteria.
A. Drying/seasoning- done in iv. Weevils.
shaded places to keep off open sun v. Wood pecker birds
and rain.
B. Chemical treatment- done by use of
Reasons for drying/seasoning/
timber treatment. chemicals to prevent fungal attack, insect
damage and effect by weather conditions.
i. To prevent pest/insect damage.
For example:
ii. To prevent rotting/fungal attack.
1. Against fungal attack- Sodium dichromate,
iii. To prevent cracking.
Copper sulphate , Arsenic pentoxide.
iv. To prevent warping/ bending/
twisting. 2. Against insect damage-Old engine oil,
Pentachlorophenol,.Tributyl tin oxide.
v. Improve strength/ durability.
3. Against weather elements-Tar, Creosote,
tanex.
© Sam obare 2-May-22
 10
Methods of chemical treatment. 6. Metals.
1. Sap displacement/ end diffusion- Examples of metals used for construction.
Posts are placed and left in containers with a) Corrugated iron sheets- for roofing,
wood preservatives for 10 days. making walls, water tanks, storage bins
 The preservative is drawn up by the posts. and silos.
2. Pressure/vacuum treatment- peeled b) Bars and rods e.g. posts, iron rods,
wood is arranged in steel containers where frames- they are used for fencing,
the preservative is forced through them making pillars, making trusses, windows,
with very high pressure. door, gates and iron rods are used to
3. Hot and cold soaking- wood is reinforce concrete.
immersed into a tank containing c) Aluminum sheets- for making gates,
preservatives then the tank is heated. doors, windows, feed troughs and
 The wood draws the preservative deep into waterers.
the wood fibres. c) Construction accessories e.g. hinges,
screws, nuts and bolts and latches.
 They are used for assembling structures.

© Sam obare 2-May-22

 11
Advantages of using metals as
Disadvantages.
construction materials.
i. They are expensive.
i. They are durable and strong.
ii. They require a lot of skills to work with.
ii. They are resistant to fire and weather
iii. They are not easily available.
conditions.
iv. They rust easily/ prone to rusting.
iii. They are resistant to insect/pest
v. Some are not easy to work with.
attack and rotting/ fungal attack.
vi. Are heavy and difficult to transport.
iv. They are leak-proof.

© Sam obare 2-May-22

 12
7. Thatch- Obtained from tall grass, water 9. Plastics- they are used as water pipes,
weeds, dry banana leaves, coconut leaves and wiring and construction of green houses.
used for roofing. 10. Tiles- They are made from clay or mixture
Advantages- of clay and sand.
i. It provides good thermoregulatory capacity.  They used for roofing, decorating walls and
ii. It is sound proof floors.
iii. Materials are locally available. Advantages.
iv. It is cheap. i. They are durable.
Disadvantages- ii. They are resistant to insect/pest damage.
i. Prone to insect damage hence require iii. They are resistant to rotting/fungal attack.
regular replacement. iv. They are resistant to weather elements.
ii. Prone to fire. v. Are good insulators.
8. Bamboo and sisal poles- They are used Disadvantage.
as rails, rafters, droppers in fences, ceilings, i. If poorly made they absorb a lot of water
grain store structures and internal and become eroded leading to leaking.
decorations.
© Sam obare 2-May-22
 13
TYPES OF FARM STRUCTURES. PARTS OF FARM BUILDINGS.
 They include farm buildings and Livestock  They include the foundation, walls and
buildings and structures. roof.
A. Farm buildings. A. The foundation- This is the part of
 A farm building is a structure which the building that is constructed below
consists of the foundation, walls and the the ground. The depth and size of the
roof. foundation depends on type and
Uses/functions of the farm buildings. depth of soil, drainage of the area
and functional aspects of the
1. They protect the farmer and livestock building.
from predators. Features of a good foundation.
2. They provide shelter against adverse/ i. Ability to support the whole
extreme weather conditions. building.
3. They provide storage for farm produce ii. It should keep the whole building
and inputs. level.
4. They help to control livestock diseases iii. It should not allow water to leak.
and parasites.
5. They increase efficiency in production iv. It should be made of materials that
and management in the farm. do not break/crumble

© Sam obare 2-May-22

 14
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 5. A damp proof course of PVC (polyvinyl
FOUNDATION. chloride) is placed on top of the
1. Vegetation is cleared and the site foundation. PVC is used to prevent
levelled. termite from ascending up the walls
2. The foundation is measured, pegged and moisture from rising up the wall.
and then dug to remove all the loose FOUNDATION FLOOR.
and disturbed soil.  It is laid immediately after the foundation
3. Concrete (of 1:2:4 or 1:3:6) which wall.
may be reinforced with steel rods is Procedure of laying the foundation
placed in the trench. floor.
4. Concrete is then compacted and the  Place the stones/hard core and compact to
foundation stone is laid up to about act as the first layer.
15 cm above the ground.  Apply the concrete slab of 1:2:4 ratio.
 The mortar used for joining the  Spread mortar as the finishing layer using
foundation stones should be at a ratio of metal float.
1:6 (Cement : Sand) using a float and  The final and finishing layer of the floor is
Mason’ trowel. called screed.

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2. WALLS. Factors that determine the
 They are vertical constructions type of wall to construct.
that enclose the building. 1. Availability of materials.
 They are made of stones, bricks, 2. The use of the building.
blocks, timber or iron sheets. 3. Weather conditions of the
 Blocks, stones or bricks are laid area.
from the foundation wall in direct 4. Strength of the soil in the area.
contact with the PVC material in 5. Cost of materials.
overlapping manner.
 A lintel is constructed above the
6. Level of technology to be
windows and doors to reinforce used.
the wall.
 4 brick/block/stone courses are
laid above the lintel before the
wall plate is constructed.

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Tools used for laying concrete 5. Mason’s square/tape
blocks/ bricks/ stones when measure/meter rule- used to
constructing wall. check the evenness of the
1. Spirit level- to check the bricks/blocks/stones, mark marks,
straightness/horizontalness of the measure lengths.
wall. 6. String/Line- for measuring the
2. Mason’s trowel- used for laying length.
mortar between the bricks and for 7. Mason’s hammer/brick
plastering. hammer- used to shape the
3. Wood/metal float- for leveling bricks/stones.
and holding mortar. 8. Mason’s chisel –used to shape
4. Plumb line/plumb bob- for bricks/stones.
checking the
straightness/verticalness of the wall.

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 Screed

PVC sheet
Concrete base
Foundation stone

Hard core

Foundation floor
Foundation wall
Fig. Foundation floor and wall.
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 Wall plate

Lintel

Window

Fig. Wall

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3. THE ROOF. Factors that influence the type of
 This is the top part of the building roof constructed.
consisting of trusses and purlins on i. Size of the building.
which roofing material is placed. ii. Cost of roofing.
 Roofs are made up of different iii. Function of the building.
materials e.g. wood, iron sheets and iv. Availability of materials.
tiles.
v. Availability of skill.
Features of a good roof.
i. Should provide good protection
against heat, cold, rain and wind.
ii. Should be able to withstand the
weight imposed by the wind.
iii. Should be leak and dust proof.
iv. Should be durable.

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PARTS OF A ROOF. 6. Cross tie/tie beam- it acts as a base
 A roof consists of trusses joined and holds and supports other parts of
together by Purlins. the roof.
 Purlins support roofing materials. 7. Rafter battern- it joins the rafters.
Parts of a truss. 8. King post- it supports other parts of
1. Rafter- used to support the roofing the roof.
materials. 9. Tie- it joins the strut and the king
2. Eave- prevents the destruction of the post.
wall by rain drops. 10. Rafter bracket – supports the eave.
3. Wall plate- supports the roof. 11. Fascie board- supports the gutter
4. Strut- supports the rafter.
5. Gutter- collects rain water.

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Maintenance practices carried Reasons/ advantages of
out on farm buildings. maintenance practices on farm
1. Paint wooden surfaces. structures and buildings.
2. Clean to remove the dirt. 1. Ensures efficient use of the
structure.
3. Repair broken parts.
2. Increase durability.
4. Replace worn out parts.
3. Reduces incidences of accidents
5. Repair cracks on walls. when using them.
6. Repair leaks on the roof. 4. Ensure a high resale value.
7. Control vermin, pests e.t.c.

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 B. LIVESTOCK BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES.
23
1. Crush. Features of housing that help to
2. Dip. control livestock diseases.
3. Spray race. 1. Well ventilated.
4. Dairy shed. 2. Well lit.
5. Zero grazing unit. 3. Easy to clean/concrete floor.
6. Calf pen. 4. Free from draughts.
7. Poultry house. 5. Spacious.
8. Piggery unit/pigsty. 6. Leak proof.
9. Rabbit house/rabbitry. 7. Proper drainage.
10. Fish pond. Functions of ventilation in an animal
11. Bee hive. house.
12. Silo. i. Allow air circulation in the house.
13. Farm store. ii. Controls temperature in the house.
iii. Prevent humid conditions inside the
house.

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g) Pregnancy test/diagnosis.
1. CRUSH h) Artificial insemination.
 It is a narrow fenced passage that restrains i) Taking body temperature.
the movement of animals. j) Hoof trimming.
Uses of a crush-used to restrain the animal k) Milking.
when carrying out the following management l) Collection of semen.
practices: Study question
State four livestock rearing practices
a) Hand-spraying. undertaken in a crush to control parasites
b) Identification practices e.g. ear tagging, and diseases.
branding, ear notching. i. Vaccination.
ii. Deworming.
c) Vaccination.
iii. Hoof trimming.
d) Administration of prophylactic drugs to iv. Spraying.
animals. v. Treatment/ injection.
e) Drenching/dosing/deworming. vi. Hand dressing.
f) Dehorning.
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Construction materials for a crush. Maintenance practices on a crush.
i. Posts/timber i. Repair/replace broken parts.
ii. Rails. ii. Refirm the posts.
iii. Nails. iii. Renail the exposed nails.
iv. Concrete- for the floor. iv. Paint the wooden parts to prevent
Advantages/reasons for concrete floor. destruction by pests.
i. Easy to clean. v. Clean the dung.
ii. It is long lasting. Management of animals in a crush.
iii. It is easy to control parasites. i. Arrange the animals in a single row.
iv. It prevents dampness because urine ii. Animals of the same age to follow each
drains easily. other.
Factors to consider when siting a crush. iii. Animals should move towards one
1. Topography- relatively flat and well direction only.
drained area. iv. Horned cattle should be horned.
2. Accessibility- should be easily v. Avoid crowding animals together.
accessed.

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PARTS OF A PLUNGE DIP.
2. DIP.
1. Collecting yard (race)/ assembly
 It is used to control ticks. yard/ holding yard/waiting
area- Used to hold animals before
 Animals are fully immersed in a dip dipping.
wash (a mixture of acaricide).  It should have concrete floor and stones
 There are two types of dips: to ensure that mud from hooves is
removed before getting into the dip
i. Machakos dip- which is smaller in wash.
size and suitable in areas with scarcity 2. Foot bath- Used to wash/ clean the
of water. feet of the animals to remove mud
before they get into the dip wash and
ii. Plunge dip- which is larger in size control foot rot disease.
and suitable in areas with plenty of  It also contains copper II sulphate
water. solution (blue vitriol) or formalin
to control foot rot disease.
3. The jump- this is a narrow entrance
with steps. It allows animals to jump
singly into the dip tank.

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4. Dip tank/plunge tank-this is a 6. Drying race(yard)- allows the animals
deep tank constructed below the to dry before released to the pasture to
ground level containing the dip avoid contamination of pasture with
wash. acaricide and allow the animals to be
released at the same time.
 It is here that the animals are 7. Silt trap outlet- It traps mud and dung
immersed in a dip wash containing to avoid siltation of dip tank /(prevents
acaricide. siltation of the dip tank by mud/dung).
 It should have exit steps on the farthest 8. Dip tank roof/shelter- prevents
end from the jump to allow animals to evaporation of the dip wash, prevents
come out of the dip wash slowly. dilution of dip wash by rain water and
5. Draining race (yard)- allows the dip traps rain water used for dipping and
wash to drip from the animal body and washing the dip tank.
flow back into the dip tank. 9. Water tank- Used to store water used
 It should have a smooth sloppy floor for dipping collected from the roof or
without potholes. any other source).
10. Waste pit- Used as a damping site for
wastes/sediments from the dip.

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CATTLE MANAGEMENT AT DIPPING. Precautions taken to ensure
 Dip once/twice a week. effective dipping.
 Dip when the weather is cool to prevent 1. Mix the dip wash properly.
the animals from drinking the dip wash. 2. Check the dip wash concentration.
 Water the animals before dipping to
3. Top up the dip wash level.
prevent the animals from drinking the
Ways of reducing dip wash
dip wash.
concentration.
 First run 10-15 animals through the dip
i. Evaporation by the sun.
to mix the dip wash and dip then again.
ii. Dilution by rain water.
 Check the dip wash before dipping to
ensure that it is at correct concentration. iii. Seepage through the cracks on the
wall of the dip tank.
 Arrange the animals in a single line.
iv. Dirt/impurities.
 Dip all the animals the same day.
 Keep proper records of dipping and
acaricide used.
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Construction materials for the dip. Maintenance practices of the dip.
i. Cement, sand, ballast and hardcore. i. Replace broken timber rails.
ii. Stone blocks. ii. Clean regularly to remove
iii. Corrugated iron sheets and sediments.
galvanized gutters. iii. Lock the exit and entrance to
iv. Posts and rails. prevent the entrance of intruders.
v. Nails, screws and hinges. iv. Repair the cracks in collecting
vi. Wood preservatives. yard, foot bath e.t.c.
vii. Bolts and nuts.
v. Repair leaking roofs.
Factors to consider when siting a vi. Top up the level of dip wash with
plunge dip/structural requirements. acaricide and water where
necessary.
i. Availability of water.
vii. Check the dip wash concentration
ii. Well drained and firm ground. regularly.
iii. Near grazing areas.
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Advantages of using a plunge dip Disadvantages of using a plunge
over a spray race. dip.
i. Animals are completely immersed in i. It is dangerous for young, sick and
the dip wash hence more effective in pregnant animals.
tick control.
ii. Animals may swallow the dip wash
ii. It is suitable for large herds of cattle, leading to death/ poisoning.
iii. Its operational cost is low. iii. It requires a lot of water.
iv. It is expensive to construct/
requires high initial capital.

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3. SPRAY RACE. iii. Reservoir tank and pump- it is
 In this structure the animal is a mixing tank containing a pump
showered with the acaricide from driven by the engine or PTO shaft.
nozzles as they pass through a narrow iv. Drainage pipe- it drains used
passage/ race. chemical back into the tank for
Parts of a spray race recycling.
i. Side walls- they support the  It is fitted with sieves which filter
piping system and ensure that the sediments and other particles to
spray wash is directed back to the prevent blockage of the nozzles.
pump through the drainage system. v. Pressure gauge- used to measure
ii. Spray pipe system- they consist the recommended working pressure
of pipes fitted with nozzles at of the pump.
regular and strategic points. They
atomise the chemicals into spray
form.
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Advantages of using a spray race Disadvantages of using a spray
over a plunge dip. race.
i. It is suitable for sick and pregnant i. It has high operational cost.
animals and small animals. ii. Requires highly skilled labour to
ii. It requires small amount of operate and maintain it.
acaricide as it can be recycled/ iii. It is only economical with a large
the acaricide is not wasted.. herd,
iii. Animals cannot swallow the iv. In wet weather, nozzles tend to
acaricide wash. clog with dirt in the wash.
iv. It is faster and can spray more
animals.
v. It requires less labour.
vi. It is cheaper to construct than
plunge dip.

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Maintenance practices of a spray Management of animals when using
race. a spray race.
i. Unblocking blocked nozzle. i. Arrange the animals in a single line.
ii. Replacing water in the tank. ii. Ensure that the animals lift up their
iii. Tightening loose nuts and bolts. tails as they pass through the race.
iv. Repairing damaged floor. iii. Clip the hair in the inner parts of
v. Cleaning the sump regularly to the ear and tail switch for better
remove sediments. wetting.
vi. Repairing/ replacing broken rails.
iv. Lower the pressure to encourage
new animals and calves.

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4. MILKING PARLOR/DAIRY b) Feed store- used to keep feed and
SHED. feed records.
c) Drug store- used to keep drugs
 It is used for milking. and health records.
 Milking parlor is used in large scale d) Equipment store- used for
while a dairy shed is used in small storage of dairy equipment.
scale. e) Calf pen- it is used to house the
calf. It should be constructed near
Parts of a milking parlor/dairy the shed for the calf to be given
shed. milk immediately after milking at
a) Milking section/milking stall- the right body temperature.
it is the place where animals stand f) Milk recording room- it has a
weighing balance for weighing and
are restrained for milking. recording milk. It has records for
 In this place other management individual cows.
practices (e.g. dehorning, ear tagging g) Milk store- used to hold/store
and drenching) can be carried out. milk before use.

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Factors to consider when selecting materials Construction materials for the dairy shed.
for construction of the dairy shed. i. Corrugated iron sheets for roofing.
i. The type of dairy shed constructed/
ii. Posts.
permanent/ temporary.
ii. Availability of materials. iii. Rails.
iii. The cost of materials. iv. Cement, sand, ballast and hardcore/
iv. Availability of capital. concrete.
v. Environmental conditions of the area. v. Nails, bolts and nuts.
vi. Durability/ quality/ strength of materials. Maintenance practices on dairy
vii. Availability of skilled labour for construction. shed/milking parlor.
viii. Environmental conditions e.g. parasites, soil i. It should be thoroughly cleaned after milking.
type. ii. Potholes in the concrete floors should be
ix. Toxicity of the materials to the work. filled.
x. Toxicity of materials to the animals e.g. use of iii. Broken rails and posts should be replaced.
non-toxic painting materials/ white wash.
iv. Machine milking system should be kept in
xi. Workability/ applicability of the material. good working condition.
xii. Farmer’s tastes and preferences.
v. The cooling system should be kept in a good
working condition.
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Factors to consider when constructing 5. ZERO GRAZING UNIT.
a dairy shed/structural requirements. Parts of zero grazing unit.
i. It should be spacious for exercise. a) Milking stall/milking area- it is used
ii. There should be a resting area. for restraining cows during milking.
iii. There should be adequate feeding and b) Calf pen- used for rearing calves up to
watering space. weaning.
iv. Separate the milking area from feeding, c) Sleeping cubicles- used to provide
watering and resting area. shelter and warmth.
v. It should have feed store, drug store and  The floor should be bare ground to avoid
equipment store. chilly conditions.
vi. There should be a waste pit.  The floor can be provided with beddings to
vii. The calf pen should be near the shed. keep it warm.
viii. The floor should be made of concrete  The bare soil provides micro-organisms to
for easy cleaning. break down the beddings to form manure.

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Construction materials
d) Walking are/ dunging/loafing
area- it is a non-roofed area used for i. Corrugated iron sheets for roofing.
exercise, dunging and sunning. ii. Posts.
e) Feed and water troughs- used for iii. Rails.
feeding and watering the animals.
f) Feed preparation room- used to iv. Cement, sand, ballast and hardcore/
prepare ratios. It has a chaff cutter to concrete.
chop fodder. v. Nails, bolts and nuts.
g) Milk recording room- used for Maintenance practices
weighing milk and keeping milking
records for individual cows. i. It should be thoroughly after milking.
h) Store- used to keep feeds and dairy ii. Potholes in the concrete floors should be
equipment e.g. milking bucket, milking filled.
churns, strip cup, weighing balance.
iii. Broken rails should be replaced.
i) Manure storage area- storage of
manure. iv. Milking system should be kept in good
working condition.
v. The cooling system should be kept in a
good working condition.
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6. CALF PEN. 6. Proper ventilation- to allow
 Used to shelter the calves. free air circulation.
Structural requirements of a calf pen. 7. Draught free- to prevent entry
1. Easy to clean- they should have of cold winds and discourage
concrete floor to facilitate cleaning. infections e.g. pneumonia.
2. Dry and warm- dry litter should be 8. Single housing-to prevent
placed on the floor to avoid disease and parasite spread and to
dampness/ wetness. prevent the formation of hair balls
3. Adequate space- it should be in the stomach.
spacious for exercise, feeding and 9. Leak proof- the roof should not
watering calves. leak or avoid spilling water on the
4. Proper lighting- it should be well floor to discourage dampness and
lit because light is necessary for wetness of litter.
synthesis of vitamin D.
5. Proper drainage- should be
constructed on a well drained place to
avoid dampness.

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Slatted floor

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Factors to consider when siting a calf Construction materials for the calf pen.
pen. i. Timber, posts and frame.
ii. Nails.
i. Accessibility/ Nearness to the milking
iii. Iron sheets.
shed to save time and labour when Factors to consider when selecting
transporting milk. materials for construction of a calf pen.
ii. Topography/-Well drained soil. i. Strength/ durability of the materials.
ii. Cost of the materials.
iii. Wind direction-on the leeward side
iii. Availability of materials.
iv. Direction of sun. iv. Availability of capital.
v. Security of the calf- near the v. Workability/ skill required in using the
homestead. material.
vi. Type of pens (permanent/ temporary).
vi. Location of the existing structures/
vii. Climate of the area.
amenities. viii. Safety of the calf.
vii. Space for future expansion.

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Maintenance practices on a calf 7. POULTRY STRUCTURES.
pen.  They are used to house poultry.
i. It should be kept clean Factors to consider when
ii. Leaking roofs should be repaired. constructing poultry houses.
iii. Walls should be white-washed but i. The number of birds to keep.
not painted to prevent licking of the ii. The age of birds to be kept.
paint which can lead to lead poisoning iii. Capital available.
and to keep off flies.
iv. Availability of construction
iv. It should be kept dry and warm by materials.
placing litter (straw or dry grass)
on the floor. Litter should be v. Design of the house in relation to
changed regularly/ once a week. the climatic conditions.
v. Broken parts should be replaced. vi. The system of poultry keeping to
be practiced.
vi. Ensuring that the drainage system is
working.

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Types of poultry structures.  The unroofed part is covered with a wire
A. Folds/fold unit/arks. mesh for sunning, exercise and for
 Are used in fold rearing system.
feeding on grass.
 Folds are moved daily to fresh grounds for
 A fold/ark is a small structure used to
rear 10-15 birds. even distribution of manure and reduce
the build up of parasites and diseases.
 One third of the structure is roofed
 It is fitted with wheels for easy
using metal, timber/ wood,
plastic, grass/ thatch to provide movement.
shelter.

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B. RUNS AND NIGHT SHELTERS. D. BATTERY CAGE HOUSE.
 A run is a fenced enclosure where birds  It has cages fixed in the house for
are allowed to move freely. rearing individual birds.
 They are used in free range rearing  They are used in battery cage
system. system.
 Laying nests are placed in these  The cages are arranged in layers
structures. called tiers at a height of 60-90 cm
 The houses are raised off the ground on above the ground such that
stands or hung on a tree to discourage droppings can easily drop off and
predators disposed.
 The houses should be movable to  Feed troughs are permanently fixed
prevent build up of parasites and at the front part of the cage and
diseases. water is supplied through the piping
C. COOPS
system.
 A coop is a special movable structure
 The floor of the cages slants forward
used for rearing birds while brooding/ for easy collection of eggs.
rearing of chicks.
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E. DEEP LITTER HOUSES 2. It should have leak-proof roof- to
 This is a house where birds are totally avoid dampness in the house which
confined. encourages infections.
 It has a lot of litter on the floor hence the 3. It should have litter in the floor
name. (15-30 cm deep)- it may be sawdust,
 A foot bath with a disinfectant is paced at
wood shavings, crushed maize cobs,
the entrance of the house to disinfect the coffee and rice husks. Litter helps to
foot before entering into the house to keep the house warm and dry by
prevent infections/ spread of diseases. absorbing moisture.
Structural requirements of deep litter 4. It should be draught-free-it is
house. achieved by making the windward side
wall solid.
1. It should be properly ventilated to
allow free air circulation- by making 5. It should have enough space-it
the leeward side wall solid up, 60-90cm should allow enough space for the birds
from the ground while the rest of the wall to avoid overcrowding (2-3 birds per 1m
is made of wire mesh square)
6. Area should be well drained- to
avoid dampness which can predispose
birds to infections.

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Maintenance practices on deep Construction materials for the
litter house. poultry structures.
i. Clean regularly. i. Timber, posts, rails and off-cuts.
ii. Replace/repair any broken parts. ii. Sand, cement and aggregate.
iii. Paint/apply old engine oil to iii. Stones, bricks, blocks.
prevent pest attack. iv. Nails, hinges and latches.
iv. Improve drainage around the v. Wire netting.
house. vi. Pre-fabricated battery cages.
v. Fumigate/dust against parasites and vii. Roofing materials.
diseases.
vi. Maintain the level of disinfectant in
the footbath.

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8. PIGGERY UNIT/PIGSTY. Types of pig pens
 It is used to house pigs. i) Farrowing pen- used for farrowing
PARTS OF A PIGSTY. and rearing piglets.
a) Feed store- used to store the pig  They are provided with farrowing crates
feeds. which prevent the sow from lying on the
b) Records room- used to keep feed piglets and from eating creep feed meant
and weight records. for piglets.
c) Running yard- they are extensions ii) Gilt’s pen- used to rear the young gilt
of the pigsty used for dunging, basking (female pig) up to service age(12
and exercise. months).
iii) Boar’s pen- it is used to keep the
d) Water troughs/drinking breeding male pig. It should be
nipples- are used as watering points spacious to allow room for exercise and
for the pig. mating.
e) Feed troughs- feeding the pigs. iv) In-pig pen- it is used to rear pregnant
f) Pig pens- they keep pigs of different pigs awaiting farrowing.
ages and sex. v) Weaner’s/fattener’s pen -used to
house piglets after weaning up to 6
months.

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Structural requirements of a pig sty. Features of a good pig house.
1. It should have concrete floor for easy i. Should be rain- proof/ leak proof.
cleaning.
2. It should be well ventilated but draught ii. Should be well ventilated.
free. iii. Should be easy to clean.
3. It should have adequate space for iv. Should be well lit.
exercise.
4. It should be sited on a well drained v. Should have adequate space.
area. vi. Drought free.
5. It should be safe from invasion by wild vii. Good drainage.
animals.
6. It should have white painted walls. Materials used for construction for
7. Should be easily accessible. pigsty.
8. Should be located at some safe distance 1. Iron sheets.
from the living houses to avoid bad 2. Cement, sand and ballast.
odours.
3. Posts and rails.
4. Nails and hinges.

