SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25

BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 1

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

UNIT 1 – Casting Processes

• Introduction
• Classification of Manufacturing Processes
• Foundry
• Casting
• Sand Mould Casting
• Preparing a Sand Mould For Casting
• Different Moulding Methods
• Aims/Advantages of Making a Casting
• Elements of Casting Processes
• Steps in Casting Making Process
• Advantages, Limitations & Applications of Casting Process
• Foundry
• Types of Foundries
• Patterns
• Materials Used For Patterns
• Pattern Allowances
• Pattern Types
• Gating System
• Elements of Gating System
• Gating Ratio
• Defects in Castings
• Solidification
• Concept of solidification
• Solidification of Casting
• Solidification of Pure Metals
• Solidification in Alloys
• Risers
• Functions of riser
• Riser Location
• Types of Risers
• Casting Design Considerations
• Special Casting Processes
o Centrifugal Casting Process
o Die Casting Processes
o Investment Casting Processes

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
INTRODUCTION:

The main aim behind advances in engineering and technology has been to
raise the standard of living of man and to make his life more comfortable. The major
role in this direction has been played by manufacturing sc ience. Manufacturing is an
essential component of any industrialized economy. The word „Manufacturing‟ means
the making of goods and artic les by hand or by mac hinery. Thus „Manufacturing
engineering‟ or “Production Engineering” can be defined as the study of the various
processes required to produce parts and to assemble them in to mac hines and
mec hanisms. Production or Manufacturing is a critical; link in the design cyc le, whic h
starts with a c reative idea and ends with a successful product, refer below figure.

Specifications and
Requirements
Feed Back

Feasibility Study

Feed Back

Creativity Design Synthesis

Preliminary Design and

Development

Detailed Design Feed Back

Feed Back
Prototype Building and Testing

Design for Production

Product Release

Design Cycle

CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:

When one thinks as to how the various components of mac hines are produced
components of mac hines are produced, many techniques come to the mind, for
example, casting, forging, rolling, mac hining, welding etc. The manufacturing
processes are so varied that there is no simple and universally accepted criteria of
c lassifying these. However, all the manufacturing processes may be grouped into the
following main categories:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 3

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
1. Casting Processes: Here, the metal in the state is poured into a mould
and allowed state is poured into a mould and allowed to solidify into a shape. The
mould may be expendable or permanent.
The examples are: Sand casting, Permanent mould casting, Die casting,
Precision investment casting and centrifugal casting etc.

2. Deformation Processes: In these processes, the material is plastic ally

deformed i.e., hot or cold under the action of an external force, to produce the
required shape. No material is removed, but is only displaced and deformed to get
the final shape. This category includes metal working/forming processes such as :
forging, rolling, extrusion and drawing etc. and also sheet metal working processes
such as deep drawing and bending etc. The unconventional forming processes such
as High Energy Rate Forming (HERF) and High Veloc ity Forming (HVF) methods also
fall under this category.

3. Machining Processes: In mac hining processes, also known as Metal

cutting or chip forming processes, material is removed from a work piece to get the
final shape of the product. The processes include: Turning, milling, drilling,
broaching, shaving, grinding, polishing, lapping, honing, buffing and sawing etc. The
modern unconventional mac hining processes such as ECM, EDM, USM, AJM and LBM
etc. are included in this category.

4. Plastic materials/Polymers processing methods: Under this category

are included the various methods for processing plastic materials/ polymers, for