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Maintenance practices of a pig 9. RABBIT STRUCTURES.
house/ piggery unit. They are used to rear rabbits.
1. Regular cleaning. Types of rabbit structures.
2. Provide litter on the floor to keep it A. THE HUTCH-It is a house used for rearing
dry and warm. rabbits.
3. Holes on the floor should be filled Factors to consider when siting the rabbit
with concrete. hutch
4. Broken timber rails on the runs i. Security- Should be near the homestead for
should be replaced. security.
5. Should be disinfected to control ii. Accessibility- Should be in accessible place.
disease agents. iii. Drainage- area should be well drained.
6. Repair broken parts. iv. Direction of prevailing wind-should be
constructed on leeward side.
7. Should be dusted/ sprayed to control
v. Future expansion- there should be room for
diseases.
future expansion.

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Structural requirement of a rabbit hutch iii) The floor should allow drainage.
i. The floor of should be made of wire iv) It should be leak-free.
mesh or slatted and be raised above the
ground to: v) The floor should be made of concrete
for easy cleaning.
 Facilitate the drying of the beddings and
allow droppings to fall to the ground. vi) It should be spacious/ large enough to
 To prevent the rabbits against predators allow for feeding , exercise and
and rats from getting into the hutch to sleeping.
contaminate the feed. Factors to consider when selecting
ii) It should be well ventilated but building materials.
draught-free/ constructed on leeward i) Easily available materials are chosen.
side of the farm. ii) Durable materials are selected.
 The windward side should be made of iii) Cost- cheap materials are chosen.
solid timber and the front side made of iv) Skills needed to work with materials.
wire mesh to allow light and air into the
house.

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B. MORANT CAGE/FOLD. Maintenance practices of a rabbit
• Cages are built of wire netting on the house
floor, sides and the top except one i. It should be kept clean and dry.
side which should be roofed for ii. Leaking roofs should be repaired.
shelter and sleeping. iii. Any broken part should be
• The cages should be moved daily to repaired/ replaced.
prevent wastes/ parasites and diseases Construction materials for the
accumulation and to provide rabbits rabbit houses
with fresh grass. i. Corrugated iron sheets/ thatch.
ii. Wire netting.
iii. Posts, rails, timber, and off cuts.
iv. Nails, screws, hinges and latches.
v. Cement, sand and ballast
(concrete)

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 64
Hand tools used in the 9. Clamp- to hold pieces of wood
construction of a wooden rabbit together.
hutch. 10. Screw driver- to drive screws into
1. Claw hammer- to drive in and wood.
remove nails. 11. Try square- to measure the right
2. Tin snip- to cut the iron sheets. angles.
3. Pliers- to cut wires. 12. Spirit level- to determine
4. Mallet- to hit the chisel. horizontal/vertical straightness.
5. Wood chisel- to cut grooves in 13. Scriber- to draw lines on metal
wood. sheets.
6. Jack plane- to smoothen wood. 14. Marking gauge- to draw lines on
7. Tape measure/rule- to measure wood surfaces.
the length.
8. Hand saw- to cut wood.

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 67
10. FISH POND. Requirements for fish farming.
 It is used for rearing fish. i. Continuous water supply.
Factors to consider when siting a fish ii. Gentle slope.
pond. iii. Clay soil.
a) Topography- gentle sloping area to Characteristics of a good site for a fish
allow free flow of water to and from pond/ construction features of a fish
the pond. pond.
b) Source of water- should be sited i. Gentle sloping topography.
near a reliable source of water. ii. Reliable water source/continuous
c) Soil type- the area should have clay water flow.
soil because it allows little seepage/ iii. Areas without cracks/anthills.
has high water holding capacity. iv. Clay soil.
d) Nature of the land- the area/ v. Security from predators/ far away
ground should not have cracks. from natural sources of fish.
vi. Area should be accessible/ close to the
homestead.
vii. Close to the market/ consumers.

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 68
Maintenance practices of a fish pond.
Construction features of a fish pond
a) Clearing bush/ undesirable vegetation
around the pond. i. An outlet to drain off excess water.
b) Planting grass on the dykes/ wall tops to ii. An inlet for fresh water supply.
control soil erosion and to provide food to
fish. iii. A spill way channel to take away excess
c) Cleaning the pond to remove foreign water/ overflow water.
materials.
iv. A screen to prevent escaping of fish/ entry
d) Repairing broken fences.
of unwanted objects/ fish.
e) Control of predators.
f) Regular fertilization of the pond to allow v. A fence to keep away predators/security.
growth of planktons. vi. Dykes /walls embankment.
g) Control of stocking rate/ cropping.
Study question
h) Supply of adequate feeds regularly.
i) Removing silt. Give two reasons for growing grass around a fish
e) Aerate the water by ensuring constant inflow pond. (1mk)
and outflow of water. i. To stabilize the banks/ dykes.
f) Maintain appropriate water level in the pond
always. ii. To attract insects which lay eggs that hatch
g) Harvest at the correct maturity age. into larvae which are used as food for fish.
h) Control water pollution. iii. To reduce maintenance costs.
© Sam obare 2-May-22
 Inlet pipe
Spillway/overflow
pipe

Outlet/ drain
pipe

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 71
11. BEE HIVES. Tools used to construct Kenya Top Bar Hive.
 The common beehive is Kenta Top Bar Hive 1. Claw hammer- for driving in and out nails
(KTBH). from wood.
Construction materials. 2. Tape measure- to measure the required sizes
i. Timber. of timber.
ii. Corrugated iron sheets. 3. Tin snip- for cutting iron sheets for roofing.
iii. Nails. 4. Clamp/ sash camp- for holding tightly
iv. Wire loops/plain wire. together pieces of wood when cutting/ joining.
v. Posts. 5. Handsaw- for putting timber to the required
Maintenance practices of bee hives. size.
i. All broken parts should be repaired/ 6. Wood chisel/ Brace/ hand drill- for boring
replaced. holes in wood.
ii. All cracks should be sealed. 7. Mallet- for hitting the chisel when boring
holes.
iii. Smear with wood preservatives to
prevent attack by pests. 8. Pliers- for cutting wires.
iv. Grease on the posts should be replaced 9. Jack plane -For smoothing timber surface.
if melted.

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 72
8. Marking/ mortise gauge- for marking 5. It is easy to construct and repair.
points for cutting / planning on timber. 6. It utilizes the queen excluder to separate
9. Ball pen hammer- for straightening/ honey combs from the brood combs.
shaping metal sheet. 7. It is cheap to construct the hive.
10. Try square/ combination square- for 8. It is cheap to extract honey.
determining right angles on cutting points
11. SILOS
of timber.
 They are used for preparation and storage
Advantages of using Kenya Top Bar Hive. of silage.
1. Top bars can be removed and replaced to  The common types include:
inspect the combs.
i. Trench silo.
2. Honey combs are harvested without
disturbing the brood. ii. Tower silo.
3. Good quality honey is harvested without iii. Clamp/bunker silo.
brood combs.
4. More wax is harvested because combs are
not returned to the hive.

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 74
12. FARM STORES. A. Produce stores- they are structures used to
 They are structures used to store seeds, feeds, hold a farm produce after harvesting awaiting
farm tools, agro-chemicals and products.
use or sale.
Factors to consider when siting a farm
store.  They include traditional granaries, modern
a) Accessibility- it should easily be reached stores, silos and Cyprus bins.
from most parts of the farm.
Structural requirements of produce/ grain
b) Drainage- the place should be well drained
to avoid dampness/ effects of water. store.
c) Security- the place should be secure from 1. Vermin-proof-rat guards/ deflectors should
predators and thieves. be installed on all the posts 50 cm above the
d) Relationship with other structures- ground to keep off rodents/ vermins.
should be close to others with related uses to
save on time and labour. 2. Well ventilated- to avoid dampness in the
e) Proximity of amenities- should be near store/ allow free air circulation.
water/ electricity supply.
3. Water/ leak proof- to avoid dampness in the
f) Topography- the place should be gentle
sloping to save costs on levelling/ facilitate store.
drainage.

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 75
4. Easy to clean/ free from cracks and 3. Dusting/disinfecting regularly.
crevices-to prevent pests.
4. Repairing leaking roofs.
5. Raised/ constructed above the
5. Replace broken/ worn out parts.
ground- constructed 50 cm above the
ground to prevent dampness which may Construction materials for produce
cause rotting of the grains. stores
6. Suitable entrance- for easy loading and i. Posts.
offloading. ii. Iron sheets/thatch materials.
7. Strong enough/ well secured-to iii. Timber.
avoid theft. iv. Rails.
Maintenance practices carried out on v. Hinges.
produce store before storage of grains. vi. Sisal poles.
1. Clearing the vegetation around the store vii. Strings and wires.
to keep off vermins.
2. Cleaning to remove old crop residues.

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 TRADITIONAL GRANARY MODERN STORE
76

Rat guard/ Rat guard/

deflector deflector

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 77
Construction materials for grain silo c) They should be completely sealed to
and cyprus bins. avoid entry of rodents.
i. Bricks, blocks. d) All inlets and outlets should be made
ii. Cement, sand and ballast. of tight covers and should be easy to
iii. Timber.
lock.
iv. Metal frames.
Maintenance practices of grain silo
and cyprus bins
v. Fibre glass.
i. All broken parts should be repaired
Structural requirements of grain silo to avoid leaking.
and cyprus bins
ii. All cracks in the surface of walls
a) Properly constructed roof to protect
should be sealed.
the crop from sun and rain.
iii. Clear the vegetation around the area
b) Walls should be plastered to make
to keep off rodents.
them smooth and airtight.
iv. Clean and disinfect regularly.

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 C. FENCES.
78
 They are structures that enclose 5. They mark boundaries hence avoid
designated areas and form physical boundary disputes.
barriers for animals. 6. They help to control the spread of
Uses/importance of fences. parasites and diseases by keeping off
1. They facilitate rotational grazing (by wild and stray animals from the farm.
dividing crop fields and paddocks) 7. They help to isolate / confine the
2. They control the movements of people animals that require special attention.
and animals in the farm preventing 8. They help the farmers to control
formation of unnecessary paths in the breeding by rearing different animals
farm. in different paddocks.
3. They enable the farmer to practice 9. Hedges act as wind breakers/ control
mixed farming (by dividing the fields) erosion/ source of firewood.
10. They provide privacy to the
4. They are used for security/ keep off
homestead.
wild animals and other intruders from
11. They add beauty/ aesthetic value to
outside the farm.
the farm.
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 79
TYPES OF FENCES. 3. Thorny species are effective in
 They include: controlling intruders.
A. Live fences (hedges) 4. Some species e.g. Lantana camara are
B. Dead fences. used as livestock feed.
A.Live fences- They are made of 5. Some species have medicinal value.
growing plants e.g. kei apple, lantana etc. 6. When trimmed, they act as a source
Advantages /uses of live of fuel and organic matter e.g.
fences/hedges. Tithonia spp.
1. Their roots hold soil firmly thus 7. They have aesthetic value/add
controlling soil erosion. beauty to the farm.
2. They are cheap and easy to establish 8. Tall varieties (e.g. Kei apple) act as
since seedlings can easily be raised wind breakers.
in the nursery. 9. They provide shade to livestock

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 80
Disadvantages of live fences. Maintenance practices carried
1. They take a long time to grow out on live fences/ hedges.
and make effective fences. i. Fill the gaps in hedges/live
2. They occupy large space hence fences.
cannot be used for paddocking. ii. Trim overgrown branches on
3. They act as hiding places for hedges.
pests/rodents/vermin, wild
animals and thieves.
4. Thorny species cause injury to the
humans and livestock.
5. They require regular trimming
and infilling of gaps making which
are laborious and expensive.
6. Their growth may be irregular
thus allowing gaps for animals and
thieves to pass.

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 82
B. DEAD FENCES. Construction materials for fences
 They are made from dead materials i. Wire (barbed, plain, chicken, chain
e.g. wires, posts, stones e.t.c. link).
 Types of dead fences include: ii. Posts and rails.
i. Barbed wire fence. iii. Nails and staples.
ii. Plain wire fence. iv. Off cuts.
iii. Woven/wire netting wire. v. Concrete (cement, sand and
iv. Wall fences. ballast).
v. Electric fences. vi. Sticks- for droppers.
vi. Wooden fences.

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 i. Barbed and plain wire fences
83
Advantage of barbed wire over plain
wire.
i. It is effective in controlling the
movement of livestock.
Disadvantages of barbed wire over
the plain wire.
i. It can cause injury to livestock.
ii. It is difficult to handle.
iii. It destroys/ tears off wool/fleece.
Advantages of plain wire over barbed
wire.
i. It doesn’t cause injury to livestock.
ii. It is easy to handle during fences.
iii. It is cheap to maintain.
Disadvantage of plain wire fence.
i. Animals can go through it easily.

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 ii. Woven wire and wooden fences
84
Advantages of woven wire
fence.
i. It is effective to control small
animals.
ii. It does not cause injury to the
animals.
iii. It is stronger.
iv. It has high aesthetic value.
Disadvantages of wooden
fences.
i. They are easily destroyed by
termites and moulds.

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 iii. Wall and electric fences.
85
Advantage of wall fence.
i. It is durable.
Disadvantage of wall fence.
i. It is expensive to construct.
Advantages of electric fence.
i. It can easily be relocated.
ii. It is effective against big animals.
Disadvantages of electric fence.
i. It requires constant recharging of
the battery.
ii. Unapproved electric controller
units can be dangerous.
iii. It is expensive to install and
maintain.

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 86
Procedure of constructing a post 8. Put concrete at the bottom of the
and wire fence. hole.
1. Locate the area to be fenced. 9. Place the treated posts in the holes.
10. Ensure posts are vertical/ right
2. Clear the site to be fenced. angles.
3. Use a string to layout the fence line. 11. Fill up the hole with soil/ concrete.
4. Determine the position of posts 12. Firm the soil/ concrete in the hole
using a tape measure. using a ramming rod.
13. Heap soil/ concrete at the base of
5. Dig the holes using a hole digger/ post.
claw bar/ soil auger. 14. Fix the wire onto the posts using
6. Use a ruler to determine the right nails/ staples beginning with the
hole depth. lower strand at appropriate spacing.
15. Fix droppers to strengthen the fence.
7. Obtain the right length of the posts
16. Strengthen the wire using wire
using a tape measure. strainer
8. Cut to obtain the posts to the
required depth using a handsaw.
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© Sam obare 87 2-May-22
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 90
Procedure of establishing a wooden 8. Cut to obtain the posts to the required
rail fence. depth using a handsaw.
1. Locate the area to be fenced. 9. Put concrete at the bottom of the hole.
2. Clear the site to be fenced. 10. Place the treated posts in the holes.
3. Use a string to layout the fence line. 11. Ensure posts are vertical/ right angles.
4. Determine the position of posts using a 12. Fill up the hole with soil/ concrete.
tape measure. 13. Firm the soil/ concrete in the hole using
5. Dig the holes using a hole digger/ claw a ramming rod.
bar/ soil auger. 14. Heap soil/ concrete at the base of post.
6. Use a ruler to determine the right hole 15. Fix the rails onto the posts using nails at
depth. appropriate spacing.
7. Obtain the right length of the posts
using a tape measure.

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 91
Maintenance practices of Methods of fence
fences. reinforcements
i) Loose/ sagging wire should i. Fill the holes with concrete.
be strained/ strengthened ii. Fixing the braces to support
using a wire strainer. the fencing posts.
ii) Broken wires should be spliced. iii. Placing the droppers to
iii) Worn out posts and droppers should support the sagging wire.
be replaced.
iv) The top of posts should be covered iv. Support the corner posts
with metals/ plastic to prevent using struts and strainers.
accumulation of water.
v) Application of oil/ painting to
prevent insect attack.
vi) Cutting the top part of posts in a
slanting manner to drain water
away.

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 92
GATES AND CORNER POSTS Methods of treating posts during fencing.
 A gate is a barrier used to close the fence, i. Cutting the top of posts in a slanting
wall or hedge. It allows movement in and manner for rain water to drain away.
out of the enclosed area. ii. Covering the top of posts with
 The corner posts should be larger and metal/plastic material.
stronger than other posts. The holes should iii. Applying wood preservatives e.g. old
be 75cm-90 cm deep. engine oil, copper sulphate, creosote
 After placing the treated posts in the e.t.c.
holes, concrete should be added and iv. Burning slightly (charring) the parts
rammed to reinforce them or soil and to be covered with soil.
stones may be used.
 Braces should be fixed to provide support
to the posts and prevent sagging of wire.
 The types of gates include:
i. Barbed wire gate.
ii. Wooden rails gate.

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© Sam obare 93 2-May-22
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 95
Hand tools used for construction of 6. Pliers- to cut wires.
fences. 7. Soil auger- to dig holes.
1. Claw hammer- to drive in 8. Wire strainer- to strain the wire.
nails/staples. 9. Tape measure- to measure the
2. Claw bar- to remove the staples. distance.
3. Bow saw- to cut branches on 10. Ramming rods- for
posts. firming/ramming the soil/concrete.
4. Hand saw- to cut posts to the 11. Axe/Panga- cutting posts.
right length.
5. Wood chisel- to make holes on
posts.

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 Study question
96
 The diagram below shows a type of farm a) Identify the type of gate shown.
gate. Study the diagram and answer the Barbed wire gate.
questions that follow. b) Name the parts labeled C, D and E.
C- Gate post/king post.
D- Wire loop.
E- Dropper.
c) State the function of the part labeled F.
 Supports the gate post.
 Ensures that the barbed wire remains
tout/strong.
d) State two functions of the gate
illustrated above.
 Prevents movement of farm animals
outside.
 Keeps away livestock from outside.
 Used as entrance and exit from the
farm.

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 97
D. GREEN HOUSES/GLASS HOUSE. Uses of green house
 This is a structure for growing crops 1. Allows for growing of out-of –
under controlled conditions. season crops.
 The walls and roofs are made of 2. It protects crops against adverse
translucent materials. weather conditions.
 The green house creates a microclimate 3. It is used for research purposes.
different from the surrounding areas. 4. It facilitates easy control of pests
 The conditions which are controlled in and diseases.
the green houses include humidity, Maintenance practices on green
temperature, light and carbon (IV) oxide. houses.
Materials for construction of green i. Replacing and repairing worn out
houses. parts.
i. Metal/wooden frames. ii. Cleaning dirty covers.
ii. Translucent materials. iii. Tightening loose nuts and bolts.
iii. Pipes.
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© Sam obare 98 2-May-22
 99
D. CROP PRODUCTION 4. Poles.
STRUCTURES. 5. Thatch materials.
 They are used for crop 6. Translucent materials.
production. 7. Nails, latches and hinges.
 They include:
Maintenance practices for
1. Nursery structures i.e. nursery nursery structures.
beds, seed boxes or vegetative 1. Replace/repair broken parts.
propagation units.
2. Replace worn out polythene
2. Compost pits/heaps.
sheets and thatch.
Construction materials for
nursery structures.
1. Timber, rails and off cuts.
2. Forked sticks.
3. Hoops/fittos.

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 4. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS 2
(LAND TENURE AND REFORM)
1. Land tenure- it refers to having 1. INDIVIDUAL LAND
/possession of rights to own and TENURE SYSTEM.
use land. • In this , land is owned by an
It also refers to the rules and individual who either operates it or
conditions governing the ownership leaves/lends it to another person.
of land in a specific area or method Types/categories of individual
by which an individual or group of land tenure system.
people acquire the right to use land • They include:
at any place.
The rights to own and use land A. Individual owner operator.
differ variably giving rise to different B. Landlordism/tenancy/leasehold.
tenure systems. C. Concession/company.
Types of land tenure systems.
1. Individual land tenure system
2. Collective land tenure system.
12-May-21 © Sam obare 1
A. Individual owner operator- Disadvantages of individual
in this system the farmer owns and owner operator.
operates land. 1. It leads to unfair/ unequal land
Advantages of individual owner distribution hence poor resource
operator. distribution.
1. It minimizes land disputes because 2. In case the farmer uses the title
the farmer possesses the title deed as security to get a loan
deed. which is not paid, land is sold.
2. It is easy to plan and make 3. It encourages land fragmentation.
decisions. 4. The owner may not have
3. The owner has incentives to make adequate capital to develop land.
long term investments in the land. 5. There is increase in government
4. Where the farmer has a title deed costs for extension services to
it acts as security to obtain loan. individual farmers.
5. It gives the farmer incentive/
motivation in farming, water and
soil conservation and
improvement of land.
6. The owner can sell or give away
part/whole land.

12-May-21 © Sam obare 2

 Advantages of landlordism/
B. Landlordism/tenancy/
tenancy/ leasehold.
leasehold- this is where the owner
of land/landlord does not operate 1. Landlords who cannot operate/
land but rents it to the other/tenant. use their land due to some
reasons can rent land to tenants
 In leasehold land tenure system the
hence get income.
state/ government lends land to
individual for a specific period of time. 2. Idle land is put into agricultural
The tenant and landlord agree on the use by tenants thus increasing
mode of payment e.g. production.
i. Share cropping- they share the 3. Landless people are able to get
income from the land in agreed land and earn income/
ratio. livelihood.
ii. Fixed rent- the tenant pays a 4. It reduces land disputes since
regular amount. the landlord/ state controls its
allocation.
5. It ensures equal distribution of
land as a natural resource.

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Disadvantages of landlordism/ Factors that determine the
tenancy/ leasehold- success of tenancy land tenure
1. If tenants have no written system.
agreement, then they have no i. The length of the lease period.
incentive to develop land/ disputes ii. The mode of payment.
may rise. iii. Whether is formal of informal.
2. Where the lease period is short, the c. Concession/company- this
tenants may have no incentive to is an agreement between the
make long term and expensive company and the government
investments. on the use of land for specific
3. The land lords may overcharge the number of years.
tenants hence lose motivation
because in Kenya land rates are not
fixed.
4. Where the lease period is short, the
main consideration is profit
maximization and the tenant may
not be concerned with land
improvement and conservation of
water and soil.

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Advantages of concession/ company. 2. COLLECTIVE LAND TENURE
1. It creates employment opportunities. SYSTEMS.
2. Earns the government income through • In this type, land is owned by a group
taxes. of people who usually have a common
3. High economic results due high factor.
efficiency in land use and Types of collective land tenure
management. system.
Disadvantages of concession/ A. Communal land tenure system.
company. B. Co-operative land tenure system.
1. Poor management may lead to heavy C. State ownership of land.
losses.
2. If company is foreign (e.g. Delmonte), A. Communal land tenure- This is
the benefits to the country where it is where land is owned by a whole
situated are employment and taxes community or section of the
only. community e.g. clan or extended
3. Likelihood of social and labor unrest to family. It is common in pastoral
occur leading to serious losses. communities e.g. Maasai of Kenya.
4. The companies may engage in
monopolistic practices.

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Advantages of communal land Disadvantages of communal land tenure
tenure system. 1. There are poor yields because of
1. The problem of landlessness overexploitation of land for crop and
does not exist. livestock production.
2. Land cannot easily be 2. Pest and disease control is difficult due to
fragmented or subdivided. mixing of animals.
3. It allows free movement of 3. There is poor stock breeding because of
livestock. random mating and uncontrolled breeding.
4. The land is allowed to rest for a 4. Farmers have no title deed which can be
while so as to allow pasture used as security to get loan to develop land.
regeneration. 5. Farmers have no incentive to manage and
5. There are no land disputes develop land or plan for long term
since the community elders investments.
will solve any local problems. 6. Since land belongs to everybody, no
individual has a responsibility of taking care
of the land or developing it.
7. It leads to soil erosion due to overstocking
which leads to overgrazing.

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B. COOPERATIVE LAND Disadvantages of co-operative
TENURE SYSTEM- This is where tenure system.
land is owned by farmers who
come together to form a co- i. In some cases poor management
operative society. and corruption/ embezzlement
of funds may lead to big losses.
The title deed bears the name of the
society. ii. Since the title deed has the name
of the cooperative, no individual
Advantages of co-operative members can use the title deed
tenure system. to get loan.
i. There are no land disputes because
nobody can legally claim
ownership of land.
ii. Labour is well utilized.
iii. The profit from land is distributed
according to the number of shares
an individual has in the society.
iv. Large membership increases the
resources thus enhancing effective
farm mechanization.

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C. STATE OWNERSHIP OF LAND FRAGMENTATION AND
LAND. SUBDIVISION.
• Land is owned by the government/ Land fragmentation- it refers to a situation
state. The state controls its land use, where a farmer owns several pieces of land
capital and marketing. located in different areas.
Advantages. Land sub-division- it refers to the practice
1. This system generates income for of partitioning a large piece of land into small
the state which is equally holdings owned by different individuals.
distributed to the citizens. Reasons/causes of land fragmentation
2. It may provide employment and sub-division.
opportunities to citizens and a 1. Shifting cultivation-a situation where land
refuge for squatters. is cultivated and then left to fallow.
Disadvantages. 2. Settlement and resettlement/
1. This system operates in a non- government sub-division of land
competitive market which may 3. Traditional system/ inheritance of land/
result in low quality production. sub-division among the heirs.
2. Workers involved do not have as 4. Population pressure on a limited area of
much motivation as for individual land leading to purchase of scattered
ownership. pieces.
5. Accumulation of land holdings because
debtors fail to pay the debts/ land offered
to settle debts.

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 3. It is difficult to make and follow
Process of land sub-division. sound/proper plans because of
i. Application to the land control distance between the fragments and
board, stating the size of portions the farmer’s home.
the land will be subdivided. 4. It is difficult to supervise scattered
ii. Land surveying by the land surveyor plots.
giving new registration numbers. 5. It is difficult to control livestock
iii. Registration of the new parcels parasites and diseases because they are
giving new certificates which cancel transmitted as animals move from one
the old ones. place to another.
Problems/disadvantages/effects of 6. It is difficult to get extension services
land fragmentation and because of scattered plots.
subdivision. 7. It is difficult to carry out soil and
1. Time is wasted while travelling water conservation measures.
from on holding to another or from 8. Agricultural productivity remains
one farmstead to the various poor leading to low standards of
fragments. living.
2. It is difficult to control weeds and 9. It may lead to communal grazing
pests because the fragments are leading to overstocking hence
surrounded by pest/ disease/ weed overgrazing and soil erosion.
infested areas.

12-May-21 © Sam obare 9

LAND REFORM. A. Land tenure reforms.
• It is an organized action taken to  These are programmes aimed at
improve the structure of land altering the land tenure legislation
tenure and land use or to enhance efficient utilization of
land.
• This is integrated programme to
bring about more effective control  Examples of land tenure reforms
and use of land . include:
• Land reform programmes include: i) The improvement of land tenure
legislation.
A. Land tenure reform.
ii) The consolidation of fragmented
B. Land consolidation. holdings.
C. Land adjudication and iii) The tenancy reforms.
registration.
iv) The redistribution of land.
D. Settlement and resettlement. v) Formal registration of individual
land titles.

12-May-21 © Sam obare 10

Objectives of/reasons for land reforms. B. Land consolidation.
1. To encourage conservation measures on  This is the practice of putting together
the land and general improvement of land. separate and scattered pieces of land
2. To increase productivity of both land and owned by an individual under one
labour. holding.
3. To encourage commercial instead of  It involves establishment of ownership,
subsistence production to ensure measurement, description and recording
meaningful self-employment in rural of each fragment.
areas.  The individual fragments are then
4. To encourage farmers invest more through consolidated (put together) into one
offering security of tenure. holding.
5. To achieve flexibility in farming patterns Advantages of land consolidation.
to meet changing national and market 1. There is proper supervision of land.
demands. 2. It saves time and money on travelling
6. To achieve effective utilization of national between the plots.
land resources, including settlement of 3. It encourages sound/ proper farm
unused land and introduction of irrigation planning and adoption of crop
schemes. rotational programmes.
4. It encourages long term investments/
construction of permanent structures
e.g. fences and buildings.

12-May-21 © Sam obare 11

5. The government extension C. Land adjudication and
services can be provided easily registration.
by extension officers.  Land adjudication involves establishment
of land ownership, measurement,
6. A farmer with a title deed can description and recording of land.
use it as security to get loan. • It is done to:
7. It is easier to control pests, i. Facilitate legal ownership of land.
diseases and weeds. ii. Reduce disputes.
8. It facilitates mechanization Process of land adjudication.
due to enlarged holdings. Identification of ownership by the
government officials who liaise with local
9. It facilitates carrying out of chiefs and local farmers.
soil conservation practices. Measurement of land by surveyors who
10. There is economical operation give sufficient details of existing
boundaries.
of activities on the land since
Recording and mapping of land.
it gives the farmer a large unit
Submission of maps and records to the
of land. district land office for registration.
Issuance of Title deed/ land registration
certificate as evidence of legal ownership.

12-May-21 © Sam obare 12

Information contained in the Importance/ Advantages of
title deed. having a land title deed/Reasons
1. Name of identification (ID) for land registration.
number of the owner. 1. A title deed can be used as
2. Size of the land. security to get loans/credit
3. The title number/ land parcel facilities for land development,
number and location. (hence encouraging commercial
4. Type of ownership e.g. absolute, farming).
leasehold or freehold. 2. The title deed/ land registration
5. Conditions of ownership. minimizes land disputes/helps to
identify the owner of land
6. Seal and signature of the issuing
officer. 3. It encourages a farmer to carry
out long term investment of the
7. Date of registration. land.
4. Enables the owner to sell/lease
part of land thus getting extra
income.
5. It provides security of
ownership.

12-May-21 © Sam obare 13

D. Settlement and resettlement/ 2. To increase agricultural
land redistribution. production through making
• Settlement- it refers to occupation better use of uninhabited or
of land which was previously idle land.
uninhabited or planned and 3. To create employment because
controlled transfer of population people are given land for crop
from one area to another which is and livestock production.
uninhabited or sparsely populated. 4. To control tsetse fly by forming
• Resettlement- refers to the process consolidated barrier by clearing
of transferring people from densely infested areas/ land for
populated areas to sparsely populated settlement.
areas. • Immediately after independence,
Objectives of land redistribution. settlement schemes were
1. To ease population pressure from established to help settle landless
overpopulated areas by Kenyans on land previously
transferring people to sparsely occupied for white settlers. An
populated or uninhabited areas. example was the ‘Million Acre
settlement scheme’

12-May-21 © Sam obare 14

The million acre scheme- the main 3. To reduce population pressure
aim was to transfer one million acres of in the African reserves/ land by
land in the white highlands to the transferring people from
Africans by independence. Land was overpopulated areas to sparsely
divided into smaller holdings and given populated areas.
to landless people. 4. To create employment by
Reasons/ Objectives of one working on the farm given to
million acre scheme / produce crops and keep
Objectives/ reasons for livestock.
establishment of settlement 5. To make use of the
schemes in Kenya. underutilized/ idle land thus
1. To transfer land from white increasing production.
settlers/ Europeans to Africans to 6. To increase agricultural
enable the Africans own land. production through better
2. To settle the landless by methods of land utilization.
transferring the landless/ 7. To maintain production levels
squatters to new land allocation. achieved by former white
settlers and also earn foreign
exchange from the sale of cash
crops.

12-May-21 © Sam obare 15

Contributions of settlement schemes
Requirement for the success of
to agricultural development.
settlement scheme/ conditions
i. Increased agricultural production. for effective settlement.
ii. Increased farming activities. 1. There should be high population
iii. Establishment of agricultural credit pressure in the reserves.
facilities. 2. There should be adequate
iv. Formation of marketing co-operatives economic incentive to persevere.
to help sell farmer’s produce. 3. Settlers should come from far
• Examples of settlement schemes include: distances and stay on the schemes
i. Jet schemes. and adopt to new environment.
ii. Haraka schemes. 4. Settlers should have enough
iii. Shirika schemes. capital.
iv. Lari settlement schemes. 5. The social costs of moving from
home community and the
v. The squatter’s settlement schemes.
discipline imposed for sound
vi. Harambee settlement schemes. agriculture and extra effort
vii. Ol kalou salient scheme.

12-May-21 © Sam obare 16

5. SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION.
1

 Soil and water conservation involve all 2. Type of soil- Sandy soils have coarse
activities carried out to prevent the texture hence become easily saturated
removal of soil from land as well as those with water hence easily eroded/carried
activities carried out to protect water away by agents of erosion than clay
sources and maintain its supply. soils.
 Soil can be lost through soil erosion. 3. Amount and intensity of rainfall-
Soil erosion high rainfall intensity, on bare grounds
leads to detachment of soil and
 This is the process by which soil is detached, increases the surface runoff hence
removed and carried away from one place to erosion.
another where it may not be useful.
 High rainfall amount saturates the soil
Factors influencing soil erosion. increasing soil erosion.
1. Soil depth- Shallow soils get saturated
with water very fast hence they are easily
eroded/carried away than deep soils.
© Sam obare 28-Mar-22
2

4. Slope of the land/ 6. Overstocking- it leads to

topography- In steep areas, overgrazing which destroys ground
water flows at high speed and this cover exposing it to agents of
increases the erosive power of the erosion.
water. 7. Deforestation- deforestation is
 Long slope also increases the the indiscriminate removal of trees
volume/speed of runoff thus from forested areas.
increasing the erosive power of  When the forest is cleared soil is
water. exposed to high temperature and
5. Ground/ vegetation cover- heavy rainfall increasing the rate of
Lack of ground cover exposes soil soil erosion.
to the agents of soil erosion. 8. Burning of vegetation before
 The tree canopy reduces the impact cultivation- it leaves soil bare
of raindrops thus reducing the rate hence exposed to agents of
of erosion. erosion.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

3

9. Clean weeding- it leaves 12. Cultivation of river

soil bare hence exposed it banks –this destroys the
to agents of erosion. river-line vegetation and
10. Ploughing up and destroys soil structure
down the slope- it exposing it to agents of
creates channels which erosion.
speeds up and increases the 13. Cultivation the soil
erosive power capacity of when it is too dry- this
water. destroys the structure
11. Planting annual crops making it easily eroded.
on steep slopes- this
leads to frequent
cultivation hence exposing
soil to agents of erosion.
© Sam obare 28-Mar-22
 Study questions
4

a) Outline natural factors that b) State two factors that may

influence soil erosion. influence the erodability of
1. Topography/slope of land. soil.
2. Rainfall amount/Rainfall intensity. 1. Type of soil
3. Type of soil. 2. Soil depth.
4. Soil depth. 3. Level of organic matter/soil
structure.
5. Wind velocity/Strength of wind.
6. Size of watershed/catchment.
7. Length of slope.
8. Vegetation cover.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

5

c) Explain factors that can 5. High rainfall intensity on bare

encourage soil erosion. ground leads at detachment of
1. Lack of ground cover exposes soil hence run off.
soil to agents of soil 6. High rainfall amount increase
erosion/removal of cover crops. saturation of soil hence increase in
2. Steep slopes increase the speed soil erosion.
of surface run-offs hence erosive 7. Frequent cultivation/over
power of water. cultivation pulverizes the soil
3. Light/sandy soils are easily making it easy to detach and carry
carried away by agents of soil away.
erosion.
4. Shallow soils are easily
saturated with water and carried
away.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

6

8. Overstocking/ 11. Cultivation of river banks

overgrazing which destroys destroys vegetation & destroys
ground cover exposing it to soil structure exposing it to
agents of erosion. agents of erosion.
9. Burning/deforestation 12. Cultivating the soil when
destroys vegetation cover and too dry destroys soil structure
exposes soil to agents of making it easy to be eroded.
erosion. 13. Long slopes increases
10. Ploughing up and down volume/speed of runoff hence
the slope creates channels increasing erosive power of
which speed up and increases water.
the erosive it to agents of
water.
© Sam obare 28-Mar-22
 7

Agents of soil erosion.

1. water.
2. Wind.
3. Human activities.
4. Living organisms/ animals
TYPES OF SOIL EROSION
A. WATER EROSION- it is caused by water.
Types of water erosion.
1. Splash erosion/rain drop erosion- This is
the detachment of soil as a result of
impact/effect of rain drops.
Factors that affect the rate of splash erosion.
i. Slope/ topography.
ii. Vegetation cover.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

8

2. Sheet erosion- This is the

uniform removal of soil in thin
layers from flat or gently
sloping land.
 It is caused by surface flow of
water and wind.
Factors which may encourage
sheet erosion.
i. Relatively flat area.
ii. Loosely held soil.
iii. Absence of ground cover.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

9

3. Rill erosion- This is removal

of soil by moving water in form
of small but well-defined
channels/ rills.
 It is common on slope with little
vegetation or fields where land
has been cultivated.
 The rills are small and can easily
be covered during ploughing.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

10

4. Gulley erosion-The small

channels in rill erosion
gradually become deeper and
wider forming deep wide and
long ditches.
 Gully erosion is characterized by
deep, long ditches made by
running water.
 The ditches cannot be covered
easily during ploughing.
 There are two types of gullies,
namely:
i. V-shaped gullies.
ii. U-shaped gullies.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

11

Methods/processes that lead to B. WIND EROSION- This is

gully formation. the removal and carrying away
i. Movement of water from the of soil by wind.
watershed/where they are C. SOIL EROSION THROUGH
enclosed. MAN’S ACTIVITIES- it is
ii. Channel erosion caused by caused by man’s activities e.g.
flowing water. overstocking, overgrazing,
clearing forests and other
iii. Wearing of the sides of the
vegetation, mining, road and
channel.
building construction,
iv. Deepening/ scouring of the floor quarrying and sell of soil
of the channel by moving water. expose soil to agents of
erosion.
© Sam obare 28-Mar-22
12

Effects of soil erosion. D. RIVER BANK EROSION- it

occurs along the riverbank as
1. Loss of top productive soil which contains a result of large volume of
organic matter and plant nutrients lowering water, speed of water and
land productivity. amount of materials carried
2. Loss of useful micro-organisms together by water.
with top soil which break down organic Effects of riverbank erosion.
matter and improve soil structure. 1. It causes damage to the
3. Deposition of eroded materials in dams and riverbanks.
rivers creating silting problems. 2. It widens the riverbeds hence
reducing the potential size of
4. Sedimentation and siltation in lakes, rivers cultivatable land.
and fish ponds lead to decline in fish
3. It causes sedimentation in
production. water bodies and dams.
5. Excessive surface run-off causes destruction
of roads and exposes underground water
© Sam obare 28-Mar-22
pipes.
13

E. SOLIFLUCTION EROSION/MASS
Control of riverbank
WASTING-This is the gravitational flow of surface
erosion. materials saturated with water.
1. Construction of dams to  It is a process through which the earth flows from
regulate the flow of water. steep slopes as a result of heavy rainfall.
2. Construction of dykes to Effects of solifluction.
control flooding. 1. Reduces soil fertility.
3. Planting trees along the 2. Creation of lakes.
river bank to hold soil 3. Damages property and leads to loss of life.
particles together hence
4. Facilitates soil erosion.
reduce erosion.
5. It creates permanent scars on landscape which
4. Leaving a sizeable strip of cannot support vegetation and unattractive.
uncultivated land along the
6. It creates some features which attract tourists.
river bank. © Sam obare 28-Mar-22
14

Factors that affect solifluction. 5. Nature of materials- if materials

1. Slope of land- there is faster contain a lot of water, solifluction
movement of materials on steep takes place faster.
slopes.  Also if massive rocks overlie weak
2. Climate- heavy rainfall encourage sedimentary rocks which have clay
ssolifluction. material underneath, solifluction
3. Vegetation cover- lack of occurs easily.
vegetation cover increases the rate 6. Forces within the earth’s
of solifluction. crust- forces e.g. volcanic
4. Human activity- activities e.g. eruptions increase the rate of
deforestation, building, quarrying solifluction.
and cultivation increase the rate of
solifluction.
© Sam obare 28-Mar-22
15

F. LANDSLIDES- it is a sudden rotational 4. Rock fall- movement of rock blocks

movement of a mass of soil or rock along down a steep cliff or rock face.
a more or less semi-circular slip surface.
5. Rock slides-movement/ sliding of
 It also refers to several types of mass
rock materials along a bedding plane,
movement of rock debris down a slope or
a joint or a fault face.
mountain side.
Types of landslides. Study question.
1. Slump/slip- intermittent movement State the effects of siltation in dams.
of earth or rock masses for a short i. Water pollution.
distance creating step-like terraces.
ii. Interferes with hydroelectric power.
2. Debris slide/earth slide- materials
move at a greater speed causing loss of iii. Leads to a decline in fish production.
property and life. iv. Reduction in water volume.
3. Debris fall- movement of materials
along vertical or hanging cliffs.
© Sam obare 28-Mar-22
 METHODS OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION/
CONTROLLING SOIL EROSION.
16

Reasons for soil and water conservation 2. Cover cropping- This is the practice of
1. To prevent loss of plant nutrients growing crops that provide good cover to
the soil surface.
2. To maintain good soil structures
 Cover crops:
A. BIOLOGICAL/ CULTURAL METHODS.
i. Reduce the impact of raindrops on the soil
1. Grass cover/strips/filter strips- They are thus reducing splash erosion.
uncultivated areas with grass left across the slope/ along
the contour. ii. Reduce the speed of flow of surface runoff.
 Grass cover conserves soil and water in the following ways: iii. Prevent movement of soil.
i. Reduces the speed of surface runoff which lowers iv. Plant roots bind soil particles/ improve soil
erosive power. structure.
ii. Reduces/ intercepts the impact of rain drops which v. Prevent evaporation of water/ preserve soil
reduces splash erosion. moisture.
iii. Protects soil surface hence reducing wind erosion. vi. Prevent volatilization of plant nutrients.
iv. The roots hold soil particles together from being
carried away by erosive agents.
v. Improves soil structure.
vi. Improves water infiltration into the soil.
vii. Reduces the rate of evaporation of soil moisture.
viii. Filters/ traps soil hence conserving the soil. © Sam obare 28-Mar-22
17

3. Contour farming- This is 4. Strip cropping.

where all farming practices e.g.  This is the practice where crops with
weeding, planting e.t.c. are done poor soil cover are grown in alternate
along the contours. strips with crops with good ground cover
 Tillage and planting along the along the contour.
contours create ridges/mounds of  Strip cropping helps to control soil
soil that: erosion by:
i) Hold up water. i. Reducing the speed of surface runoff.
ii) Prevent rill erosion by reducing ii. Controlling the movement of soil
water run-off. particles thus controlling soil erosion.
iii. Reduces the effect of rain drops
reducing splash erosion

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

18

5. Mulching. 6. Planting of trees / Agroforestry-

 It refers to covering of the soil surface  It involves:
with either organic mulches (e.g. dry i. Afforestation- planting of trees in an
grass) or inorganic mulches (e.g. area where they never existed.
polythene sheets).
ii. Reafforestation- planting trees
 Mulching helps to control soil erosion by: where the previous ones have already
i. Prevents splash erosion/ intercepts rain been harvested.
drops.  Trees help to conserve soil and water in
ii. Reduces the speed of surface run off the following ways:
hence reducing erosion. i. Act as wind breakers thus reducing
iii. Reduces evaporation. wind erosion.
iv. Increases organic matter and water ii. Reduce the speed of surface runoff
holding capacity. hence reduce the erosive power of
v. Improves/ increases water infiltration. water.
© Sam obare 28-Mar-22
19

iii. Reduce the effects of rain drops on 7. Grassed or vegetated water ways.
the surface hence control splash  Grass/vegetation is planted or allowed
erosion. to grow in water ways.
iv. Trees root bind the soil particles  It reduces the speed of surface runoff
together reducing the erodibility of hence reduces the erosive power of
soil. water.
v. They provide shade and reduce the  It traps/filters soil from surface runoff.
loss of moisture through
evaporation. 8. Crop rotation- it maintains soil
cover for protection against erosion.
vi. Their leaves decay to supply humus
to the soil which improves water  It also improves soil structure thus
infiltration into the soil. increasing infiltration.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

 20

9. Rotational grazing- allows grass to B. PHYSICAL/ MECHANICAL METHODS.

recover providing a ground cover 1. Stone/trash lines.
preventing the soil from soil erosion
 These are rows of stones or trash/crop remains
agents. heaped along the contours.
10. Intercropping- providing a ground  They reduce the speed of surface runoff and trap
cover protecting the soil from soil soil from the surface runoff.
erosion agents.
2. Check dam.
11. Use of manure/fertilizer-
 It is constructed across the gully and does not
promotes vegetative growth which
allow water to flow.
covers the soil against evaporation and
erosion.  It traps soil.

12. Correct spacing- ensures adequate  Traps water.

ground cover hence protecting it  Allows water infiltration.
against soil erosion agents.  Reduces the speed of surface runoff.
© Sam obare 28-Mar-22
21

3. Bunds/ridges.
 These are heaps of soil along the
contours.
 Some crops/grass can be planted
on the ridges to improve soil
structure.
 They trap surface runoff hence
control soil erosion and
encourage water infiltration.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

22

4. Diversion ditches/cut off drains.

 This is an open trench that has a wall/ embarkment on the
lower side.
 It is graded hence traps and diverts water from flowing across
a cultivated field:
i. Into a natural waterway e.g. river.
ii. Onto a non-erodible stony or rock ground.
iii. Onto grassland with a well established grass cover.
iv. Into an artificial waterway.
Procedure of construction
 Measure and mark the layout of the drain.
 Dig the channel.
 Remove soil from the channel and heap on the lower side of Water channel
the drain. Embarkment
 Plant grass on the ridge/ heap to stabilize it.
Factors which determine the depth and width of cut-off
drain.
 Quantity of water/ expected volume of run-off.
 Type of soil.
© Sam obare 28-Mar-22
23

5. Gabions/Porous dam.
 These are wire meshes filled with
stones built across the slope/gully.
 They:
i. Reduce the speed of surface
runoff.
ii. Trap soil from surface runoff.
 Trapped soil help to fill the gully.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

24

6. Terraces. Types of terraces.

 They are artificially prepared trenches 1. Level terrace- has no outlet hence
established across the slope/along the traps water for a long time.
contour. 2. Graded terrace- allows water to
flow slowly into a vegetated water
Role of terraces.
way.
i. Reduce the speed of surface run off. 3. Broad based terrace- have a wide
ii. Trap and retain water. base and narrow channel that can
iii. Trap soil from the surface run off. allow the passage of a machinery. It is
appropriate where mechanization is
iv. Allows mechanization is steep areas. practiced.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

25

4. Bench terrace- they are series of Study question.

steps constructed on the soil surface. Explain how various farming
They have a channel on the lower practices would help to conserve soil
and water in a farm.
end.
1. Mulching by reducing the speed of
5. Fanya juu terrace- involves digging run- off and reducing the impact of
a channel along the contour and raindrops.
heaping uphill to form a ridge. Soil is 2. Contour farming to reduce the speed
planted on the ridge to protect it run off.
from agents of erosion. 3. Terracing reduces the length of the
slope and consequently slowing down
6. Fanya chini terrace- just like fanya speed of running off.
juu soil is heaped to the lower end. 4. Planting trees/ holding soil particles
together hence reducing effects of
wind erosion and reducing the impact
of rain drops.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

26

5. Establishing and maintaining vegetated WATER HARVESTING.

water, by reducing the impact of  This is the practice that aims at trapping and
livestock on the soil erosion. storing water for use.
6. Establishing trash lines/ stones lines to Factors affecting water catchment and
reduce the speed of run- off and amount of water harvested.
reduces wind erosion.
1. Rainfall intensity and distribution
7. Cover cropping to reduce the speed of over a given period- the higher the
surface runoff and protect the soil amount of rainfall the higher the amount of
against erosion agents. water collected.
8. Intercropping to filter soil, reduce the 2. Surface area provided for the water
speed of surface run off and protect catchment-the larger the surface area the
the soil against erosion agents higher the amount of water collected.
3. The gradient of the catchment area-
areas with sloped catchment collect higher
amount of water.
© Sam obare 28-Mar-22
27

METHODS OF WATER HARVESTING. 2. Rock catchments- involves

1. Roof catchments- involves harvesting water from the large
collection of water from the roof tops rocks.
using gutters and directing it into the  A wall is constructed around the
tank for storage. base of the rock to hold water back.
 Water is then directed into the
reservoir.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

28

3. Weirs- this is a barrier 5. Ponds- They can be natural or

constructed across a river to artificial excavations for
raise the water level for ease holding water in the farm.
lifting of water. 6. Retention ditches-/level
 The weir allows the river water to terraces- this is where the
flow over it. ditches/ channel/ terrace is
4. Dam- This is a barrier blocked on either end to retain
constructed across a any water.
river/valley to hold water back. 7. Use of wells- they are holes
 It does not allow the water to artificially sunk into the ground
flow over it. below the water table to enable
water to seep in for use.
 It has a spillway/overflow that
allows excess water to flow away. 8. Use of micro-catchment-
to store water in the soil.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

29

MICROCATCHMENTS. Types of micro-catchments.

 This is a method of harvesting rain water 1. Catchment basin/ negarims-
on the surface and letting it seep into the are V shaped ridges used to
soil. collect water
Procedure of constructing a micro 2. Contour ridges- are small
catchment. earthed ridges constructed along
 Drawing the design. contours and are spaced 1.5m to
5m apart and are used to
 Marking the area. conserve water.
 Clearing vegetation. 3. Contour bunds- are earthen
 Assembling the required materials. bunds constructed along the
 Constructing the micro catchment. contours and are spaced 5m-10m
apart.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

30

4. Trapezoidal bunds- are earth 7. Rock dams- constructed across

bunds which are trapezoidal in valleys to slow down surface flow.
shape. They capture surface flow 8. Water spreading bunds- they
and allow excess water to are used to divert water from
overflow around wing tips. water course onto crops/ pasture.
5. Semi circular bunds- are semi- 9. Planting pits- are extra large
circular shaped earth bunds with planting holes where water from
tips constructed along the the surrounding collect around the
contour. plant base
6. Contour stone bunds- formed
by heaping small stones along the
contours to slow surface flow and
filter eroded soil.

© Sam obare 28-Mar-22

 6. WEEDS AND WEED CONTROL.
1

Definition of terms Harmful effects of weeds.

1. A weed-any plant growing where it 1. They compete with crops for
is not wanted and whose economic nutrients, light, space, water/
disadvantages outweigh its economic moisture hence lower yield.
advantages. For example maize 2. Some weeds e.g. witch weed
growing voluntarily in a field of (Striga sp) are parasitic to crops
beans is called a weed. e.g. maize (i.e. derive nutrients
2. Self-setters-crops/weeds that directly from roots of maize crop).
volunteer to grow without having 3. Some weeds are poisonous to man
been planted. and livestock e.g. thorn apple
3. Noxious weeds-weeds which are (Datura stramonium) sodom apple
dangerous and their cultivation is (Solanum incanum).
prohibited by law.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
2

4. Some weeds act as alternative hosts for 6. Some weeds are allelopathic i.e.
insect pests and diseases e.g. Mallow and produce poisonous substances that
Subukia weed are alternate hosts for suppress the growth of some crops
cotton strainers, Wild oats act as alternate or germination of some seeds
host for rusts. when they come into contact.
5. Some weed seeds mix with farm/ 7. Some weeds block irrigation
agricultural produce hence reducing the channels making it difficult for
quality. Examples: water to flow freely in the irrigated
a) Mexican marigold (Tagetes minuta) taint land.
milk/give undesirable flavor to milk when
fed on.
b) Devil’s horse whip, Forget-me-not ,
black jack, get attached to sheep wool
lowering its quality.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
3

8. Aquatic weeds e.g. water hyacinth 10. Some weeds are difficult to
(in Lake Victoria) , Salvinia (in Lake handle and control because they
Naivasha) affect fishing because they irritate the workers hence
block navigation and deprive fish and reducing their efficiency e.g.
other water animals of oxygen Double thorn (Oxygonum
dissolved in water. stinuatum), Stinging nettle
9. Some weeds lower the quality of (Urtica massaica) , devil’s
horse whip Achyranthes
pastures reducing the carrying aspera).
capacity. For example;
11. Weeds increase the cost of
a) Tick berry (Lantana camara) crop production through
suppress pasture growth. their control.
b) Nut grass (Cyperus
rotundus) lower the palatability
of pasture.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
4

BENEFITS OF WEEDS TO FARMERS. 4. Leguminous weeds fix

1. Some are edible/ used as food by man atmospheric nitrogen thus
and livestock e.g. Pig weed (Amaranthus improves soil fertility.
sp), wandering jew (Commelina 5. They add organic matter into the
benghalensis) and grass weeds. soil after decomposition which
2. Some weeds have medicinal value/ are help to improve soil fertility.
a source of herbal medicine to both 6. Some weeds can be used as mulch.
human beings and livestock e.g. 7. Some are used to make hedges/
sodom apple ( Solanum incamun). live fences e.g. Tick berry.
3. Weeds act as soil cover, thus reducing
soil erosion/ preventing capping due
to the impact of the raindrops.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

5

FACTORS THAT MAKE WEEDS BETTER 4. Some weeds have the ability to
COMPETITORS THAN CROPS/ propagate vegetatively into new
FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO plants e.g. couch grass and
COMPETITIVE ABILITY OF WEEDS. wandering jew.
A. Weeds have successful means of 5. Some weeds have underground
propagation for example: storage structures e.g. Oxalis has
bulbs e.tc.
1. Some produce large quantities of seeds
e.g. pig weed and black jack.
2. Some weed seeds remain viable in the
soil for a long time waiting for favorable
conditions to germinate.
3. Some weeds are easily and successfully
dispersed to enhance their survival e.g.
black jack. © Sam obare 10 March 2022
6

B. Weeds are well adapted c. Other factors

to the environment for 9. Some weeds irritate animals as
example: a protective measure against
6. Some weeds have elaborate or grazing, trampling/ some are
extensive root system to tolerant to pests and animals.
enhance survival in drought 10. Some are heavy feeders and
conditions. make food faster than the crop.
7. Some weeds have a short 11. Some weeds have allelopathic
lifecycle which is completed effects which suppress growth
early before adverse climatic of other plants enhancing their
conditions set in. survival
8. Some weeds have the ability to
survive even when there is
limited nutrient supply.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 Classification of weeds.
7

 Three criteria used in classifying weeds (b) Plant morphology (the shape
include: of the leaves).
(a) Growth cycle. i. Narrow leaved weeds, e.g. most
i. Annual weeds - complete their grass weeds.
life cycle within one year/ season ii. Broad leaved weeds e.g. Black jack,
e.g. Mexican Marigold, Black Jack, Oxalis, Lantana, Pig weed, Devil
pig weed. horse whip.
ii. Perennial weeds - complete their (c) Number of cotyledons.
life cycle within a period of more i. Monocotyledonous weeds.
than 2 years e.g. Sedges, Lantana,
Kikuyu grass, Wandering jew, Couch ii. Dicotyledonous weeds.
grass, Sodom apple.
iii. Biennial weeds- complete their
cycle in two years.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 COMMON WEEDS
8

 It has underground bulbs (that

remain dormant and re-grow
later).
 Chemical method/ translocated
chemical is the suitable method
of control because it has
underground bulbs.
 It has a short lifecycle.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 2. Black jack (Bidens pilosa)- ‘Ekemogamogia’
9

 It has good dispersal mechanism

(hooks that attach to animal’s body)
 Produces a lot of viable seeds.
 It irritates the farmer.
 It has a short lifecycle.
 Seeds contaminate crops/lower the
quality.
 Compete for nutrients, water and
space.
 It may act as alternate host for
some pests and diseases.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

3. Mexican marigold (Tagetes minuta) ‘Omotiokia’
10

 Produces large quantities of

seeds.
 It has a short lifecycle.
 It lowers the quality of product
(It taints milk when fed to
lactating cows).

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 4. Double thorn (Oxygonum sinuatum)
11

 The thorns lower the

palatability of pasture.
 Thorns also injure livestock
and irritate farmers reducing
their efficiency.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 5. Thorn apple (Datura stramonium)
12

 It is poisonous to livestock and

human beings.
 Can grow in areas with low
nutrient level.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 6. Couch grass (Digitaria scalarum)- ‘Ekenyambi”
13

 It is difficult to control because it has

well-developed underground rhizomes.
Cultural methods of control.
i. Mulching.
ii. Cover cropping.
iii. Crop rotation.
iv. Timely planting.
v. Proper spacing.
vi. Flooding.
vii. Clean seedbed preparation.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 7. Nut grass (Cyperus rotundas)- ‘Endwani’
14

 It is difficult to control because

it has underground
tubers/bulbs/nuts.
 It lowers the quality of pastures.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

8. Wandering Jew (Commelina benghalensis) – ‘Rikongiro’
15

 It is difficult to control
because it propagates
vegetatively.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 9. Sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus)
16

 It exude milky latex when cut.

 It is difficult to control because
it produces hairy white pappus
seeds dispersible by wind.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 10. Devil’s horsewhip (Achranthes aspera).
17

 It has thorny stem which irritates

the workers reducing efficiency.
 It attaches to the wool lowering
the quality.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

11. Macdonald eye/Gallant solder (Galinsoga parviflora)-
‘Omenta’
18

 It is difficult to control because

it has excellent means of
propagation or produces many
seeds.
 It also has a short life cycle.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 12. Sodom apple (Solanum incanum)- ‘Omoratora’
19

 It is poisonous to man and

livestock.
 It is difficult to control because
it has thorns and has the ability
to regenerate from roots.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 13. Black night shade (Solanum nigram)- ‘Rinagu’
20

 It has a short life cycle.

 It produces numerous seeds.
 It is used as a vegetable.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 14. Chinese lantern (Nicandra physalodes)
21

 It has a short life cycle.

 Leaves has toothed margins.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 15. Bracken fern (Pteridium acquilinum)- ‘Eengwe’

22

 It is poisonous to cattle.
 It is difficult to control because
it has underground rhizomes.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

16. Cleavers /Goose grass (Gallium spurium)
23

 It cleaves to cereal crops and

makes harvesting difficult.
 It irritates the workers (thus
reducing their efficiency).

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 17. Stinging nettle (Utica massaica)- ‘Risa’

24

 It causes irritation to workers

hence reducing their efficiency.
 It has medicinal value.
 It propagates vegetatively.
 It can be used as vegetable.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 18. Fat hen/Goosefoot (Chenopodium murale)
25

 It has a short life cycle and

produces numerous seeds.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 19. Wild oats (Avena fatua)
26

 It is common where cereals e.g.

wheat are grown.
 It is difficult to control because
it produces tillers at the base.
 It acts as alternate host for pests
and diseases.
 Lowers the quality of produce.
 It competes with crops for
nutrients thus lowering the yield

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 20. Lantana/Tick berry (Lantana camara) – ‘Riuga
rikwara’
27

 It forms impermeable thickets.

 The leaves have rough upper
surfaces.
 It produces green fruits which
ripen into black clusters.
 Berries are poisonous to
livestock.
 It suppresses pastures lowering
carrying capacity.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 21. Pig weed (Amaranthus hybridus)- ‘Emboga’
28

 It is difficult to control
because it has a short lifecycle
and can survive even under
short rains.
 It is used as vegetable and
fodder crop.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 22. Witch weed (Striga hermonthica).
29

 It is poisonous to cereals i.e.

attaches itself to the roots of cereals
(maize, sorghum and millet) and obtains
nutrients from them.
Control.
i. Crop rotation.
ii. Uprooting and destroying.
iii. Application of organic manure.
iv. Use of resistant/tolerant varieties.
v. Intercropping/inter planting cereals
with legumes.
vi. Use of selective herbicides.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 23. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
30

 It is a floating aquatic weed.

 It affects fishing.
 It is difficult to control because it
has thick fleshy rhizome (hence
propagates vegetatively).

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 24. Love grass/bristly foxtail (Setaria verticillata)
31

 It attaches to animal wool

reducing the quality.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 WEED CONTROL.
32

Advantages of timely weed 5. To reduce multiplication of

control. weed seeds.
1. To prevent injury to the 6. To reduce the cost of
farmer/livestock. production through their
2. To avoid contamination of produce control.
with weed seeds/tainting of milk. 7. To prevent establishment of
3. To reduce competition for light, weeds in the field.
water, space and nutrients.
4. To minimize the spread of pests
and diseases.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

33

Factors that determine the METHODS OF WEED CONTROL

choice of weed control method. A. PHYSICAL/MECHANICAL
1. Cost of the method. METHODS OF WEED CONTROL.
2. Applicability of the method.  The methods include:

3. Type of weed controlled. 1. Tillage/ploughing/cultivation-

4. The crop in which the weed is to done by use of hand tools/tractor-
be controlled. drawn implements.
5. Environmental factors.  It controls weeds by exposing the roots
to air hence lose water them and burying
6. Availability and suitability of the them thus killing them.
tool.
 Cultivation should be done during the
7. Effectiveness of the method. dry season to ensure better drying of
weeds.
 Weeds should also be destroyed before
they produce the seeds so as to break
their lifecycle.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
34

Advantages of tillage/ cultivation Disadvantages of tillage method.

method. 1. Excessive tillage destroys soil
1. It is cheap hence good option for small structure.
scale farmers. 2. Tillage creates a suitable tilth for
2. It improves soil aeration. weed germination growth.
3. It opens up the soil allowing water 3. It is expensive and laborious if
infiltration into the soil thus land is large.
minimizing soil erosion. 4. It is not effective in controlling
4. During tillage, crop residues are perennial weeds.
incorporated into the soil to form 5. Excessive tillage may lead to water
organic manure. loss, soil erosion and damage to
5. It controls soil-borne pests and diseases crop roots.
by exposing them to scorching sun or
predators.
6. During tillage earthing up can be done
which allows root growth, tuber
development, and easy harvesting of
crops. © Sam obare 10 March 2022
35

2. Slashing/Mowing- cutting 3. Uprooting- used to control

of shoots using slashers/panga. annual weeds. It is done where
 It is suitable in controlling weeds are scattered or spacing
annual weeds, especially if it is is too close.
done repeatedly. Advantages.
Advantages. i. It is cheap.
i. Maintains soil structure/ ii. It maintains soil
controls soil erosion. structure/controls soil
ii. It is cheap. erosion.
Disadvantages. Disadvantages.
i. It is not effective to control i. It is not effective in
perennial weeds. controlling perennial weeds.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

36

B. CULTURAL METHODS OF 4. Timely planting- this allows

WEED CONTROL. the crop to establish fast so as to
1. Mulching- smothers weeds thus effectively hence smothering
preventing their growth through weeds.
depriving them of sunlight. 5. Use of clean seed/ planting
2. Cover cropping- forms a foliage materials- this is done to avoid
cover that smother weeds. the introduction of new weeds
into the field.
3. Crop rotation- crops with
associated weeds e.g. maize and 6. Proper spacing- this creates
witch weed are rotated/ alternated little space for weed growth.
with crops that do not have. This is  It also helps to from the canopy
done to prevent germination of which suppresses weed growth.
striga sp.
 Cover crops included in crop
rotation program help to smother
weeds.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

37

7. Clean seed bed/proper seedbed Advantages of cultural methods

preparation- it starts off the crops of weed control.
on a clean seed bed so that they i. Does not cause environmental
effectively compete with weeds. pollution.
 It is done through harrowing or ii. It is cheap.
spraying herbicide in a recently
ploughed seed bed before planting. iii. It helps to control soil erosion.
8. Flooding-this is done in rice fields iv. It helps to improve soil structure.
to discourage the growth of non- v. It helps to improve soil fertility.
aquatic weeds.
9. Proper placement of fertilizer-
it aims at providing nutrients only to
the crops at planting holes so that the
crops establish faster and compete
effectively for the weeds.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

38

C. LEGISLATIVE METHOD/ Reasons for quarantine.

QUARANTINE. i. To test the purity of seeds to
 This method involves prevent the entry of
governmental laws and acts noxious/foreign weeds into
which ensure that any imported the country.
crop materials do not have weed ii. To test the purity to prevent
seeds. the entry/spread of
 This helps to prevent pests/diseases into the
introduction of weeds into a country.
country or spreading from one iii. For quality control.
part to another.
Limitation of quarantine.
 Only sample specimens are
checked while the bulk materials
may have some weed seeds.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
39

D. BIOLOGICAL WEED Advantages of biological

CONTROL . method of weed control.
 This is the use of living organisms to i. It is cheap after establishment.
control weeds. It is usually done in ii. It does not cause
combination with other methods. pollution/there is no
 Examples include: environmental
i. Using cover crops to smother degradation/has no chemical
weeds. residues.
ii. Use of livestock e.g. goats to graze iii. It saves on labor.
on weeds in plantation crops e.g. Disadvantages.
coconuts. i. Does not eliminate weeds
iii. Use of beetles/ weed eating fish to completely.
control water hyacinth in lake ii. It requires a lot of research to
victoria. be effective.
iv. Use of moths to control cactus.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
40

E. CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL. Ways through which

 It involves the use of chemicals called
herbicides kill weeds/action
herbicides. of herbicides to kill weeds.
Field conditions that require the 1. They inhibit nitrogen
use of chemicals to control metabolism- by interfering
weeds. with DNA and RNA and
enzyme functions e.g.
1. Water logged conditions. Glycophosate and Triazines.
2. Closely spaced crops. 2. They kill the cell- by
3. Irritating/thorny weeds. penetrating through the cell
4. Unavailability of labour. wall and killing the entire cell
e.g. Diquat, Dinoseb and oils.
5. Steep/sloppy land.
6. Large scale farms.
7. Weeds with underground storage
organs.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
41

3. They cause abnormal tissue CLASSIFICATION OF

development- like twisting HERBICIDES.
and gall formation e.g. 2,4 –D,
M.C.P.A. Criteria used to classify
herbicides.
4. They inhibit
photosynthesis- by A. Formulation- this is the
interfering with chlorophyll form in which the herbicides
formation e.g. Atrazines, are available.
Simazines, Duron, Linuron,  They include:
Uracils. 1. Liquids – they are soluble in
5. They inhibit respiration- by water or oil e.g. paraquat,
blocking movement of Dalapon.
respiratory substrates/ materials
from the site of manufacture to
other areas. This causes acute
poisoning e.g. Dinozebs.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
42

2. Wettable powder- these are 3. Granules- applied directly into

finely ground particles. the soil e.g. Duron.
 They are mixed with water to form B. Mode of action-
suspension before application.  They include:
 A spreader is applied in the i. Contact herbicides- they kill
suspension to prevent flocculation only the parts of the weed/ plant
(the particles from sticking they come into contact.
together) .
ii. Systemic/translocated
 A spreader is a substance which herbicides- they kill the whole
causes the particles to disperse and plant/ weed even if it has come
not stick together forming clusters. into contact with a small part of
 It also helps the herbicide to spread it.
on the surface where it is applied.  They are absorbed into the plant
e.g. Atrazines, Simazines and Duron. and are translocated to all parts of
the plant.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
43

 Systemic herbicides are suitable to D. Selectivity- this is the ability

control weeds with underground storage of herbicides to kill weeds
structures e.g. oxalis, couch grass etc. selectively.
C. Stage/time of application. i. Selective herbicides- it
i. Pre- sowing- applied before planting kills some weeds and spares
of the crop. others.
ii. Pre- emergence- applied after ii. Non- selective
planting but before germination e.g. herbicides- kills all weeds.
Simazines, Atrazines.
iii. Post-emergence- applied after
germination/transplanting of the crop
e.g. Paraquat, 2, 4-D, M.C.P.A.,
Glycophosate.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
44

Factors that influence/ affect the 3. Stage of plant growth-Young

selectivity and effectiveness of plants are more susceptible to
herbicides. herbicides because of their high
1. Herbicide characteristics- growth activity.
herbicides which interfere with 4. Method of application- High
photosynthesis are non selective. selectivity is obtained by placing
2. Metabolic factors./ the herbicide where the weed is
physiological factors- some and away from the crop
plants e.g. beans have poor rate of 5. The concentration of the
absorption and translocation of herbicide- under high
herbicides hence less affected. concentration the herbicide is
 Some crops e.g. maize are able to likely to kill all kinds of plants.
detoxify/ neutralize herbicides 6. Formulation- oil formulations
through action of enzymes. are more toxic to plants.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

45

7. Morphology of the plant- it c) Nature of leaf surface- plants with

includes: thick and waxy cuticles are less likely
a) Leaf angle- plants/ weeds with to retain herbicides hence less
more inclined leaf angle e.g. grass susceptible.
weeds retain less herbicide hence d) Differential heights of plants- if
less susceptible than those with weeds are shorter than crop or the
horizontal angles e.g. dicot. crop shorter than weeds then
b) Location of growing selectivity can be obtained e.g.
points/buds- the growing spraying weeds under coffee bushes.
points in dicot weeds are exposed
than in grass weeds hence more
susceptible to herbicides.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

46

d) Difference in root system- 8. Environmental factors- they

weeds with shallow roots are include:
susceptible to herbicides while a) Rainfall- if it rains immediately
deep-rooted weeds require after application, the rain water
herbicides with long residual may dilute the herbicide to non-
effect. toxic levels or wash away the
e) Specialized structures- chemicals. This reduces
weeds with underground effectiveness.
structures (rhizomes, bulbs) b) Wind- may blow the herbicide to
e.g. oxalis are not easily killed unintended crop while decreasing
by herbicides. chemical concentration on
intended crop.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

47

c) Light- increase in light intensity Advantages of using herbicides

increases the rate of respiration 1. Herbicide application requires
and photosynthesis hence less labour than mechanical
increasing the rate of absorption cultivation.
and translocation of herbicides.
2. Herbicides are better adapted to
 This causes faster killing. Some the control of certain
herbicides may be decomposed by bothersome weeds e.g. couch
high light intensity hence become grass.
less effective.
3. Use of herbicides does not
d) Temperature- temperature disturb crop roots and other
increases translocation and underground structures.
absorption of more herbicides and
therefore death of the plant. 4. They make the control of weeds
in certain crops e.g. wheat,
e) Soil- some soil absorb and retain barley and carrots easier.
more herbicides than others hence
making it less effective.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
48

5. Herbicide application is efficient in Disadvantages of using herbicides.

both wet and dry soil conditions. 1. It requires skilled labor in mixing and
6. Herbicide application does not application
disturb soil hence soil structure is 2. There are risks to the environment and
maintained (hence facilitating the user.
minimum tillage.
3. Some herbicides have long residual
7. The herbicides are more convenient effect which may interfere with future
to use in certain crops e.g. sisal and crops.
sugarcane and also in weeds that
cause injury/ irritation to the Methods of herbicide application.
farmer. 1. Spraying- application of liquid/wettable
8. It is cheaper in the long run than the powder herbicides to kill weeds.
use f manual/ mechanical 2. Soil fumigation/sterilization- it is the
cultivation. application of the soil fumigants to kill
weeds/mixing of fumigants/sterilants
to the soil.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

49

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN 5. The user must bath thoroughly

HANDLING/ USING HERBICIDES. after handling chemicals and not
A. To avoid harm to self/user. to eat before bathing.
1. Read the manufacturer’s instructions B. To avoid danger to other
and follow them. people and environment.
2. The user should wear protective 6. The user should avoid herbicide
clothing e.g. overall, breathing mask, drift to unintended crops by
gloves and boots. avoiding spraying on windy days.
3. Avoid inhaling the herbicide (by not 7. Avoid drift of chemicals to
spraying against wind, not smoking animal feeds and water.
while spraying and wearing a
breathing mask).
4. The user must not blow or suck
blocked nozzles.
© Sam obare 10 March 2022
50

8. The user should avoid spilling 11. Spraying equipment must not
herbicides in places which are be washed in water sources
unintended and where they which are used by animals and
may cause danger to animals humans.
e.g. pastures and fodder crops. 12. All chemicals must be stored
9. Any left-overs and empty in safe places out of reach of
containers must be disposed off children and away from food.
properly by burying them.
10. Avoid throwing the empty
containers in gardens, bushes
or in pastures.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

51

Herbicide combination used 4. In coffee/tea- Dalapon,

in Kenya. Duron and Linuron, Paraquat
1. In maize and beans- (for annual weeds)
Alachlor and Atrazine, 5. In cotton, groundnuts/
Metachlor and Atrazine. beans- Oxidazon, Oxflurfen,
2. In sugarcane- Paraquat and Oxachazon and Promactyne,
Duron, M.C.P.P. and Loxyril, pendimethalin
Atrazine and Cynazine.
3. In vegetables- Duron,
Linuron, nitrogen and
Prometrynal metrolochlor.

© Sam obare 10 March 2022

 7. CROP PESTS AND DISEASES.
1
 A pest is any living organism that CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PESTS.
destroys crops directly by causing Factors to consider/criteria of
physical damage or indirectly by classification
introducing pathogens into the plant. 1. Mode of feeding /type of mouth
 Examples of pests include: parts.
 Insects, i. Biting and chewing pests/pests
 Rodents, with biting and chewing mouth
 Nematodes, parts e.g. locusts, grasshoppers,
 Mites, crickets, army worms, cutworms,
stalk borers, bollworms, termites.
 Large animals (elephants, buffalos, ii. Piercing and sucking pests/pests
monkeys and domestic animals). with piercing and sucking mouth
parts e.g. butterflies, scales, some
flies, aphids, mealy bugs and
thrips.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 2
2. Part of crop attacked e.g. Grain or cereal 5. Crops attacked- pests are crop specific e.g.
pests e.g. weevils, Root feeders e.g. coffee pests.
nematodes, Stem feeders e.g. stalk borer, 6. Stage of development of the pest- Some
Leaf feeders e.g. locusts, aphids pests are harmful at larval stage e.g. larval
3. Scientific classification e.g. Insects (like stages of butterflies, moths while others at
Weevils, Adult moth, larval stage of moth adult stage e.g. locusts.
e. cutworm, bollworm, stalk borer, 7. The place where they are found- e.g.
Aphids, Grain borer, Flour beetles and a) Field pests e.g. weevils, mites, nematodes,
bean bruchid), Mites, Nematodes, stalk borers, cutworms, termites,
Rodents (like Rats, Mice, Mongoose, grasshoppers, locusts, birds, rodents, large
squirrel, porcupine and Birds (Sudan animals.
dioch, weever bird, Mouse bird, domestic
fowl). b) Storage pests e.g. rodents and insects e.g.
maize weevils, bean weevils (bruchid)
4. Stage of crop growth attacked- some grain borers, flour beetles, fungi
pests attack crop the crop when it is
young e.g. cutworms while others at 8. The level of damage- pests cause less
flowering stage or when the crop is damage (minor pests) while others cause
mature e.g. American bollworm. great damage (major pests).

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 Harmful effects of pests.
3
1. Some pest e.g. squirrels and mice 7. Some pests destroy the embryo of
unearth planted seeds leading to low seeds, thus lowering their
plant population. germination potential.
2. Some pests e.g. nematodes, termites 8. Some pests transmit crop diseases e.g.
and moles damage crop roots Aphids transmit viral diseases.
causing wilting and death to the 9. Some pests cause wounds which act
plants. as a route secondary infections
3. They destroy crop leaves lowering the 10. Some pests e.g. stalk borer eat the
photosynthetic area resulting into growing points causing retarded
low yield. growth.
4. Sucking pests deprive the plant its 11. They lower the quality and quantity
food by sucking sap leading to of the leaf through defoliation.
retarded growth. 12. Pests reduce the marketability of crop
5. Some pests attack fruits, berries, produce by lowering quality e.g.
flowers thus lowering their quality weevils bore into maize lowering the
and quantity. economic value.
6. Some pests cause irritation to 13. Their control increases the cost of
farmers thus lowering labour production.
productivity.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 Common pests.
1. Army worm.
4
 They are the larval stage of moths
 They have biting and chewing mouth
parts.
Harmful effects.
i. They feed on crop leaves reducing
the photosynthetic area of plant
hence low yield/defoliation.
ii. Damage roots and tubers leading to
wilting.
iii. Damage flower and fruits making
them fall and lower the quality.
iv. Cause wounds that act as route for
secondary infection.
v. Inject toxic fluid into the attacked
tissues which causes abnormal
growth.
Control.
i. Dusting using pesticides e.g.
Malathion, Diazinon.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 2. Cutworm.
5
 They are the larval stage of moths.
 They have biting and chewing mouth parts.
Harmful effects.
i. Cut the seedling at the base causing it to fall.
ii. Damage roots and tubers leading to wilting.
iii. Damage flower and fruits making them fall and
lower the quality.
iv. Cause wounds that act as route for secondary
infection.
v. Inject toxic fluid into the attacked tissues.
Control
i. Dusting using pesticides e.g. Malathion, Diazinon.
ii. Early planting for crop to establish early and
outgrow, the pest.
iii. Field hygiene to prevent transmission from previous
crop residues.
iv. Physical picking and killing/destruction.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 3. Locust.
6
 Destructive stages are both nymphs
and adults.
 They have biting and chewing
mouth parts.
Harmful effects.
i. They feed on crop leaves
reducing the photosynthetic area
of plant hence low
yield/defoliation.
Control.
i. Trapping and killing.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 4. Moth.
7
 Their larvae have biting and chewing mouth
parts e.g. bollworms, cutworms, army worm.
Harmful effects of larval stage of moths.
1. They feed on crop leaves reducing the
photosynthetic area of plant hence low
yield/defoliation.
2. Cut the seedling at the base causing it to fall.
3. Damage roots and tubers leading to wilting.
4. Damage flower and fruits making them fall
and lower the quality.
5. Cause wounds that act as route for secondary
infection.
6. Inject toxic fluid into the attacked tissues.
Controlled through:
1. Crop rotation.
2. Use of appropriate pesticides.
3. Control of alternate hosts.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 5. Fruit fly
8
 Its larval stage destroys fruits of
crops such as coffee, mangoes
and citrus.
Harmful effects.
i. the larval stage makes tunnels
on fruits causing rotting.
ii. Attacked unripe fruits turn
yellow and drop prematurely.
Control measures.
i. Use of appropriate chemicals.
ii. Trapping and killing.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 6. Mealy bugs.
9
 They attack pineapples, coffee and
cassava.
 Have sucking mouth parts.
Harmful effects
i. They suck sap causing retarded
growth.
ii. They transmit pathogens/viruses.
Control measures/ methods
i. Use of appropriate chemicals.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 7. Thrip.
10
• Have piercing and sucking mouth
parts.
Harmful effects
i. They suck sap causing retarded
growth.
Control method/ measure
i. Use of appropriate chemicals.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 8. Beetle.
11
 They make holes on unopened
leaves.
 They sometimes destroy them
whole seedling.
Control
i. Proper storage.
ii. Use of appropriate chemicals.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 9. Weevil.
12
 They attack crops in the field and
in stores.
Harmful effects.
i. They make holes on grains thus
lowering quality.
Control.
i. Dusting using appropriate
chemicals e.g. malathion.
ii. Proper storage hygiene.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 10. Birds.
13
• They include, weaver bird, sudan Sudan dioch
dioch, mouse bird.
Harmful effects.
i. They eat grains.
ii. They cause grains to fall off.
iii. They expose grains to rain
making them to rot.
iv. Some birds eat fruits.
Control
i. Use of scare crows.
ii. Avoid isolated production fields.
Mouse bird

Weaver birds

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 11. Rodents.
14
 They include squirrels, moles and rats.
Harmful effects.
i. Squirrels unearth and eat sown seeds.
ii. Moles eat and destroy crop roots and
tubers.
iii. Squirrels climb maize stalks to eat grains.
iv. Rats eat and contaminate grains with
their excreta.
v. They make holes in sacks and storage
baskets.
Control
i. Use of rat proof stores.
ii. Trapping and killing.
Squirrel, rat and mole respectively.
iii. Clearing bush around the stores.
iv. Use of chemical/rodenticides.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 12. Bollworms.
15
• Are larval stages of a moth.
Harmful effects.
i. They feed on crop leaves reducing the photosynthetic
area of plant hence low yield/defoliation.
ii. Cut the seedling at the base causing it to fall.
iii. Damage roots and tubers leading to wilting.
iv. Damage flower and fruits making them fall and lower
the quality.
v. Cause wounds that act as route for secondary
infection.
vi. Inject toxic fluid into the attacked tissues.
Control
i. Early planting.
ii. Field hygiene/ destruction and destruction of
affected crop residues.
iii. Plant mexican marigold in the field.
iv. Destruction of alternate host.
v. Crop rotation
vi. Intercropping.
vii. Close season
viii. Use of appropriate chemicals
© Sam obare 10-Mar-22
 13. Stainer.
16
 They are brightly colored
insects.
Harmful effects.
i. Transmit diseases.
Control
i. Use of appropriate
chemicals.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 14. Nematodes/ eelworms.
17
 They are legless with elongated Symptoms of nematode attack.
unsegmented body. i. Retarded/ stunted growth of plants/
Harmful effects. crops.
i. They inject toxic substances into the ii. Discoloration of leaves.
plant which stimulate abnormal cell iii. Wilting of crops even when moisture is
growth. Infested roots form swellings adequate.
(galls). iv. Root swells/ formation of root galls.
ii. They feed on plant roots causing root Control of nematodes/ eelworms
stunting limiting water and mineral i. Crop rotation.
uptake. This causes stunted growth.
ii. Use of nematicides.
iii. They cause wounds on roots that act as iii. Fumigation of soil.
routes for secondary infections
iv. Soil solarization.
v. Closed season.
vi. Planting resistant varieties.
vii. Field hygiene.
viii. Plant Mexican marigold in the field

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 15. Stalkborer.
18
 It is larval stage of a moth. It attacks
sorghum, sugarcane, rice and maize.
Harmful effects.
i. It makes holes on leaves, causing
windowing effect which will finally die.
ii. It makes holes on cobs and stems
which finally lead to falling.
Control.
i. Early planting.
ii. Rogueing/uprooting and destroying
infected plants.
iii. Use of pesticides e.g. malathion,
diazinon, endosulfan.
iv. Close season.
v. Early planting.
vi. Crop rotation.
© Sam obare 10-Mar-22
 16. Leaf miners.
19
 These are the larval stage of white moths.
Harmful effects.
i. They feed on crop leaves reducing the
photosynthetic area of plant hence low
yield/defoliation.
ii. Cut the seedling at the base causing it to
fall.
iii. Damage roots and tubers leading to
wilting.
iv. Damage flower and fruits making them
fall and lower the quality.
v. Cause wounds that act as route for
secondary infection.
vi. Inject toxic fluid into the attacked tissues.
Control
i. Dusting using pesticides e.g. Malathion,
Diazinon.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 17. Aphids.
20
 They are small insects that cluster
around stems, young shoots and on the
underside of leaves.
Harmful effects.
i. They suck plant sap, hence retarding
plant growth
ii. They transmit viruses e.g. groundnut
rosette virus and mosaic virus.
Control.
i. Early planting.
ii. Use of appropriate chemicals e.g.
diazinon.
iii. Overhead/ sprinkler irrigation.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 18. Looper.
21
 They are green larval stages of some
insects.
Harmful effect.
i. Feed on leaves reducing
photosynthetic area.
Control
i. Use of appropriate chemicals.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 19. Scales.
22
Harmful effects.
i. They suck sap from leaves and
stems leading to stunted growth,
die back, leaf fall.
Control
i. Use of appropriate chemicals.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 20. Sorghum shoot fly
23
 It attacks sorghum.
 It lays eggs on the underside of
young plants.
 After hatching the young
larvae enters the funnel and
moves down to feed on the
young stem killing the young
shoot.
Control
1. Early planting.
2. Closed season.
3. Application of appropriate
chemicals/ pesticides.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 METHODS OF PEST CONTROL.
24
Factors to consider when choosing a A. CULTURAL METHODS OF
method of pest control. PEST CONTROL.
i. Cost- the method should be cheap.  They are farming practices used to
ii. Effectiveness and efficiency. alter/change the environment making
iii. Hazard to the user and environment. it unfavorable for the survival of pests.
Terms used in pest control.  The cultural methods of pest control
include:
i. Integrated pest management-
combination of both chemical and 1. Timely planting- early planted crops
cultural pest control methods. escape pest attack than late planted
crops e.g. maize may escape
ii. Economic injury level (EIL)- this is the stalkborer attack if planted early.
level at which pest population causes
damage beyond tolerance. 2. Timely harvesting- involves early
harvesting of crops to escape attack
by field pests e.g. grain weevils.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 25
3. Trap cropping – a trap crop is one 6. Use of organic manures- organic
which is planted before or together manures e.g. farm yard manure
with the main crop so as to attract discourages some pests e.g. eelworms.
pests away from the main crop. 7. Planting resistant crop varieties –
this provides natural protective
 The pest is then killed by spraying mechanisms against specific pests e.g.
chemicals, rouging or ploughing the planting goose necked sorghum
trap crop. against birds, highly tillering
4. Close season- this is the period when sorghum against shoot fly attack,
a susceptible crop is not grown in some onion and lemon varieties that
order to control a certain pest/ produce chemical substances which
group of pests. are repellant to pests.
8. Alteration of environmental
 During this time, crop residues are conditions- it involves creating micro-
collected and disposed off to ensure climates that are not conducive to
destruction of the pest. some pests e.g. open pruning in
5. Irrigation- overhead irrigation coffee discourages antesia bugs and
controls aphids in cabbages. mulching reduces thrips.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 26
9. Proper crop nutrition- involves 12. Crop rotation- this helps to break the
application of fertilizers and manures to life cycle of pests by starving them to
make crops grow strong and able to death.
resist and escape attack e.g. piercing and 13. Destruction of alternative hosts- this
sucking pests. helps to break the life cycle of some
10. Field hygiene- involves keeping the field pests by starving them to death.
free from any plant material with pests 14. Use of clean planting materials- this
to avoid spread and kill pests. is done to avoid introduction and
 It includes removal of crop residues and spread of pests into the field.
rogueing- removal and destruction of 15. Proper spacing- this is done to
plants/ plant parts which are infested reduce the spread of pests from one
with pests. crop to another in the field.
11. Proper tillage- helps to expose soil  Close spacing in groundnuts
borne pests hence scorched by the discourages aphids.
sun or eaten by predators.

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 27
B. SEED QUARANTINE/ C. MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL
LEGISLATION- this is a METHODS OF PEST
government regulation stating CONTROL.
that any planting materials from 1. Physical destruction of pests-
other countries or areas known done by handpicking or trapping
to have pests must be tested and killing pests e.g. trapping
before they are accepted for rats, moles and birds and
planting. picking and killing giant
Reasons for quarantine. loopers.
i. It prevents introduction and 2. Flooding- involves killing the
spread of foreign pests into the pests by drowning them e.g.
country. moles, cutworms, armyworms.
ii. For quality control.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 28
3. Proper drying of produce- this is 7. Use of physical barriers -this is
done to make them hard for the done prevent pests from getting to
pests to break and penetrate e.g. crops and stored produce e.g. use
weevils and discourage growth of of rat deflectors/ proof / metal
moulds. plates on stores to prevent entry of
4. Use of electromagnetic radiation- vermins into the store,
radiation deactivate enzymes in construction of fences around the
some insect pests, some pests are fields and trenches to control large
attracted by some UV rays which animals.
are then killed by heat or 8. Air suffocation- involves building
chemicals. up of carbon (IV) oxide in produce
5. Use of lethal temperature- stores e.g. cyprus bins to suffocate
involves us of extreme temperatures pests.
(too hot or too cold) to kill pests 9. Use of explosives- the explosives
e.g. hot water treatment to control are thrown at breeding places for
bollworms in cotton. birds to kill them/scare them away.
6. Use of scare crows- involves use of
scarecrows to scare away birds and
large animals from eth farm.

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 29
D. BIOLOGICAL METHOD OF PEST
E. CHEMICAL METHOD OF
CONTROL. PEST CONTROL.
 It involves use of living organisms to  It involves the use of pesticides to
control pests e.g. Cats to control moles, control pests.
rats and mice; Chicken to control Methods of pesticide application.
cotton stainers; praying mantis to i. Dusting/seed dressing.
control giant looper; lady bird to ii. Spraying the crops.
control aphids; wasp to control giant iii. Soil fumigation.
mealy bugs; chamelions to control most Factors to consider before using
insects. chemical pest control method.
Advantages of biological method of pest i. Intended use of the crop.
control. ii. The period within which the crop
will be used.
i. It does not pollute the environment. iii. The cost of the pesticide.
ii. It saves labor. iv. Safety of the pesticide to the user
iii. It is cheap compared to chemical and environment.
method.
© Sam obare 10-Mar-22
 30
CLASSIFICATION OF PESTICIDES. b) Systemic poisons- they are
1. Formulation- the form in which they circulated to all parts of the pest
are available e.g. soluble powders, once it has eaten the sprayed part
wettable powders, fumigants, liquids, of the plant.
granules, emulsions, pastes. c) Contact poisons- they kill the pest
2. Target pest/Type of pest controlled- when they are absorbed in the body
e.g. insecticides kill insect pests, through skin or cuticle.
nematicides kill nematodes, d) Suffocants- they kill the pest by
rodenticides kill rodents and interfering with the breathing
fungicides kill fungi. system of the pest after being
3. Mode of action- classification based inhaled.
on the way they function/ kill pests e) Anti-feeders- they inhibit/ prevent
e.g. feeding in pests thus starving them
a) Stomach poisons- they kill when the to death.
part of the plant sprayed/ dressed is f) Repellants- they keep the pests
eaten by pest. away from the plant.
© Sam obare 10-Mar-22
 31
Factors that affect the effectiveness / Advantages of chemical method of pest
efficiency of the pesticides. control.
1. Concentration of the pesticide- 1. It is faster compared to other
correct concentration will be more methods.
effective in killing target pests. 2. The results are more predictable.
2. The weather conditions at the time Disadvantages of chemical /pesticide
of application- pesticide application method of pest control.
should be timed so that there is no 1. Chemicals/ pesticides are expensive.
likelihood of rain falling soon after
to prevent dilution or washing off 2. Most chemicals are non-selective
the pesticide which reduces the hence kill useful insects e.g.
effectiveness. pollinators and pest predators.
3. Persistence of the pesticide/residual 3. Some pests easily develop resistance
effect of the pesticide- the pesticide to some chemicals.
should remain effective long enough 4. Most chemicals are toxic/poisonous
to achieve all desired effects. to man and livestock.
4. Timing of application- the pesticide 5. Use of chemicals require care and
should be applied at the stage of skill in handling and application.
development when the pest is most
vulnerable.
© Sam obare 10-Mar-22
 CROP DISEASES.
32
 A disease is an alteration in the state of Classification / causes of crop diseases.
an organism or its parts which A. Fungal diseases- they are caused by fungi
interrupts or disturbs its proper e.g. rusts, late blight, coffee berry
performance or functioning. disease, rusts and smuts.
Harmful effects of crop diseases. B. Bacterial diseases- are caused by bacteria
1. They lower crop yields. e.g. bacterial wilt of potatoes and
tomatoes, bacterial blight of beans,
2. They cause production of poor black arm of cotton, black rot of
quality products thus reducing their cabbage and halo blight of beans.
market value.
Symptoms of bacterial diseases
3. They cause food poisoning e.g. i. Wilting even when water is adequate.
Aspergillus fungi produces Aflatoxin
ii. Cankers- localized infections that
in grains.
cause death of plant tissues/ necrosis.
iii. Gall formation in infected tissue.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 33
C. Nutritional imbalance occur when Common symptoms of viral diseases.
plants do not get enough nutrients/ due i. Mosaic symptoms-production of
to lack of essential elements. The light green or yellow patches.
deficiency symptoms are: ii. Rosetteting -development of
a) Yellowing of leaves. abnormally short internodes
b) Drying of leaves. leading to stunted growth.
c) Falling of leaves, flowers and iii. Leaf chlorosis: Yellowing of leaves
because the plant is unable to
fruits.
synthesize chlorophyll.
d) Stunted growth. iv. Leaf curling: Spiral and curved
e) Death in extreme condition. shaped leaves.
D. Viral diseases- are caused by viruses e.g. v. Malformations- distortion of plant
cassava mosaic, brown streak of cassava, parts e.g. small leaves, galls and
potato leaf roll, tobacco mosaic, overgrowth on leaf lamina.
groundnut rosette, greening disease of E. Poor weather conditions/ physiological
citrus fruits. disorders- e.g. blossom end rot disease.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 34
METHODS OF DISEASE CONTROL. 5. Open pruning: removes diseased
A. CULTURAL METHODS. parts, facilitates penetration of
1. Crop rotation: This helps to break sprays/chemicals and creates
the life cycle of pathogens or disease- unfavorable conditions for disease
causing organisms. agents.
2. Rogueing: It involves removal and 6. Proper spacing: helps to control
destruction of infected crops. This outbreak and spread of diseases e.g.
stops the disease from spreading
damping off in cabbage nursery.
further.
3. Close season: This helps to break the 7. Planting disease-free/healthy/
life cycle of the pathogens. certified seeds: This prevents the
4. Early planting or timely planting: It introduction of pathogens into the
helps the crop to establish faster field.
before disease attack. 8. Proper seedbed preparation- to
destroy pathogens e.g. Armillaria
root rot in tea and coffee.
© Sam obare 10-Mar-22
 35
9. Proper drying of produce- to control 14. Destruction of crop residues: This
fungal growth/ diseases. destroys or kills the pathogens.
10. Weed control/destruction of 15. Control of disease vectors: This helps
alternative host : This eliminates stop spread of diseases associated with
disease causing organisms(pathogens) such vectors.
associated with some weeds.
16. Proper plant nutrition: This involves
11. Use of resistant varieties: These
the application of manure and fertilizers
varieties have a natural protective
mechanism against diseases e.g. to avoid nutrient-deficiency diseases.
Ruiri11 against Coffee Berry Diseases. B. Seed quarantine/ legislative method-
12. Heat treatment: This is done to kill This prevents introduction of disease-
any micro- organisms present e.g. infested planting materials into the
ratoon stunting disease in sugarcane. farm.
13. Use of clean farm implements or
equipment: This helps reduce chances
of possible seed contamination by
pathogens.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 36
C. Chemical method- involves Study question
application of appropriate chemicals Describe the procedure which should be
against specific pathogens. followed in spraying a crop of tomatoes
 Chemical control measures include: using a fungicide in powder form, water
a) Seed dressing- application of and a knapsack sprayer.
fungicides before planting seeds. i. Read the label/ the manufacture’s
b) Soil fumigation-application of instruction.
fumigants in the soil to control soil ii. Measure the requirement amount of
borne diseases e.g. bacterial wilt in fungicide.
tomatoes. iii. Measure the required amount of water
c) Spraying- application of fungicides iv. Powder has dissolved completed/ has
using a sprayer to control diseases formed slurry.
e.g. coffee Berry Disease, Blights, v. Pour the mixture into the knapsack
rusts. sprayer though the sieve.
vi. Spray the mixture onto the crop.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 COMMON CROP DISEASES.
1. Maize streak.
37
 It is a viral disease which attacks Control measures.
maize leaves. 1. Timely planting/early planting.
 The leaves develop yellow stripes 2. Crop rotation.
along the veins. 3. Field hygiene.
 The maize show stunted growth 4. Control of vectors using
(dwarfism). appropriate sprays.
 Cobs are often half-filled or 5. Use of resistant varieties
contain fewer seeds.
6. Rogueing.
 It is spread by leafhoppers.
7. Use of certified/disease free
seeds.
8. Close season.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 2. Head smut.
38
 It is a fungal disease. Control measures.
 It attacks maize, wheat/oats, barley 1. Crop rotation/close season.
and sugarcane, millet, pasture, 2. Field hygiene/destroying affected
sorghum. crop residues.
 It causes a mass of dark spores on 3. Use of certified seeds.
the flowering part of the crop. 4. Use of resistant varieties.
5. Hot water treatment.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 3. Blast.
39
 It is a fungal disease for rice. Control measures.
 It forms brown lesions with  Use of resistant varieties.
green centres or dead areas  Optimum use of fertilizers
on the leaves, neck or the such as nitrogenous
panicle. fertilizers.
 It may kill the whole leaf or  Crop rotation.
plant.
 It causes panicle
sterility/empty panicle

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 4. Leaf blight.
40
 It is a fungal disease that attacks Control.
crop leaves. i. Destruction of affected crop
 It is characterized by oval, grey residues.
papery or dry lesions on the leaves. ii. Use of resistant varieties.
iii. Crop rotation.
iv. Use of appropriate chemicals/
fungicides.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 5. Anthracnose.
41
 It is a fungal disease for coffee and Control measures.
beans. 1. Use of resistant
 It forms sunken brown spots with cultivars/varieties.
black edges on berries and pods. 2. Crop rotation.
 It also forms a black mass on the 3. Rogueing.
underside of the leaf veins, causing 4. Field hygiene/Destruction of
leaf distortion. affected crop residues.
5. Use certified seeds.
6. Spraying with appropriate
fungicides.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 6. Rust.
42
 It is a fungal disease for coffee and Control measures.
cereal crops.  Rotating with legumes.
 It forms brown spots/orange  Use of resistant varieties e.g. Ruiru
swellings on the leaves. II.
 It causes premature leaf  Use of fungicides /appropriate
fall/defoliation. chemicals.
 Proper pruning.
 Use of certified seeds.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 7. Leaf spot.
43
 It is a fungal disease that Control measures.
affects tomatoes, beans,  Proper spacing of crops during
cabbages, citrus fruits and planting.
cotton.  Proper pruning.
 It appears as small brown spots  Use of copper
on leaves that enlarge to form fungicides/appropriate
blackish yellow spots. fungicides.
 The margins of the spots are
usually sunken.
 The leaves eventually dry off
and die.
 Fruits are poorly filled, small
in size and tasteless.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 8. Halo blight.
44
 It is a bacterial disease for Control measures.
beans.  Use of clean seeds.
 It is characterized by the  Crop rotation.
formation of irregular dark  Destruction of affected crop
spots on leaves and pods residues.
which are surrounded by a
yellow band called halo.
 Affected leaves dry along the
margins and eventually fall
off.
 The disease is common in
cool humid areas.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 9. Early blight.
45
 It is a fungal disease of Control measures.
potatoes and tomatoes.  Spraying with appropriate
 It is characterized by the fungicides.
formation of stem cankers
on seedlings and brown
regular spots on leaves.
 Leaves dry resulting in
partial defoliation.
 It occasionally attacks fruits,
causing premature fruit fall.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 10. Late blight.
46
 It is a fungal disease of Control measures.
potatoes, tomatoes and  Spraying with appropriate
brinjals. fungicides.
 It causes rapid drying of  Use of certified seeds/seed
leaves and rotting of fruits. treatment.
 The fruits develop water  Practice rotation with
soaked spots which may cereals.
enlarge to cover even half  Practice close season.
the fruit size.
 Crop hygiene /destroying
 The whole plant is often
infected crops.
destroyed in severe attacks.
 Practice rogueing.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 11. Panama disease.
47
 It is a fungal disease for bananas.
 It attacks the roots and is
characterized by wilting of the plant.
 The lower leaves of infected plants
turn yellow and hang downwards.
 The plant eventually dies.
Control measures.
i. Use of resistant varieties.
ii. Uproot and discard infected
plants.
iii. Use of clean /healthy planting
materials.
iv. Using fumigants to fumigate the
soil and kill the spores.
v. Improvement of drainage system.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 12. Cigar end rot.
48
 It is a fungal disease which
attacks banana fruits.
 It is characterized by a dry
rot of banana fingers that
have an ash-like (grey) end
like the end of a burning
cigar.
Control measures.
i. Remove dead remains of
banana tips.
ii. Observe field hygiene.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 13. Powdery mildew.
49
 It's a fungal disease which Control measures.
attacks the leaves of  Seed treatment with
cabbages, kales, beans and systemic fungicides.
peas.  Use of resistant cultivars.
 It is characterized by the
 Deep ploughing to bury the
formation of a white ash-like zoospores.
mass on the surface of
 Crop rotation with non-host
leaves.
plants.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 14. Downy mildew.
50
 It is a fungal disease. Control measures.
 It is characterized by fungal  Spraying with appropriate
growth on the underside of fungicides.
leaves.
 Later, brown to black spots
appear on the leaves.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 15. Leaf mosaic.
51
 It is a viral disease for Control measures.
cassava, pumpkin and  Planting resistant varieties.
tobacco.  Crop rotation.
 It is characterized by curling
 Rogueing.
and yellowing of leaves.
 Hot water treatment of
 The affected crops show
cassava cuttings.
stunted growth and reduced
yields.  Planting disease free/clean
material.
 Controlling vectors/ white
flies by spraying with
chemicals.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 16. Die back.
52
 It is a bacterial disease Control measures.
which attacks coffee.  Spraying with appropriate
 It causes death of young chemicals.
shoots of the infected plant.
 Death starts from the shoot
tips and moves downwards.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 17. Tristeza/quick decline.
53
 It is a viral disease for citrus Control measures.
trees.  Use of resistant varieties.
 It is characterized by leaves  Control of vectors e.g. citrus
becoming bronze coloured, aphids and scales
falling off and dying of  Use of healthy budding
twigs. materials.
 It causes stunted growth and
 Uproot and destroy affected
pre-mature death in severe crops.
attacks.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 18. Fusarium wilt.
54
 It is a fungal disease for Control measures.
tomatoes and potatoes.  Use of resistant varieties.
 Its characterized by  Field hygiene.
browning and wilting of the  Rogueing.
interveinal regions of leaves.
 Crop rotation.
 The fungus also attacks
roots, causing the whole
plant to wilt.
 Affected crops show
stunting growth and
moisture stress.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 19. Bacterial wilt.
55
 It is a bacterial disease for
tomatoes and potatoes.
 The bacteria enters the plant
through wounds on roots or at
the base of the plant.
 The affected crops wilt even
when the soil moisture
content is adequate.
Control measures.
i. Rogueing.
ii. Use of certified seeds.
iii. Crop rotation.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 20. Damping off.
56
 It is a fungal disease which Control measures.
attacks cabbage and tobacco  Reduce rate and amount of
seedlings in the nursery bed. water.
 It is characterized by rotting  Reduce overcrowding by
of stems around the soil thinning.
level, causing the seedlings  Spray with appropriate
to fall over and die. fungicides.
 Reduce/remove shade.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 21. Coffee berry disease (CBD)
57
 It is a bacterial disease which Control measures.
attacks coffee. i. Plant resistant varieties.
 It attacks the leaves, flowers ii. Proper pruning.
and berries. iii. Remove and dispose affected
 Leaves and flowers have dark berries.
brown spots. iv. Spray with appropriate
 Green berries have small dark chemicals.
sunken patches, fall
prematurely and are empty
inside.
 Ripe berries develop dark
sunken patches with small
dark spots.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 22. Rosette disease.
58
 It is a viral disease that is Control measures.
transmitted by aphids.  Spraying with insecticides to
 It attacks the leaves and kill aphids.
shoots of tobacco plants.  Destroying affected crop
 It causes excessive residues at the end of the
production of auxiliary season.
buds, making the plants
look bushy.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 23. Ratoon stunting disease.
59
 It is a viral disease for Control measures.
sugarcane.  Hot water treatment of the
 It causes tillering, resulting sets.
to the development of a  Sterilizing harvesting
dense stool. equipment.
 The attacked plants have  Use of resistant varieties.
short and narrow leaves.
 It causes yellowing of leaves
and low yields in severe
attacks.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 24. Armillaria root-rot.
60
 It is a fungal disease that Control measures.
attacks tea and coffee.  Ring-barking trees one year
 The fungus is found in old before planting.
decaying tree stumps.  Removing all old stumps
 It attacks the roots, causing together with their roots
then to rot. during seedbed preparation.
 Attacked plants die back  Rogueing.
slowly, starting with a few
branches followed by the
whole plant.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 25. Blossom end rot disease
61
 It attacks tomatoes.
 It is characterized by water soaked
lesions at the blossom end of
tomatoes.
Causes
i. Too much nitrogen during
early stages of growth.
ii. Lack of calcium in the soil.
iii. Irregular watering.
Control
i. Controlled application of
nitrogenous fertilizer.
ii. Regular watering.
iii. Application of calcium/
calcium containing fertilizers.

© Sam obare 10-Mar-22

 8. CROP PRODUCTION VI (FIELD
PRACTICES II /FIELD CROPS.
1) Ecological requirements.
A. MAIZE (Zea mays). i. Altitude of 0 to 2 200 m above the sea level.
Definition of terms
ii. Medium temperatures and rainfall.
i. Hybrids: These are seeds bred by
crossing inbred lines/varieties under iii. Fertile and well drained loam soil.
controlled conditions of pollination. iv. Neutral or alkaline pH.
ii. Composites: These are seeds bred 2) Varieties.
by growing a number of varieties i. Kenya flat complex.
together under uncontrolled
conditions of pollination, hence ii. Kitale hybrids e.g. 614, 622, 625, 626, 627, 632.
facilitating inter-pollination. iii. Embu hybrids e.g. 511, 513.
iii. Cultivars: Refers to all those iv. Katumani composites.
varieties of crops that are cultivated.
v. Coast composites e.g. pwani hybrid 1, pwani
hybrid 4.
vi. Double cob e.g. DH01, DH02.
Example of hybrid 614; 6 stands for altitude, 1
stands for number of crosses and 4 stands for
27-Apr-22 © Sam obare
serial number 1
4) Seedbed preparation. 5) Field operations
Prepare land early during the dry period. a) Planting.
Clear the bush Plant suitable varieties/ certified seeds.
Carry out primary cultivation Plant early at onset of rain/ practice dry planting.
Plant at 2.5cm to 10 cm depth depending on
Carry out secondary cultivation. moisture content.
Carry out deep ploughing to remove Space according to variety/ at 75-90cm x 20-
perennial weeds 30cm,
 harrow to medium tilth Plant one/ two seeds per hole.
Carry out soil and water conservation Apply DAP/ phosphatic fertilizer/ well rottwn
measures manure at planting time.
Plant 25 kg of seeds per hectare
Plant by hand or use machine planter.
Use well rotten organic manure at handful per
plant.
Apply DAP at the rate of one tea spoonful per
hole.
Mix phosphatic fertilizer/ well rotten manure with
soil
Cover seeds with soil. 2
27-Apr-22
© Sam obare
b) Fertilizer application. c) Weed control.
100-150 kg of double superphosphate Weed control is done right from early
(DSP) per hectare is applied in planting stages of growth to reduce competition
holes/ furrows at planting time. for moisture and nutrients.
Organic manures can also be applied at Two or three weedings can be done
planting. manually or use herbicides e.g. simazine,
Nitrogenous fertilizer e.g. CAN is top triazine before planting and MCPA and
dressed when maize is 45cm high /knee 2, 4D after germination.
high at a rate of 200kg per hectare. This is Earthing-up is done during second
because: weeding to provide support.
i. The crop has well developed roots to
absorb the nitrogen before it can be
lost
ii. Maize is growing fast and requires a lot
of nitrogen.
Nitrogenous fertilizer can also be split so
that on half is applied when maize is 45cm
high and another half before tasseling.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 3

d) Pest control 2. Maize stalk borer (Buseola fusca) - This
is the larval stage of moth. Maize stalk borer
i) Field pests
makes holes in leaves/ windowing.
1. Army worm (Spodoptera exempta- They also bore into the stems and cobs.
This is the larval stage of a moth.
Maize stalk borer is controlled through:
It causes damage by eating the leaves hence
causing defoliation leaving mid-ribs. i) Early planting.
They are controlled by dusting with ii) Roguing/ uprooting and burning infected
pesticides e.g. malathion, diazinon. maize crop remains after harvesting.
iii) Application of pesticides (e.g. endosulfan,
diazinon, malathion and stalkborer dust)
on funnel of each plant when the plant is
3 cm high.

Army worm
Maize stalk borer
27-Apr-22 4
© Sam obare
3 Aphids (Rhopalosiphum maids) ii) Storage pests.
They suck sap from green husks of cobs 1. Maize weevil (Sitophilus
and leaves and the attacked leaves and zeamais)- It attacks maize while in
husks appear black in color the field.
They are controlled by spraying using It makes tunnels beneath the seed coat
suitable insecticides e.g. diazinon and circular holes on the surface of the
malathion. grain.
4. Birds. It is controlled by:
They eat grains at the milky stage. i) Dusting the maize cobs or shelled
maize with malathion.
This allows water to get in thus causing
ii) Fumigating stored maize with
rotting. chemical (e.g. methyl bromide)
They are controlled by scaring away. iii) Proper storage hygiene/ sweeping
and removing old crops.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 5

2. Red flour beetle (Tribolium d) Disease control
castaneum) 1. Maize streak- It is caused by a
It feeds on flour or previously damaged virus which is spread by grasshopper.
and broken grains. It causes yellow longitudinal stripes
Controlled by proper storage hygiene. which run parallel to the midrib.
3. Rats ( Rattus rattus) Controlled by:
Attack stooked and fallen maize in the i) Use of certified seeds.
field. ii) Early planting.
Also attack stored maize. iii) Roguing/ uprooting and burning
Controlled by: affected plants.
i) Use of rat proof/ deflectors in stores. 2. White leaf blight- It is a fungal
ii) Use of cats. disease caused by Helminthosporium
turcicum.
iii) Use of traps and poisoned baits.
It causes oval, grey and thin lesions on
iv) Clearing bush around the store. the leaves.
Controlled by planting resistant
varieties.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 6

3. Rust. e) Harvesting.
It is caused by Puccinia sp. Harvesting is done after 3-9 months
Red or brown pustules are formed on depending on variety.
the leaves. Harvesting is done when the whole
Controlled by planting resistant plant dries/according to market
varieties. demand.
4. Smut. Harvesting is done manually or use
It is a fungal disease caused by Ustilago combine harvesters.
zeas. Stalks can be cut and stooked in the
It destroys grains and tassels causing field to allow cobs dry properly.
masses of black powder. The cobs are then removed by hand
Controlled by crop rotation. and placed in the store
The maize stalks are then ploughed
back into the soil to return some
nutrients e.g. potassium and calcium.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 7

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 8
f) Post harvest practices. The store should be properly
Threshing/removing grains from cobs. constructed to keep out moisture and
pests e.g. rats.
Winnowing/cleaning to remove foreign
materials. Proper store hygiene should be observed
to prevent losses through pests and
Drying properly to reduce chances of diseases.
rotting and minimize pest attack.
The seeds should be dried properly to
Dusting to control pests and diseases. reduce the chances of rotting and
g) Storage and marketing. minimize the extent of insect damage.
Maize can also be stored on cobs or shelled The maize grains can be sold through
and bagged. the National Cereals and Produce Board,
directly to millers/ institutions or
Maize on cobs can stored with the husks.
directly to consumers (while green or
Maize should be properly stored in order to grain maize).
avoid losses that occur through exposure to
weather elements and pests.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 9

B. Finger millet (Eleusine coracana)
a) Ecological requirements
Altitude of 0-2,400m above sea level.
Fertile, well drained soils.
Average rainfall of 900mm annually.
b) Varieties.
Ultra lupin
5.18 oats.
c) Selection and preparation of
planting materials.
Harvested grain are sun dried, threshed ,
winnowed and stored for use as seeds.
Certified seeds can also be bought from
Kenya seed company.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 10

c) Land preparation. 3. Fertilizer application
Land is prepared early/ before the onset of Sulphate of Ammonia can be top dressed at the
long rains. rate of 125 kg/ hectare when the crop is 15 cm
Clearing of land is done. high.
Primary cultivation is done. e) Pests and disease control.
Secondary cultivation/ harrowing is done to Birds are controlled through scaring them.
fine tilth. Head blast disease which is caused by a fungus
d) Field operations. is controlled by planting resistant varieties.
1. Planting. It causes brown spots with grey centres on
leaves and stems.
Early planting is done. f) Harvesting.
The seeds are broadcasted/ planted in rows Timely harvesting should be done/ harvesting
at appropriate spacing/ at a spacing of 30cm should be done when heads have dried.
x 33cm.
Seed rate should be 3-5 kg per hectare. Individual heads are cut using knives/ sickles.
2. Weed control. The heads are dried.
Weeds (e.g. Eleusine sp) are controlled The dry heads are threshed.
manually by uprooting. Seeds are winnowed.
Proper seedbed preparation and planting/ g) Storage and marketing.
sowing in rows help to control weeds. The grains are dried and stored in bags then
sold in the local markets.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 11

C. Bulrush millet (Pennisetum typhoides)

a) Ecological requirements.
Rainfall of 500mm-600mm per year.
Warm climate.
Altitude of below 1,200m above sea level.
Well drained soils.
b) Varieties.
Serere.
c) Land preparation.
Land should be prepared early.
Primary cultivation is done deeply to
eradicate all the weeds.
Harrowing is done to fine tilth.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 12

d) Field operations. Rust disease caused by a fungus Puccinia
1. Planting penniseti causes pustules on the leaves.
Planting is done by broadcasting followed by It is controlled through planting resistant
shallow cultivation before the onset of rains. varieties.
Row planting can be done at a spacing of 60cm Ergot disease caused by a fungus Clavicepts
by 15cm. microcephala causes the heads to become
sticky.
2. Weeding. It is controlled through use of certified
The seedbed should be kept weed free until seeds, crop rotation and destruction of
tillering when the plant grows fast enough to infected crop residues.
suppress the weeds. f) Harvesting.
Hand weeding is commonly done. It is done by cutting the heads with a knife/
3. Fertilizer application. sickle when they have dried.
Sulphate of Ammonia should be applied/ top Threshing is done by beating the dry heads
dressed at the rate of 200kg per hectare when on the ground.
the crop is 30cm high. g) Storage and marketing.
e) Pests and disease control. After threshing, the grains are winnowed
Birds are controlled by scaring them away. and dried to 14% moisture content then
Downy mildew disease caused by a fungus stored in bags.
Sclerospora graminicola causes long, whitish lines It is then sold locally.
on the leaves.
It is controlled through crop rotation and
destroying crop remains after harvesting.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 13

D. Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare)
a) Ecological requirements.
Rainfall of 420mm-630mm per year.
Altitude of below 1,500m above sea level.
Fertile and well drained soils.
b) Varieties.
Serena
Dobbs
Intama
Humid
Lulu
Sudan grass/ Sorghum Sudanese
Columbus grass/ sorghum alum
c) Selection and preparation of
planting materials.
The seeds are prepared by threshing the dry
heads, winnowing and seed dressing.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 14

d) Field operations.
i. Planting.
Planting is done by broadcasting seeds on a
firmly prepared seedbed.
It can also be sown together with maize and
beans.
It can Also be planted in pure stands at a
spacing of 60 cm by 15cm.
ii. Fertilizer application.
Farm yard manure is applied on moist soils.
e) Pests and disease control. Sorghum shoot fly
Birds e.g. Sudan dioch (Quelea quelea
aethiopica) are controlled by planting
resistant varieties e.g. Goose necked
varieties, use of explosives to destroy their
breeding sites.
Sorghum shootfly lays eggs on the underside
of young plants. After hatching the young
larvae enters the funnel and moves down to
feed on young stem, killing the young shoot.
It is controlled by early planting, closed
season and application of pesticides.
27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 15
Stem borers are controlled by use of f) Harvesting and marketing.
appropriate chemicals. Harvesting is done 3-4 months after
Sorghum leaf diseases include: planting.
i. Leaf blight (Helminthosporium turcicum) The heads are cut off using a sharp
ii. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum knife and sundried
graminicola) The dried sorghum is threshed,
iii. Sooty stripe (Ramulispora sorghi) winnowed and stored.
Sorghum inflorescence diseases include: It is then sold directly to consumers of
marketed through National Cereals and
i. Loose smut (Sphacelotheca cruenta) Produce Board.
ii. Head smut (Sphacelotheca reiliana)
Disease are controlled by growing
resistant varieties and seed dressing.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 16

 E. BEANS (Phaseolus vulgaris).
a) Ecological requirements. c) Selection and preparation of
Altitude of 900m-2 100 m above the sea planting materials.
level. Select varieties suitable to the ecological
Optimum temperature of 12 to 15°C. conditions of the area.
Moderate rainfall well distributed Obtain certified seeds.
throughout the growing period. Select dry mature seeds.
 Well drained and fertile soil. Select seeds that are free from physical
Soil pH of 5.8 to 6.5. damage and wrinkles.
b) Varieties. Dress seeds with appropriate chemicals to
control soil borne pests and diseases.
Rose coco.
Inoculate the seeds with the correct
Mwezi moja. inoculant.
Canadian wonder.
Wairimu.
Mexican 142.
Mwitemania.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 17

d) Seedbed / land preparation. 2. Staking- to provide support to
Prepare the seedbed early. climbing varieties.
Clear vegetation using appropriate tools. 3. Thinning and gapping- to
obtain optimum plant population.
Carry out deep primary tillage to eradicate all 4. Irrigation- to supply enough
weeds. moisture during dry periods
Carry out secondary cultivation/ harrow to 5. Weeding-done using simple hand
medium tilth. tools or selective herbicides to
e) Field operations. reduce competition for moisture,
1. Planting. nutrients and space.
Plant at the onset of rains/carry out timely Keep the field weed free during early
planting/ plant when soil has enough moisture. stages of growth.
Make shallow furrows/ holes at appropriate Carry out shallow weeding to avoid
spacing and depth using appropriate tool. root damage.
Apply phosphatic fertilizers along the furrows Avoid weeding during flowering to
at appropriate rate and mix with soil. prevent knocking down the flowers.
Drop seeds singly along the furrows and cover Carry out weeding when it dry to avoid
with soil. spread of diseases.
Place 2 or 3 seeds per hole and cover up with
soil.
Plant at appropriate spacing depending on the
variety

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 18

6. Disease control- common diseases iii) Anthracnose- it is a fungal
include anthracnose, bean rust, halo disease caused by Colletotrichum
blight and angular leaf spot. lindemuthianum.
i) Bacterial (halo) blight- it is caused It causes brown lesions on pods and
by Pseudononas phaseolicola. stems and brown spots on leaves
It causes water soaked lesions on the pods. It is controlled by:
Each brown spot is surrounded by broad i. Growing resistant varieties.
yellow band/ halo.
ii. Use of clean seeds.
Controlled by:
iii. Seed dressing.
i) Planting healthy seeds.
iv. Destroying infected crop residues.
ii) Roguing/ uprooting and destroying
infected plants. v. Spraying using copper fungicides.
iii) Crop rotation. iv) Leaf/ brown spot- it is a fungal
characterized by brown spots on
iv) Use of chemicals the leaves.
ii) Bacterial and fusarium/ fungal It is controlled by proper spacing and
wilt- characterized by drying of the use of appropriate chemicals.
whole plant even when there is enough
moisture in the soil.
Controlled by use of resistant varieties,
roguing, crop rotation and use of
appropriate chemicals.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 19

7. Pest control- Control field pests
g) Post-harvest practices
such as bean fly, bean aphids, bean
thrip, bean bruchid, american Threshing to remove beans from the
bollworm and birds by spraying pods
with insecticides (e.g. dieldrin, Removal of pods and stems before
dimethoate, formathion or winnowing.
diazinon).
Winnowing to remove foreign
f) Harvesting materials
Harvesting is done by uprooting dry Sorting to remove damaged seeds.
whole plants.
Drying the beans to reduce moisture
Uproot in the morning when weather content/ prevent rotting.
is cool to minimize pod shattering.
Dusting using appropriate chemicals
Gather the uprooted plants and spread to prevent pest and disease attack.
them on mats or sacks for further
drying. Storage in bags to keep it safe.
When dry beat them with sticks to
remove seeds from pods.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 20

 F. RICE PRODUCTION.
It is grown in Mwea tebere irrigation scheme
(in Kirinyaga district), Ahero (in Nyando b) Land preparation.
district), Bura irrigation scheme (in Tana river Clear the land.
district),Yala swamp (in Siaya district)
Uses of water in growth of rice/ role of Divide the land into plots of 0.4 ha.
water in paddy rice. Construct/repair bunds/dykes for
1. It promotes growth of rice. controlling water.
2. Helps to control pests. Construct/repair water inlet and outlet
channels.
3. Controls non-aquatic weeds. Flood the field up to 10 cm above the soil.
4. Provides the right relative humidity for Carry out primary tillage/puddle/cultivate
pollination. and harrow the field to fine mud using
a) Ecological requirements. tractor-drawn implements.
Altitude: 0 to 3 000 m above the sea level. Level the field by dragging a wooden
Temperature: 21 to 37°C. board/jembe.
Rainfall: Rice is a semi-aquatic crop and Broadcast DSP before transplanting.
grows best in submerged conditions.
Soil: Clay or clay-loam soils
Soil pH: 5.5 to 6.5.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 21

c) Water control. d) Fertilizer application
Water level is essential to control Broadcast 120 kg/ha DSP
weeds. at/before planting.
Flood the plots to a depth of 7.5-10 cm. Top dress Sulphate of Ammonia in
Leave the field flooded for 4 days. two splits at 250 kg/ha. The first
Drain the field to a depth of 5cm during half is applied just at transplanting
transplanting. time and the other half 40 days later.
Introduce water gradually as the crop e) Weed control.
establishes. Weeds are controlled by flooding.
Maintain the water level at 1/3 the Surviving weeds are controlled by
height of the crop. uprooting.
Change the water every 2-3 weeks or Effective herbicides can also be
when it is cold. used.
Allow water to flow slowly through the
field.
Drain the field 2-3 weeks before
harvesting.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 22

Harvesting of various industrial
crops.
A. COTTON.
The harvested part is boll (containing lint).
Lint processed into cotton used in
hospitals/laboratories.
Method/procedure of harvesting.
Pick bolls after 4 months/when bolls are fully
open.
Bolls are picked manually when fully open and
dry.
Sort into two grades AR (safi) free from insect
damage and foreign materials and BR (fifi).
During harvesting the picker carries two
containers one for grade AR and another for
BR.
Further sorting is done at home after
harvesting.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 23

Precautions when harvesting cotton.
1. Pick immediately when the balls open to B. PYRETHRUM.
prevent staining by dust. The harvested part of pyrethrum is the
2. Use clean hands to avoid staining the lint. flowers.
3. Use clean containers to avoid Pyrethrum contains pyrethrin used in
contamination. manufacture of insecticides.
4. Use different containers for grade AR (safi)
and grade BR (fifi) to ensure quality.
5. Avoid using gunny or sisal bags to prevent
mixing of lint and sisal fibres.
6. Avoid picking leaves and twigs to avoid
contamination.
7. Pick when the lint is dry/ avoid picking
wet cotton to prevent fibres from sticking
together.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 24

Method/procedure of harvesting Precautions taken when harvesting
pyrethrum. pyrethrum.
Pick flowers selectively. 1. Pick after 3-4 months to maintain
Pick flowers with horizontal petals with 2- quantity.
3 rows of disc florets open. 2. Put flowers in woven baskets to
Use the fore finger and thumb. allow ventilation and avoid
fermentation of flowers.
Pick by twisting the heads so that no stem
is left attached. 3. Avoid picking wet flowers because
they heat up and ferment.
Put the picked flowers in woven basket.
4. Avoid compacting flowers to avoid
heating and fermenting.
5. Maintain a suitable picking interval
(14-21 days) to avoid harvesting
overblown flowers.
6. Break the flower stalk to maintain
the quality

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 25

C. SUGAR CANE. D. TEA.
26

 The harvested part of sugar cane is the cane.  The harvested part of tea is the leaves.
Method/procedure of harvesting.
Method/procedure of harvesting.
Harvest at correct stage (13-22 months for the first crop
and 12-18 months for ratoon crop). Pluck leaves of highest quality.
Take sugarcane samples for testing the maturity. Pluck top two leaves and the bud.
Use a machete/panga to harvest. Use a plucking stick to maintain the
plucking table.
Cut the mature cane at the base/near the ground to avoid
loss of yield and ensure proper establishment of ratoon Pluck at 5 – 7 days intervals in rainy and
crop. warm season and 10 – 14 days in dry
periods/ cold period.
Cut off the green tops to avoid growth substances from
flowing back and lowering the quality of sugar. Put plucked tea in woven baskets carried
Strip off the green leaves/burn the cane. on the back of pluckers to facilitate air
circulation/prevent fermentation.
Deliver the cane to the factory within 48 hours/
immediately after cutting. Do not compress the leaves in this basket
to prevent heating up/ browning.
Precautions when harvesting of sugarcane.
Put plucked tea in a cool and shaded
1. Deliver the cane to the factory within 48 place.
hours/immediately after cutting to ensure that the
quality is maintained and sugar content is not reduced. Deliver to the factory the same day
2. The field should be burned to scare away snakes and
remove some leaves.
27-Apr-22 © Sam obare
Precautions taken when harvesting
tea. Method/procedure of harvesting
coffee.
1. Put plucked tea into woven baskets to
allow free movement of air to prevent Pick red ripe berries/cherries.
the plucked tea from fermenting before Pick at intervals of 7-14 days.
it reaches the factory. Spread the berries on sisal mats and sort
2. Do not compress the leaves in this out any unripe, diseased, over-ripe and dry
basket to prevent heating up/browning. berries/ into grades 1, 2 and 3 (mbuni)
3. Put plucked tea in cool and shaded  Deliver grade 1 and 2 to the factory for
place. pulping the same day.
4. Deliver to the factory on the same day. Dry grade 3.
E. COFFEE. Deliver grade 3 to the factory at the end of
harvesting period.
 Coffee takes 3 to 5 years from planting to
maturity depending on the variety. Precautions when harvesting.
i. Sort the berries according to quality.
 It takes 8 to 9 months from the time of
producing the flowers up to when the ii. Berries should be delivered to the
berries are ready for picking. factory on the same day they are
harvested.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 27

Definition of terms. a) Classification on the basis of
1. Forage crop: this is a crop that is establishment-under this
grown/which grows naturally for the purpose criterion, pastures are classified as:
of feeding livestock.
1. Natural pastures- They are
2. Pasture crop: this is a crop that is grazed on pasture grasses and legumes that
directly by livestock.
grow naturally and extensively for
3. Fodder crop: This is a forage crop that is both domestic and wild animals.
harvested at a certain stage and fed to animals.
If it is grazed on directly it would be spoiled. 2. Leys or artificial pastures-they
PASTURES are pasture grasses and legumes
planted by man for livestock feeds.
 A pasture is the land on which forage crops/
pasture crops are grazed on directly. They are of high quality and give
Classification of pastures.
high yields.
 They are classified in three main ways:
a) According to pasture establishment.
b) According to pasture stand.
c) According to ecological zones/ altitudes.
27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 1
b) Classification on the basis of Grasses.
pasture stands-under this criterion (i) Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum
pasture can be: clandestinum).
1. Pure stand pastures- It consists of (ii) Nandi setaria (Setaria sphacelata).
either legumes or grasses only. (iii) Giant setaria (Setaria splendida).
2. Mixed stand (legume-grass (iv) Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana).
pasture)-It has both legumes and (v) Molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora)
grasses grown together.
Legumes.
c) Classification on the basis of
(i) Lucerne (Medicago sativa).
altitude/zones-under this category
the pastures can be: (ii) Kenya white clovers (Trifolium
repens).
1. High-altitude pastures: These
pastures grow at altitude of 2,500 m (iii) Subterranean clover (Trifolium
above sea level or higher. subtervianeum)
 The pastures include the following: (iv) Louisiana white clover (Trifolium
semipilosum)

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 2

ii) Medium altitude pastures- are iii) Low-altitude pastures-
found at the altitude of between 1, are found in marginal areas of Kenya
500 m and 2,500 m above the sea below 1,500m above sea level. The
level. The pastures include pastures include the following:
the following. Grasses
Grasses (i) Giant star grass (Cynodon
(i) Nandi setaria (Setaria sphacelata). plectostadyus).
(ii) Giant setaria (Setaria splendida). (ii) Maasai love grass (Eragrostis
(iii) Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana). superba).
(iv) Guatemala grass (Trypsacum laxum). (iii) African fox tail (Cenchrus
(v) Star grass (Cynodon dactylon) ciliaris).
Legumes (iv) Red oat grass (Themada triandra)
(i) Lucerne (Medicago sativa). (v) Digitaria (Digitaria decumbeus)
(ii) Silver leaf desmodium (Desmodiun (vi) Thatch grass/ Hyparrhenia
uncinatum). (hyparrhenia rufa)
(iii) Green leaf desmodium (Desmodium Legumes
intortum). (i) Stylo (Stycosanthes scabra).
(iv) Stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis). (ii) Centro (Cenrosema pubescens).
(v) Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum). (iii) Glycine (Glycine wightii)

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 3

 They are pastures which are grown as
one type only e.g. grasses or legumes Ways of improving the quality of
only. natural pastures.
Advantages of pure stand pastures. i. Introduction of suitable legumes.
i. It is easier to control weeds using ii. Application of manure/fertilizer.
chemical method. iii. Regular weeding.
ii. There is less competition (hence iv. Controlled burning to remove fibrous
better establishment). stemy remains.
iii. It is easier to collect seeds. v. Proper stocking rate.
Disadvantages of pure stand vi. Harvesting at the right time.
pastures. Practices carried out on artificial
i. There is total loss incase of an pastures/leys.
outbreak of pests and diseases. i. Preparation of land to fine tilth.
ii. There is low yield per unit area. ii. Selection of appropriate planting
iii. There are high cases of bloat disease materials.
if the stand is leguminous. iii. Application of appropriate fertilizers.
iv. They are less palatable. iv. Regular weed control.
v. They are less nutritious. v. Control of pests and diseases.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 4

 It consists of a mixture of legumes and Disadvantages of mixed stand
grasses grown together. pasture.
Advantages of mixed stand pastures. 1. It is difficult to control weeds
1. They are highly nutritious. by chemical method.
2. They are highly palatable. 2. There are cases of competition
3. Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen where wrong rates are used.
improving soil fertility hence economizes 3. It is difficult to collect weeds.
on the use of fertilizer.
4. There are few cases of bloat disease.
5. There is high yield per unit area.
6. There is no total loss incase of an
outbreak of pests and diseases.
7. There is maximum utilization of
nutrients.
8. Cover crops help to control soil erosion.
9. There is better distribution of growth.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 5

 Pastures can be established Qualities of planting materials
from seeds, Rhizomes and selected for pasture establishment.
splits. 1. Adaptability to the prevailing
A. Selection of planting environmental conditions.
materials. 2. Fast growing.
 Select materials that grow fast 3. High herbage yield.
to give good ground cover 4. High nutritive value.
which help to control soil B. Land/Field preparation.
erosion.
 Prepare the land during the dry period
 Select materials that are able to and before the start of rains.
give high herbage yield per unit
area.  Clear the field.

 Select materials that are highly  Plough the land deeply to remove all the
nutritious. weeds.
 Select materials that easily  Harrow the land to fine tilth for sowing
adapt to the ecological seeds and medium tilth for vegetative
conditions of the area. material (rhizomes/splits)
 Carry out rolling and levelling when
using seeds.
27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 6
C. Seed preparation. Methods of pasture establishment/
 Carry out seed dressing to methods of sowing.
control soil borne pests and 1. Direct sowing- involves the
diseases. establishment of the pasture crops in a
clean seedbed where no other crops are
 Inoculate the seeds to improve growing.
fixation of nitrogen. It is done in  Seeds are mixed thoroughly with fertilizer,
areas with low amount of broadcasted then lightly covered with soil.
nitrogen. 2. Under sowing- this is the establishment
D. Planting/ sowing. of the pastures crops under a cover crop
 Plant during the onset of rains. e.g. maize.
 Apply phosphatic fertilizer at  Maize is planted and weeded 2 to 3 weeks
after the onset of rains.
planting time at the appropriate
rate. Phosphatic fertilizer  The pasture seeds are then broadcasted
supplies phosphorus for proper with fertilizer and no further weeding is
done.
root development.
 Maize is then harvested early to allow
 Plant the seeds by drilling or growth of pasture/ expose young pasture
broadcasting them. seedlings to the sun.
 Drag the gunny bag/twig to
cover the seeds lightly.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 7

Advantages of under sowing. Factors that cause failure of
i. There is efficient use of land. establishment of pastures.
ii. It reduces the cost of forage production.
1. Poor seed germination due to deep
iii. It helps to control soil erosion due to
seed planting, poor seedbed
ground cover.
preparation and use of non-viable
iv. It ensures early pasture establishment.
seeds.
Disadvantages of under sowing.
1. There is competition from the main 2. Poor inoculation.
crop. 3. Lack of nutrients in the soil.
2. There may be poor establishment of the 4. Unfavorable soil conditions.
pasture.
5. Poor drainage.
3. Over sowing- this is the establishment
of pasture legumes in an existing grass 6. Pest and disease attack.
pasture.
 It is aimed as suppressing existing pastures
by burning, slashing or heavy grazing.
 A heavy dose of DSP can be used and
pasture is kept short until legume pasture
is well established.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 8

E. Management of pastures- The Advantages/ reasons for weeding/
management practices include: controlling weeds in pastures.
1. Weeding- it is carried out i. Minimize competition for nutrients,
through timely land space light.
preparation, tillage, slashing, ii. To ensure higher quality/ palatability of
application of selective forage.
herbicides and uprooting. iii. To ensure higher quality of foliage.
Effects of weeds on pastures. iv. Prevent poisoning of livestock/
i. Compete with pastures for Minimizes the incidences of poisonous
weed to livestock e.g. thorn apple.
nutrients, moisture and sunlight.
v. Minimizes the spread of pests and
ii. Reduces the quality and diseases.
herbage/total yield. vi. To minimize/ reduce the cost of
iii. Some weeds cause livestock production.
poisoning e.g. thorn apple (Daturs Methods of controlling weeds in
stramonium). pastures
iv. Reduce the lifespan of the i. Cultural methods.
pastures.
ii. Physical/ mechanical methods.
v. They interfere with forage
utilization. iii. Biological methods/ use of
biological agents.
iv. Burning pasture.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 9

2. Top dressing- this is the 3. Topping- this is the removal of
application of nitrogenous stemmy fibrous materials left
fertilizer on pastures after over after a period of pasture
establishment. grazing to stimulate fresh growth
Reasons for top dressing. of pasture.
i. To add (replenish) soil nutrients  It is done during the onset of rains
and ensure proper nutrient followed by topdressing.
balance.  It is done through slashing/
ii. To increase herbage yield. mowing and burning.
iii. To improve nutritive value of
the crop
iv. To correct or amend the
physical and chemical properties
of the soil e.g. soil structure and
water holding capacity.
v. To enable the soil micro-
organisms to break down
organic materials into nutrients.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 10

4. Re-seeding- this refers to refilling of Study question
the gaps to attain optimum crop List practices carried out to maintain
population. grass pastures.
5. Irrigation- it is done during the dry 1. To dress with appropriate
period to ensure better and faster fertilizer/apply manure.
establishment. 2. Control weed.
6. Controlled grazing- it refers to 3. Practice controlled grazing.
proper utilization of pastures to avoid
over/under grazing. It is done through 4. Cut back dry and unpalatable stems to
paddocking, tethering and strip grazing. encourage fresh regrowth/Topping.
7. Pest control- common pests are moles 5. Re-seeding where necessary.
which destroy roots of pastures thus 6. Irrigation when necessary.
killing them. 7. Control pests and diseases.
 They are controlled by trapping, use of
rodenticides, flooding and by biological
method.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 11

F. Pasture utilization/ defoliation- it Effects of very early defoliation
refers to grazing in pastures and cutting (less than 4 weeks).
of fodder crops as livestock feed. i. The forage has very high moisture
 Frequency of defoliation refers to how content (90%).
often the forage stand is grazed/ cut for
ii. The forage has very high protein
feed.
content on weight basis.
 Intensity of defoliation refers to the
proportion of herbage removed through
iii. It has very low crude protein yield.
grazing and that of the residue forage. In iv. It has very low dry matter (DM)
fodder crops it is the ratio of the forage content hence low DM yield.
cut to what is left. v. It has high dry matter (DM)
 Pastures can be utilized through: digestibility but low digestible
i. Direct grazing/rotational nutrients.
grazing/controlled grazing. vi. Gradual weakening of the pasture
ii. Zero grazing/stall feeding. stand.
iii. Conservation of excess e.g. hay making. N/B. Dry matter is the actual percentage
of nutrients in the feed without water.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 12

Effects of Late Defoliation (more than
ten weeks)  For proper utilization paddocking is
necessary
i. The forage has high DM content hence
high DM yield). Advantages of paddocking in
ii. It has high cellulose content/crude pasture utilization.
fibre (hence it is woody and fibrous). 1. Ensures controlled grazing and
iii. It has high lignin, cutin, tannin and ensures sufficient re-growth before
silica which are indigestible. grazing is resumed.
iv. It has low crude protein content. 2. It ensures better forage utilization
v. It has low leaf: stem ratio/ low and less wastage through trampling,
palatability. fouling and selective grazing.
vi. It has low dry matter digestibility. 3. It facilitates conservation of excess
Disadvantages of feeding livestock on pasture in form of hay or standing
lush/young pastures. forage.
i. High moisture content which reduces 4. It maintains a favorable grass-legume
the DM content.
balance.
ii. It has low digestible nutrients.
iii. There are high cases of bloat disease.
iv. It has low laxative effect.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 13

CARRYING CAPACITY AND Limitations of overgrazing
STOCKING RATE. /overstocking.
Carrying capacity- this is the ability i. Soil erosion (due to loss of
of the forage to maintain a particular ground cover).
number of animals or livestock units
ii. Weakening of pasture crop/
per unit area.
insufficient re-growth.
Stocking rate – this is the number of
iii. Gradual increase of weeds.
the animals (or livestock units)
maintained per unit area of land. Limitations of under grazing/
under stocking.
Advantages of correct stocking/
proper rate. i. Decline in re-growth of pastures.
i. Controls soil erosion. ii. Gradual increase of weeds.
ii. Ensures adequate pasture for iii. Wastage of pastures.
animals. iv. Low growing pastures are
iii. Increases the useful life of the smothered due to shading effects.
pasture crop.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 14

 To determine the carrying Solution.
capacity/stocking rate, the DM For every 100kg of body weight the
animal consumes 2.5 kg DM
of the feed and the live weight
of the animal has to be known. 100kg=2.5 kg
400kg=?
Example. A dairy cow consumes
=400kgx2.5kg
Dry Matter equivalent to 2.5 % of
100kg
the body weight per day.
=10kg DM per day.
i. What is the amount of DM
1day = 10kg
consumed by the Jersey
365 days=? =(365x10)kg
weighing 400 kg per year.
=3650kg
= 3.65 tonnes.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 15

ii. What is the amount of silage is A. ROTATIONAL GRAZING.
consumed per year. Silage contains  This is the practice of allowing livestock to
50% Dry Matter. feed on a part of a pasture for a period
Solution. down to a certain level before they are
100kg silage=50kg DM moved to the next.
?=3650kgDM Advantages of rotational grazing.
=3650kgDMx100kg 1. The livestock make maximum and
50kgDM efficient use of the pasture.
=7300 kg 2. It reduces the build-up of pests and
diseases.
=7.3 tonnes
3. Animal waste is distributed evenly in all
GRAZING SYSTEMS. the paddocks or fields.
 They include: 4. Excess pasture can be harvested and
A. Rotational systems. conserved.
B. Continuous grazing systems. 5. It is possible to apply fertilizers , carry out
C. Zero grazing (stall feeding). reseeding, weeding and control pests and
diseases in the pastures that are not in use.
6. Pasture area is given time for grass/
pasture to regrow before it is grazed on
again.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 16

Disadvantages of rotational grazing. ii. Paddocking-a paddock is a fenced
1. Large tracts of land are required. portion of a pasture in which
2. It is expensive because structures animals are restricted for grazing.
such as water troughs, pipe system  Paddocking means grazing livestock
and fences have to be established in in one paddock for a short period and
all the paddocks. then moving them to another.
3. Animals may not be secure where  Each paddock should have water
paddocks border game parks. troughs
Methods of rotational grazing iii. Tethering- it involves tying an
1. Strip grazing- allowing livestock to animal to a post with a rope such
graze on restricted portions of the that it feeds on a restricted area.
pasture at a time then moving to the
next.
 It is done on very high quality pasture
by use of electric/ temporary fences
to enclose animals in a given strip of
pasture.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 17

 Tethering
Paddocking

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 18

B. HERDING/ CONTINUOUS
GRAZING- This is a method of grazing
Disadvantages of herding.
where there are no boundaries and the 1. It is difficult to control parasites and
animals wander all over the pasture on daily diseases as the animals mix freely.
basis. 2. It encourages random mating which
 Animals are herded (by a herder) to control leads to inbreeding.
movement of livestock as they graze and 3. Pastures are not allowed time to
pasture is not allowed any resting period. regenerate because grazing is
 The method can easily lead to overgrazing if continuous.
the stocking rate is not controlled.
4. It is difficult to keep records on
 It is common in arid and semi-arid areas and production, health and breeding of
is used by nomadic pastoralism. the livestock.
Advantages of herding. 5. There is poor management of
1. Little labor is required as one herder can take pastures thus lowering their quantity
care of many animals. and quality.
2. It is cheap.
6. Production is low because animals
3. Animals select the type of pasture they like. walk for long distances and
4. It requires less skill to manage compared to sometimes feed on poor pastures.
the other systems of grazing.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 19

C. ZERO GRAZING OR STALL Disadvantages of zero grazing/
FEEDING.- This is the practice of stall feeding.
rearing animals permanent feeding
enclosure (stall) 1. Requires a lot of labor.
 Feed, mineral licks and water are
2. Requires high initial capital.
provided to the animals in the stalls. 3. Diseases are easily spread.
It is used in the rearing of dairy 4. It requires high management
cattle. skills.
Advantages of zero grazing/ stall
feeding.
1. It is easy to control diseases and
parasites.
2. Animals produce high yields due to
less wastage of energy.
3. Animals make use of feeds without
wastage.
4. It requires little land.
5. It allows high stocking rate.
6. There is quick accumulation of
manure.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 20

a) Seed bed preparation. b) Selection, handling, preparation
 Practice early seedbed preparation/ of planting materials and
during the dry period. Planting.
 Clear all the vegetation/ stumps.  Plant at the onset of the rains/ early
 Carry out primary tillage. planting.
 Dig deeply to remove all weeds/  Select cuttings from a desirable variety
perennial weeds.  Select cuttings from a healthy and high
 Carry out secondary tillage. yielding mother plants.
 Seedbed should have a medium tilth.  Use cuttings/ canes or splits for
planting.
 Prepare furrow/ holes for planting.  Make cuttings with 2-3 nodes
 Spacing should be 90 cm x50 cm  Place planting materials in the furrows/
where cuttings are planted and 90- holes in a slanting manner.
100cm x 50cm for splits.
 Cover the material with soil to the
appropriate depth/with 2 nodes
underground and one node above the
ground.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 21

c) Fertilizer application. e) Utilization-
 Apply phosphatic fertilizer at planting.  Cut and feed it to ruminants.
 Apply farm yard manure/ compost  Defoliate/ cut at the right stage
manure before planting. of growth/ 3-5 months old/
 The rate of organic manure should be when stems are 1-1.5m high.
7-10 tonsha.  Cut the stems at 2.5 - 5cm above
 Apply organic manure after harvesting the ground surface.
and dig it into the soil every year.  Use sharp panga for cutting.
 Top dress with Nitrogen and  Conserve excess as silage.
potassium 6-8 week/s after planting.  Chop Napier grass into small
d) Weed control pieces before feeding.
 Practice timely weed control  Napier grass can be dried and
 Weeding is done by; Cultivation, used as mulch.
uprooting, slashing, selective/
appropriate herbicides,
intercropping with legumes that
smoother the weeds.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 22

a) Ecological requirements. d) Fertilizer Application.
(i) Altitude- high altitude areas..  Incorporate organic manure during land
(ii) Soils- variety of soils. preparation.
(iii) Rainfall- above 900 mm per annum and should  Apply NPK fertiliser 20-20-0 during planting in
be well distributed throughout the year. the planting furrows or holes at the rate of 150
(b) Land Preparation. kg/ha.
 Prepare land before the start of rains.  Top dress with Nitrogen fertilizers when the grass
is 6 - 8 weeks old.
 Dig deeply to remove perennial weeds.  Other subsequence top dressing should be done
 Harrow to a medium soil tilth. after each harvesting and weeding, to increase
c) Planting. herbage production per unit area of land.
 Establish from stem cuttings, splits or seeds.  Weed Control.
 Make holes/ furrows at a spacing of 1m apart.  Keep the field weed free especially for first few
 Plant the cuttings or splits about 0.5 m apart months of establishment.
within the rows.  Weed control is done by uprooting, cultivation,
 Plant at the onset of the rains or where possible slashing or by use of selective herbicides.
irrigation can be done after planting. f) Defoliation.
 The grass take a long time to flower and therefore
it can be harvested when it is over 8 -12 weeks old.
g) Utilization.
 Guatemala grass is chopped and fed to livestock as
green fodder.
 It is suitable for stall feeding.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 23

(a) Ecological requirements. d) Fertilizer Application.
(i) Rainfall- rainfall above 650 mm per  Top dress using CAN or ASN at rate of
annum well distributed throughout the 125 kg/ha depending on the soil pH.
year. e) Weeding.
(ii) Altitude- below 2100 m above sea level.  Keep the field weed-free especially
(iii) Soils- wide range of soils during the establishment stage.
b) Land Preparation.  Weed control is done by use of hand
 Prepare land early before the onset of rains. cultivation, slashing and by use of
 Ploughed the land deeply to remove selective herbicides.
perennial weeds. f) Utilization.
 Harrow to a fine tilth.  Cut the sorghum and dry/ dry it for 2
c) Planting. days before feeding to livestock. This is
to avoid prussic and hydrocyanic
 Sorghum grass is established by use of seeds. acid poisoning.
 Drill/broadcast the seeds.
 At planting time apply compound fertilizer
NPK 20-20-0 at the rate of 200.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 24

 a) Ecological requirements. c) Utilization.
i. High altitude areas. i. Cut the leafy stems chop and give to
ii. Annual rainfall exceeding 1000 mm. livestock.
iii. Fertile, well drained loam and clay ii. Kales should be fed to milking cows
soils. together with dry roughages
b) Establishment and management. iii. They should be given to the milking
i. Kales are established through seeds. cows after milking to avoid tainting
the milk.
ii. Plant the seeds in nurseries 6 weeks
before the rains. Clear the land.
iii. Plough and harrow to a medium
tilth.
iv. Dig holes at a spacing of 1.0 m x 0.3
m.
v. Transplant at the onset of the rains.
Apply double superphosphate at the
rate of 150 kg/ha when
transplanting.
vi. Keep the field weed-free.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 25

a) Ecological Requirements.  However, after the crop is fully
 High rainfall. established it covers the ground
 altitude of 1500-2000 m above sea thus smothering the weeds.
level.  Top dress 4 after transplanting with
 Fertile soils. a nitrogenous fertilizer at the rate
of 100 kg nitrogen/ha. CAN is used
b) Establishment and for acidic soils while ASN for
Management. alkaline ones.
 Clear the land. (c) Utilization-Edible canna is cut
 Plough and harrow the land. and fed to livestock when fresh.
 Dig the holes at a spacing of 1 m x 1
m.
 Mix farm yard manure thoroughly in
the holes before the planting. Plant the
underground rhizomes at the onset of
rains.
 Carry out early weeding by
cultivation, uprooting, slashing and by
use of suitable herbicides.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 26

a) Ecological Requirements.  The field is kept weed-free through
 High altitude areas. cultivation, uprooting, slashing or by
 Annual rainfall exceeding 1000 mm. use of appropriate herbicides.
 Well drained soils.  Top dressing is done using CAN or ASN
depending on soil PH, at the rate of 100
b) Establishment and Management. kg nitrogen/ha.
 Marigolds are established through seed. (c) Utilization.
 Their seeds are planted in nurseries 6  Marigolds are used for feeding livestock
weeks before the rains. during the dry season.
 The land is cleared, ploughed and then  They are chopped into small pieces to
harrowed to a medium tilth. prevent chocking.
 Holes are then dug at a spacing of 1.0 m x  Marigold leaves are only good as food if
0.3 m. wilting has occurred since they can be
 Transplanting is done at the onset of the poisonous when fed fresh due to their
rain. oxalic acid content.
 Double superphosphate is applied at the
rate of about 150 kg/ha at planting time.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 27

(a) Ecological Requirements. (e) Fertilizer Application- This is only
 Altitude of 2500 - 3000 metres above sea applicable to the already existing grass
level. pastures. Apply phosphatic fertilizer.
 Well drained soil with a pH of 5.5. (f) Utilization-Clovers do not
b) Establishment and Management. withstand frequent heavy grazing.
 The seeds are mixed with a Nitro-culture  It is therefore recommended to harvest
and broadcasted in moist soils. the forage crop and take it to the
animals particularly in zero grazing
 Established clover can do well when system.
oversown with other pastures e.g. Nandi
Setaria and Rhodes grass.
c) Oversowing.
 Clovers can be oversown mainly with
Nandi Setaria and Rhodes grass.
 In such a case, the clovers should be
inoculated with the correct bacteria before
sowing.
d) Inoculation- This is the addition of the
effective bacteria to the clover seeds
before planting to promote the Nitrogen
fixation especially when grown in mixed Clover
stands.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 28

(a) Ecological requirements. (c) Utilization.
(i) Altitude: 3 000 m above sea (i) Cut at its early flowering stage.
level. (ii) Feed as stall feeding or hay.
(ii) Soil: well drained fertile soils. (iii) Feed in small quantities mixed
(iii) Soil pH: 5.5. with grass
(iv) Rainfall: moderate/irrigate hay.
during dry spell. (iv) Avoid fresh lucerne as it
(v) Temperature: warm. may cause bloating.
(b) Establishment.
(i) Clear, plough and harrow the
seedbed to a fine tilth.
(ii) Apply DSP at rate of 125 kg/ha.
(iii) Use inoculated lucerne seeds at a
seed rate of 5 to 10 kg/ha.
(iv) Broadcast or drill the seeds at a
spacing of 30 to 50 cm.

Lucerne
27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 29
a) Ecological requirements. d) Utilization.
 Altitude of 1200-1800 m above sea level.  Cut and feed to livestock together with
b) Land Preparation. dry forage such as hay.
 Prepare the land before the rains.  It should be cut and wilted before
 Dig deeply to remove perennial weeds. feeding the livestock.
 Harrow to a fine tilth.
c) Planting.
 Desmodium is established through seeds.
 Interplant desmodium with with Napier grass.
 Inoculate the seeds before planting.
d) Weed Control.
 Keep the seedbed weed free.
 This can be done by cultivation, uprooting or
by use of suitable selective herbicides.
e) Fertilizer Application.
 Apply phosphatic fertilizers at planting time at
the rate of 24 bags (125 kg) per hectare.
 Since Desmodium is a legume crop and fixes its
own nitrogen, it does not need any top-
dressing.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 30

  Shrubs or trees used as fodder crops b) Establishment and management.
include:  Establish through seeds.
i. Leucaemia,  Raise the seeds in the nursery.
ii. Calliandra,  Transplant the seedlings at the onset of
iii. Atriplex and rains at appropriate spacing.
iv. Sesbania.  Keep the field weed free.
 These shrubs are either intercropped  Apply fertilizer during transplanting.
with other crops in the fields or  Protect the crop against destruction by
incorporated with pasture crops. animals.
a) Ecological requirements. c) Utilization.
 Rainfall of 1500 mm.  cut the leaves and branches and give to
the animal directly.
 Remove the green seed pods and feed
to livestock.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 31

 This is the practice of preserving Study question
excess forage for future use. State four ways by which a farmer can make
Benefits of /Reasons for conserving efficient use of a pasture crop. (2mks)
forage. 1. Rotational grazing/ controlled grazing
1. To distribute available forage for stock 2. Proper stocking rate
throughout the year. 3. Conserve excess pasture
2. To provide feed for the dry season. 4. Timely defoliation
3. To ensure better and full utilization of 5. Practice zero grazing
available land.
6. Graze different classes/ species of
4. Can be sold for money e.g. hay animals
5. To avoid wastage of excess forage in
the field.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 32

A. Hay making. Points to note.
B. Silage making.  Rapid drying ensures high
C. Standing forage. quality hay while slow drying
A) Hay making. results in oxidation of soluble
 Hay refers to forage which has been dried to
carbohydrates hence poor
about 15-20% moisture content or less. quality.
Procedure /steps of hay making.  Avoid prolonged exposure to
 The crop is cut wen 50% of the plants have the sun because it results in
flowered. breakdown of chlorophyll and
 After cutting, the crop is spread out evenly on carotene leading to bleaching
the ground to dry for 2 to 3 days (depending on of hay.
the environmental temperature). It should be
dried under controlled conditions in order to
retain its nutritive value and original crop colour.
 The hay is windrowed (arranged in a line) and
gathered/ baled.
 The hay bales are then stored in a shed out or
reach of rain water and sunshine.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 33

Factors that affect/ determine the 6. Pest and disease attack on the
quality/ nutrient content of hay. crop- avoid using pest and disease
infested plants to ensure high quality
1. Forage species used- plant species
hay.
with high nutrient make high quality hay.
7. Method of storage- store in dry
2. Stage of growth at harvesting
shed to avoid decomposition by rain
time/defoliation- cut when 50% of
water.
crop has flowered to ensure high quality
hay. Additives used to improve the
palatability of hay.
3. Length of drying period-rapid
drying ensures high quality hay. i. Molasses.
4. Weather conditions during the ii. Salt/mineral lick.
drying period- dry hay when weather is iii. Yeast/brewers waste.
sunny and dry to maintain the quality.
5. Duration of storage- long storage
lowers the quality of hay.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 34

B. Silage making. Reasons why the forage for
 Silage is a fodder crop harvested while silage is cut at flowering
green and kept succulent by partial stage.
fermentation in a silo.
 A silo is a structure used for fermenting 1. It has low DM content.
i.e. trench silo, clamp silo and bunker 2. Has high nutrient content.
silo.
3. It is succulent/has high
 The process of silage making is called
ensiling . moisture content.
 The crop for ensiling should be cut at 4. It is easily digestible.
flowering stage. 5. It has high leaf stem ratio.
Reasons for silage making.
6. It has high soluble
1. To distribute available forage
throughout the year. carbohydrates for
2. To maximize the utilization of available fermentation.
land.
3. To provide feed for the dry season.
4. Excess forage can be sold.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 35

Advantages of silage making. Disadvantages of silage making.
1. More nutrients are preserved. i. It is an operation which requires
2. It has few field losses. skill and great attention.
3. It is less dependent on weather ii. It is a labour intensive exercise
conditions. hence expensive.
4. It can be preserved for prolonged iii. Most farmers cannot spare
periods with minimum loss of sufficient forage for ensiling at
nutrients. any one time.
5. Once ensiled, there are no storage iv. It is bulky to store and handle.
problems. v. It is susceptible to ensiling losses.
6. It can be fed directly without liquid vi. It must be fed soon after removal.
additives.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 36

 Trench silo

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 37

 Clamp silo
27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 38
 Steps followed/ procedure of 6. The temperature in the silo should
ensiling/ silage making. be checked regularly during the
1. The silo is prepared before ensiling period.
harvesting a crop depending on  If temperature is higher than 32.2
the amount of forage to be ensiled. °C, then that is overheating. To
2. The crop is cut at the appropriate reduce overheating, water should
age (8-10 weeks for regrowths). be added, compaction reduced
3. The forage is wilted for 6-12 and the silo filled and sealed
hours to attain a moisture content rapidly
of 65-75%.  If it is below 32.2 °C, compaction is
4. The crop is chopped up and put increased and dry materials or
into silo, compacting it every 10- molasses are added.
12 cm layer. 7. The ensiled material is covered
5. The silo should be filled as rapidly with a polythene sheet or a layer of
as possible in less than two days. dry grass to protect it from water
and air.
 The ensiled material should have a
ridge/ hump appearance after 8. The ensiled material is covered
ensiling is completed. with a thick layer of soil
maintaining the ridge/ hump
 Additives (e.g. crushed grains and appearance.
molasses) can be added. 9. A trench is then dug all round the
silo to drain off rainwater.
27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 39
Principles of preservation. Qualities of good silage.
1. Should be from high quality forage
 When the silo is finally sealed, oxygen is cut at proper stage of growth.
cut off leading to fermentation. 2. Should have a pH of 4.2 or below.
 This allows lactic acid bacteria 3. Have 5 to 9% lactic acid.
(Lactobacillus spp) to increase very 4. Be free from moulds and bad
rapidly within the first three to four smell/adour e.g. ammonia and
days after silo sealing. butyric acid.
5. Be greenish to yellow in color (not
 Lactic acid bacteria act on the readily brown or black in color).
available carbohydrates to produce lactic 6. Have fine texture with no sliminess.
acid which reduces the pH of forage Role/ functions of additives during
from 4 to 2 or below. silage making.
 Low pH inhibits further bacterial i. It raises the level of carbohydrate
growth and preserves the silage. for proper fermentation.
ii. It increases the nutrient level of
 The ensiling process is complete in 2 to silage.
3 weeks and may be preserved for many iii. It increases palatability of silage.
years provided the silo is water and air iv. It restricts growth of undesirable
tight. micro-organisms.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 40

Silage losses. Factors that determine the size of
i. Surface spoilage- due to exposure pit for silage making.
and contact with soil. 1. Quantity of forage available for
ii. Seepage losses- due to increase in ensiling.
herbage moisture. 2. Number of animal to cater for.
iii. Gaseous losses- loss of 3. Length of the period of forage
carbohydrates in form of carbon scarcity.
(IV) oxide. 4. Bulkiness of the material.
Ways by which overheating is
prevented in the process of silage
making/ ensiling process
1. Sprinkling some water.
2. Reduce compaction.
3. Fill the silo and seal it from air
rapidly.

© Sam obare 41
27-Apr-22
Factors that influence silage quality.
1. Forage species used- high quality C. Standing forage.
pastures will lead to high quality  It involves deferring cutting a
silage . portion of the forage for the dry
2. Stage of defoliation-silage cut at season feed.
flowering stage leads to high quality  Fodder and legumes should be
silage. cut, weeded and top-dressed
3. Soil fertility where the forage was after which cutting is deferred
grown- high fertile soil leads to high until required.
quality silage.
4. Moisture content of the forage crop-
high moisture content leads to high
quality silage.
5. Period taken to fill up the silo-silo
filled within two days leads to high
quality silage.
6. Use of additives- additives lead to
high quality silage.
7. Degree of compaction- higher
compaction leads to high quality
silage.

27-Apr-22 © Sam obare 42

 10. LIVESTOCK HEALTH 3:
1
(LIVESTOCK DISEASES)
 A disease is any alteration in the 5. Infectious disease /
state of the body of an organism or communicable /
its organs which interferes with the transmittable disease- a disease
proper performance of its functions. caused by a pathogen which enters
Terms used in livestock diseases. the body and triggers the
development of an infection.
1. Fever- refers to rise in body
temperature. 6. Incubation period- This is the
period between the time of
2. Symptoms- visible signs of a infection and the time of first
disease. symptoms show up.
3. Contagious disease- Disease  It is the period during which the
that is spread through contact. animal remains normal in
4. Causal organism or agent- appearance although it is harboring
refers to micro-organism that the pathogen
causes disease. 7. Recovery- This is the return to a
healthy state by a sick animal.

© Sam obare 3-May-22

2
8. Zoonotic disease- This is a disease that can ii. Curative treatment- it tries to
be passed from livestock to humans and vice restore a sick animal to health. It is
versa, e.g. brucellosis and anthrax. done through:
9. Mortality-This is the likelihood of death  Good feeding.
occurring and is usually expressed as a
percentage (%) of the affected animals and  Provision of clean environment.
those that die.  Neutralizing the ill effects produced
10. Treatment- this is the application of physical by the disease.
and chemical means to an animal to help it  Inducing repair of damaged tissues.
recover from a disease or prevent it from
getting a disease.  Relieving discomfort/ injury to the
animal.
Types of treatment
 Preventing further spread of disease.
i. Preventive treatment- involves the
administration of drugs to prevent the
occurrence of a disease.
 It is done through vaccination, use of
prophylactic drugs e.g. coccidiostats against
coccidiosis.

© Sam obare 3-May-22

3

11. Vectors- they are carriers of B. Artificial immunity-it is

pathogens e.g. ticks. acquired later in life. It is not
12. Immunity: This is the ability of an passed from parents to offspring. It
animal's body to resist the infection of can be:
a disease. i) Active artificial immunity-is
Types of immunity obtained when an animal resists a
pathogen.
A. Natural immunity- this is the
ability of an animal to maintain itself ii) Passive artificial immunity-
free from infection. It is passed from obtained through injection of
parents to offspring. It can be: serum/ through vaccination.
i) Actively acquired natural
immunity –it develops after the
animal has recovered from a disease.
ii) Passively acquired natural
immunity-which is passed through
the mother’s blood, colostrum or
milk.
© Sam obare 3-May-22
4

13. Predisposing factors- they vi) Hygiene of environment.

are conditions inside/ outside vii) Species of animal
the body of animal which lead
viii) Overcrowding.
to the animal contracting a
disease/ injury. ix) Physiological conditions e.g.
fatigue, weakness and
 They include:
pregnancy.
i) Age of animal.
x) Animal coming into contact
ii) Sex of animal. with sick animals.
iii) Colour of animals.
iv) Change of
climate/environment.
v) Heredity.
© Sam obare 3-May-22
 Classification of diseases.
5

A. Protozoan diseases. C. Viral diseases.

i) East coast fever. i. Rinderpest.
ii) Anaplasmosis ii. Foot and mouth disease.
iii) Coccidiosis. iii. Newcastle.
iv) Trypanosomiasis (nagana). iv. Fowl pox.
B. Bacterial diseases. v. Gumboro.
i) Mastitis. vi. African swine fever.
ii) Foot rot. D. Nutritional diseases.
iii) Brucellosis(contagious abortion). i. Milk fever.
iv) Scours. ii. Bloat.
v) Black quarter/black leg.
vi) Anthrax.
vii) Pneumonia.

© Sam obare 3-May-22

 A. PROTOZOAN DISEASES.
1. East coast fever (ECF)/ Theireliosis.
6

(a) Animal Attacked-Cattle. v) Breathing difficulties in later

(b) Causal Organism- A protozoan stages due to accumulation of
called Theirelia parva transmitted fluid in the lungs.
by the brown ear tick. vi) Haemorrhages/bleeding in the
(c) Incubation period -15 days. vulva and the mouth.
(d) Symptoms. vii) Coughing.
i) Swollen lymph nodes around the viii) Sight impairment.
base of ears and shoulders. e) Control and Treatment.
ii) High temperature (fever). i) Control of ticks.
iii) Production of a lot of saliva (profuse ii) Treatment using appropriate
salivation). drugs.
iv) A lot of tears come out of the eyes iii) Fencing the farm to keep out
(lachyrmation). strange animals and confining the
animals in.
© Sam obare 3-May-22
 2. Anaplasmosis (gall sickness)
7

(a) Animals attacked-Cattle, sheep and d) Symptoms.

goats. (i) Fever.
(b) Causal organism- Protozoan known (ii) Constipation.
as Anaplasma marginale.
(iii) Pale eyes, gum and lips.
(c) Modes of transmission
(iv) Reduced milk production.
i) By Blue tick (Boophilus
decolaratus) and Red legged tick. (v) Anemia.
ii) Contaminated surgical instruments. e) Control and Treatment.
iii) Contaminated hypodermic needles. i. Control of ticks and biting insects e.g.
mosquitoes and flies.
iv) Contaminated blood.
ii. Treatment using intramuscular
v) Biting insects. injection of antibiotics.
c) Incubation period of between 3-4 iii. Giving iron injections.
weeks.

© Sam obare 3-May-22

 3. Coccidiosis.
8

(a) Animals Attacked- Poultry, calves, young e) Control and Treatment.

rabbits, kids and lambs. (i) Use of coccidiostats.
(b) Causal organism- A protozoan known as (ii) Isolation of infected animals/ cattle.
Coccidia of the Eimeria sp
(iii) Avoiding wet, filthy and unhygienic
c) Incubation period- Poultry -7 days and animal surroundings.
Cattle -4 weeks.
(iv) Cattle from different farms should
d) Symptoms. not drink in a common watering
(i) Diarrhoea. point.
(ii) Dysentery or blood in the dung. (v) Avoid overcrowding in the poultry
(iii) The animal becomes emaciated. house.
(iv) The birds have ruffled feathers.
(v) The birds also become dull with drooping
wings.
(vi) Sudden death in birds, rabbits and kids.
© Sam obare 3-May-22
 4. Trypanosomiasis/nagana
9

a) Animals affected-Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs 8. Diarrhoea.

and horses. 9. Rough coat and cracked skin(where there is
b) Causal organisms- Protozoan of no hair)
Trypanosoma spp. transmitted by tsetse flies. 10. Swollen parts of the belly.
c) Incubation period-1-3 weeks. 11. Reduced milk production..
d) Symptoms. 12. Loss of hair toward the tail end.
1. High temperature/ fever. 13. Anaemia.
2. Dullness. 14. Abortion in pregnant females
3. Emaciation/loss of weight. (d) Control and Treatment.
4. Loss of appetite. (i) Treatment with trypanocidal drugs.
5. General weakness of the body. (ii) Control of tsetseflies.
6. Swollen lymph nodes. (iii) Confinement of game animals in game parks.
7. Lachrymation /running eyes which leads to
blindness.
© Sam obare 3-May-22
 B. BACTERIAL DISEASES.
10
1. Mastitis.
 It is characterized by the inflammation of the vi. Poor hygiene/ sanitation- it
udder. increases multiplication of bacteria
(a) Animals Affected- Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, causing mastitis.
camels and horses. vii. Poor milking technique- which
b) Causal Organism. causes mechanical injury and
sagging of udder.
i. Streptococcus species.
d) Symptoms.
ii. Staphylococcus species.
i. Milk contains pus, blood, thick clots
c) Predisposing Factors. or turns watery.
i. Age-old animals are likely to be infected than ii. When udder and teats are swollen,
young ones. animals reject suckling
ii. Stage of lactation-animals animals are or milking and also kicks due to
likely to suffer at the beginning and at the end pain.
of lactation. iii. Death of the infected quarter.
iii. Udder attachment- sagging udder with long iv. Milk has salty taste and there are
teats are more susceptible to mastitis. fine clots or flakes particularly the
iv. Incomplete milking- milk left in the udder fore milk.
acts as culture medium for bacteria.
v. Mechanical injuries- wounds on teats/
udder allow entry of micro-organisms into the 3-May-22 © Sam obare
udder.
11

e) Control and treatment. vi) A strip cup should be used to

i. The affected quarter of the udder is detect infection. Infected cows
emptied of milk and an antibiotic is should be milked last.
instilled and left for 12 hours. vii) Separate udder clothes should
be used for each animal or the
ii. After every milking, use teat dip on udder clothes are disinfected
every quarter. after milking each animal.
iii. Using the right milking technique. viii) Sharp objects should be
iv. Strict cleanliness and use of removed from grazing and
milking
disinfectants during milking. areas to prevent teat injuries.
v. Dry cow therapy - This is the ix) Open wounds on the teats
infusion antibiotics into the teat canal should be treated immediately.
when drying off the cow. x) Complete milking.

© Sam obare 3-May-22

12

Dry cow therapy

© Sam obare 3-May-22

 2. Fowl typhoid.
13

a) Animals affected-chicken, turkey and d) Control and treatment.

ducks.
i. Killing and properly disposing
b) Causal organisms- bacterium called infected birds
Salmonella gallinarum.
ii. Maintain proper hygiene in
c) Symptoms. poultry houses.
i. Depression. iii. Regular vaccination.
ii. Difficult breathing iv. Obtain chicks from reliable
iii. Dullness sources
iv. Drooping wings v. Treatment by use of Sulphur
v. Sleepy eyes. drugs in water/ feeds.
vi. Pale and shrunken combs and wattles.
vii. Greenish-yellow diarrhoea
viii. Death within a few days.
© Sam obare 3-May-22
 3. Foot rot (foul-in-the foot)
14
a) Animals affected-Cattle, sheep and goats. v. Lying down most of the time when hind
b) Causal organism-Bacterium called legs are affected.
Fusiformis sp. vi. Emaciation/loss of weight due to lack of
c) Predisposing factors. feeding.
i. Wet and muddy conditions. e) Control.
ii. Cracked hooves caused by overgrowth. i. Proper hygiene/clean environment/
iii. Foot injuries avoid dampness/ muddy condition.
d) Symptoms. ii. Regular hoof examination and hoof
trimming.
i. Swollen foot.
iii. Regular walk in the foot bath containing
ii. Limping/pain when animal walks and copper sulphate or formalin.
lameness.
iv. Treating wounds using antiseptics.
iii. Pus and rotten smell come out of the foot.
v. Isolation of sick animals from healthy
iv. The sheep/animal kneels when grazing animals.
when for legs are affected. 3-May-22
© Sam obare
 4. Contagious abortion/ brucellosis/
Bang’s disease.
15

 It is zoonotic, contagious and infectious. v. Low libido in males.

a) Affected animals-Cattle, sheep, goats and vi. Inflamed testis (orchitis) in males.
pigs. d) Control.
b) Causal organism. i. Use of healthy semen/ bulls/ cows/ artificial
 Cattle- Brucella arbotus. insemination.
 Pigs- Brucella suis. ii. Killing/ slaughter of affected animals.
 Goats and sheep- Brucella malintesis. iii. Vaccination.
c) Symptoms. iv. Proper disposal of foetus/ carcass.
i. Spontaneous abortion/ pre-mature birth. v. The attendant should avoid contact with
ii. Retained placenta/after birth after abortion. aborted foetus.

iii. Infertility/Barrenness in cows. vi. Observe hygiene in the farm.

iv. Odourless, yellowish, slimy discharge from the vii. Test the breeding cattle for the disease.
vulva after abortion. viii. Avoid contact with infected animal/ carcass/
foetus.
3-May-22 © Sam obare
 5. Scours.
16
a) Animal affected- Calves, piglets, lambs and v) Sudden death if there is no treatment.
kids.
vi) Undigested milk and mucus with blood spots are
b) Causal organism- Bacterium called observed on the faeces. Faecal matter sticks to the
Escherichia coli. which affects young animals hind legs.
during the first week of life.
vii) Recovered animals remain generally weak.
c) Predisposing factors.
viii) Sunken eyes.
i. Unhygienic conditions in the houses of young
ones. ix) The animal becomes listless/ dull.
ii. Absence of green fodder in the diet/ lack of e) Control.
vitamin A. i. Maintain cleanliness in young animal houses.
iii. Overfeeding of calf on milk. ii. Avoid dampness on the floor of the animal houses/ use
iv. Feeding calves on cold milk. slatted floor/ put dry litter.
v. Lack of colostrum. iii. Have a separate attendant for the sick calf.
vi. Feeding at irregular intervals. iv. Administration of antibiotics.
d) Symptoms. v. Disinfection of fingers when training the calf to drink
milk from the bucket.
i. White yellowish diarrhoea in calves.
vi. Calving should be done on a clean disinfected area.
ii. Faeces of affected animals have a pungent
smell. vii. Replace milk feeding with warm water mixed with
glucose for one day as the first symptom is seen.
iii. Fever/ high temperature.
iv. Loss of appetite. © Sam obare 3-May-22
 6. Black quarter/black leg.
17

a) Animal affected- Cattle, sheep, goats of viii. The animal stops chewing cud.
ages between 8-18 months.
ix. Sudden death occurs.
b) Causal organism.
x. Blood oozes from the anus and
 A bacterium called Clostridium chauvei which nose of dead animal.
permanently remain in the soil.
xi. If affected muscles are cut they
 It enters the animal body through wounds and appear black
contaminated water.
xii. There is bloody froth that
c) Symptoms. smells like rancid butter.
i. Lameness. d) Control.
ii. Affected parts of the body become swollen. i. Treatment with antibiotics.
iii. Fever/ body temperature rises. ii. Vaccination using blanthrax.
iv. The sick animal breathes heavily and faster. iii. The carcass should be buried
v. The animal becomes dull and goes off feed. deep or burnt completely.
vi. When swollen parts are touched they crackle.
vii. Grunting and grinding of teeth.
© Sam obare 3-May-22
 7. Anthrax.
18

 It is infectious, zoonotic and notifiable. iv. Tar-like watery blood comes out of the body
a) Animals attacked-Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, openings in the dead animal.
man and wild animals. v. Blood oozing out does not clot easily.
b) Causal organism. vi. Lack of rigor mortis in dead animal.
 Bacterium called Bacillus anthracis.  Rigor mortis is the stiffness of the body after
 The bacteria is found in faeces, and soil. death.
 The animal gets the disease through the bites, feeds d) Control.
and water and through open wounds. i. Treatment using large doses of anti-anthrax
c) Symptoms. serum.
i. The animal is swollen on the underside of the ii. Use antibiotics e.g. penicillin.
body. Also excessive bloating/swelling of the iii. Vaccination using Blanthrax.
stomach after death. iv. Treatment of wounds.
ii. Animal develops fever/ rise in temperature. v. Quarantine incase of outbreak.
iii. Blood stains in the faeces and milk. vi. The carcass must not be opened.
iv. Throat swells in pigs which may cause death vii. Proper disposal of the carcass e.g. deep
due to suffocation. burying or burning.

© Sam obare 3-May-22

 8. Pneumonia/lung fever.
19

a) Animal attacked-Calves, kids, lambs, v. Emaciation.

piglets, poultry. vi. Rapid/ faster breathing.
b) Causal organism. vii. Abnormal lung sounds e.g. hissing,
 Bacterium called Mycoplasma mycoides, gurgling and bubbling when
dust and worms in lungs. breathing.
c) Predisposing factors. viii. Fluctuating body temperature.
i. Poor ventilation. ix. Nasal mucous discharge.
ii. Overcrowding. e) Control and treatment.
iii. Young age. i. Keep young animals in warm pens.
iv. Effects of diarrhea and other illnesses. ii. Maintain hygiene/sanitation.
d) Symptoms. iii. Isolate sick animals
i. Dullness and reluctance to move. iv. Early treatment using antibiotics.
ii. Loss of appetite.
iii. Rough /ruffled hair /coat.
iv. Frequent coughing due to congestion in
the bronchioles.
© Sam obare 3-May-22
 C. VIRAL DISEASES.
20
1. Rinderpest.
 It is highly infectious, contagious and vii. Mucous membrane of the nose and
notifiable. mouth become red and develop
a) Animals affected- Cattle, sheep, wounds and ulcers.
goats, pigs. viii. Emaciation/loss of weight.
b) Causal organism. ix. Animal grinds the teeth.
 Virus with incubation period of 3-15 x. Loss of appetite
days. xi. Death after 2-10 days.
c) Symptoms. d) Control.
i. Fever/ high temperature. i. Vaccination every 6 months.
ii. Staring coat. ii. Quarantine after outbreak.
iii. Discharges in the mouth and nose. iii. Kill all affected animals/mass
iv. Eyes appear watery/ Lachrymation.. slaughter.
v. Diarrhea and dysentery. iv. Nurse animals with disinfectants on
vi. Dullness wounds.
v. Use of antibiotics to prevent other
diseases.

© Sam obare 3-May-22

 2. Foot and mouth disease.
21

 It is highly infectious, notifiable and v. Loss of appetite.

contagious disease vi. Drop in milk production.
a) Animal attacked-Cattle, sheep, goats and vii. Emaciation.
pigs.
viii. Smacking of the mouth.
b) Causal organism- Caused by virus of type
A, C and D which affects the mucous e) Control.
membrane of the mouth and coronet of the i. Quarantine.
foot. The incubation period is 2-6 days. ii. Vaccination every 6 months.
c) Mode of transmission- contaminated iii. Mass slaughter of affected
litter, feet, garbage, injection needles and animals.
affected saliva.
iv. Disinfect animal hooves to stop
d) Symptoms. the spread.
i. Profuse and continuous salivation.
ii. High fever.
iii. Blisters/ wounds in the mouth and feet.
iv. Lameness due to wounds in the coronet on
all the legs. © Sam obare 3-May-22
 3. Newcastle. 3-May-22 © Sam obare

22

 It is a contagious, infectious and notifiable disease viii.There are nasal discharges which force the birds to
of poultry. shake their heads to clear it.
a) Animal affected-Poultry. ix. Drooping wings and bending of the neck.
b) Causal organism-Newcastle disease virus x. Birds produce watery greenish diarrhea.
whose incubation period is 5-7 days. xi. Eggs laid have soft shells.
c) Symptoms. Control.
i) Birds have difficulties in breathing. They i. Vaccination during first six weeks and two
produce a harsh, grating rasping sound when months later.
breathing.
ii. Quarantine.
ii) The beaks remain wide open and necks are
strained. iii. Mass slaughter and burning affected birds.
iii) Birds become dull. iv. Cleaning and disinfecting poultry houses.
iv) Birds stand with eyes closed all the time. v. Obtain stock from reputable source.
v) The birds loose appetite.
vi) Often the birds have their beaks and wings Symptoms of newcastle.
down.
vii) Birds walk in staggering motion.
 4. Fowl Pox. © Sam obare 3-May-22

23
d) Symptoms.
 It is infectious poultry disease.
i. Injuries/lesions are observed on the comb,
(a) Animals Affected- Poultry e.g. chicken, wattles, legs, vent, feet and under the wings.
turkeys, pigeons
ii. Difficulty in breathing and swallowing.
b) Causal Organism-A virus known as
Avian fox with incubation period- 3-14 iii. Loss of appetite.
days. iv. Emaciation/poor growth.
c) Predisposing factors. v. Watery discharge from the eyes or nose in early
i. Presence of wounds. stages.
ii. Presence of biting insects e.g. mosquitoes/ vi. Dullness.
mites. vii. Poor egg production.
e) Control and treatment.
i. Vaccination.
ii. Observe proper hygiene.
iii. Isolation and treatment of affected birds
iv. Mass slaughter of the affected birds.
 5. Gumboro disease (infectious
bursa disease).
24

a) Animal affected-Poultry e.g. v. Low water intake.

chicken, turkeys, pigeons and vi. Severe immuno-suppression
ducks. making the birds more
b) Causal organism-A virus susceptible to other diseases.
called Birna virus. vii. Mortality/ death rate
c) Incubation period- 2-3 increases.
days. e) Control.
d) Symptoms. i. Vaccination of birds showing
i. Glands of the vent/bursa signs of disease.
become swollen. ii. Use of vitamins B12 for fast
ii. Decrease in egg production. manufacture of blood.
iii. Respiratory distress.
iv. Loss of appetite.

© Sam obare 3-May-22

 6. African swine fever.
25

 It is a contagious, infectious and fatal d) Control.

disease of domestic pigs. i. Vaccination incase of disease
a) Animal attacked-Pigs. outbreak.
b) Causal organism-Virus called ii. Quarantine.
Irido virus with incubation iii. Kill and properly dispose off
period 5-15 days. affected animals.
c) Symptoms. iv. Double fencing to keep wild
i. Fever/rise in temperature. animals away.
ii. Lack of appetite. v. Avoid consumption of pig
iii. Animal becomes depressed. products from pandemic areas.
iv. Animal becomes generally weak.
v. The animal starts coughing.
vi. Nasal discharge.
vii. Diarrhoea.

© Sam obare 3-May-22

 D. NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS.
1. Milk fever (Parturient paresis).
26

a) Animal affected-Cows, goats and iv. The animal lies down on its side and
sheep that have recently given birth. the whole body stiffens.
 It is common in high producing cows in the v. Complete loss of appetite.
first few months of lactation. vi. Body functions e.g. urination,
b) Cause. defecation and milk secretion stops.
 Low calcium levels in blood which leads to vii. Animal falls down and becomes
increase in magnesium and sugar level in unconscious.
blood. viii. Sudden death if there is no treatment.
 This is because animals lose more calcium ix. Stomach contents are drawn into the
through milk secretion than they are getting mouth which later cause lung fever
from diet. when breathing in.
c) Symptoms.
 Symptoms appear 12-27 hours after birth.
i. Dullness.
ii. Muscular twitching causing trembling of
the animal.
iii. Staggering of the animal as it moves. © Sam obare 3-May-22
27

d) Control.  The animal suffering from milk fever

i. Feeding high yielding cows with should not be given medicine
ration containing calcium, through the mouth because of the
phosphorus and vitamin D. following reasons:
ii. Partial milking for first 10 days in 1. It will not be able to swallow the
cows with history of milk fever, medicine.
then gradually increasing the 2. The medicine may get into the
amount of milking. lungs which may cause lung fever
iii. Intravenous injection of soluble and eventually death.
calcium.
iv. Animals should be kept in a
comfortable position i.e. resting
on its sternum. Mechanical
removal of urine to facilitate
recovery and providing fresh
water.

© Sam obare 3-May-22

 2. Bloat.
28

 This is the accumulation of gases in the rumen as c) Symptoms.

a result of food fermentation. i. The left side of the abdomen
a) Animal affected-Cattle, goats and sheep. is excessively extended.
b) Causes.  It is filled with gases and this can
i. Obstruction of the oesophagus due to bulky be felt by pressing with the
food particles e.g. potatoes, carrots, mangoes. hand.
ii. Abnormal pressure exerted on the oesophagus ii. Death may occur within hours
by swelling in the wall of the chest. due to too much pressure
exerted on blood vessels,
iii. Indigestion- caused by accumulation of gases lungs and heart.
due to paralysis of the rumen and valve at its
entrance.
 This results from the animal eating poisonous
herbs or due to change of feeds especially soft
green forage which is taken in large quantities.
 The condition is worsened if the forage (e.g.
clover, beans, Lucerne, lush grass, peas, cabbage
leaves, beetroots) is wet with dew or rain.
© Sam obare 3-May-22
29

d) Control iii. Chemical means- they include:

i. Feed the animal with dry roughages 1. Drenching of the animal using suitable
during wet season before allowing oils e.g. turpentine oil mixed with
them feed on lush pastures. vegetable oil.
e) Treatment 2. Administration of Epson salt to clear
i. Manual means- Exercising the the remaining rumen contents.
animal and rubbing its abdomen with 3. Administration of methyl silicone as
both hands to facilitate the rumen injection directly into the rumen to
eject gases. prevent bubble type of bloat.
ii. Surgical means- piercing the Procedure of using trocar and canula.
abdominal wall over swollen rumen  Insert the trocar into canula.
using trocar and canula, sharp knife to
expel the gas.  Insert both equipment into enlarged area
i.e. left side.
 The gases can also be ejected/ expelled
using stomach pump through the  Withdraw the trocar while holding the
oesophagus into the rumen. canula to allow gases expulsion.

© Sam obare 3-May-22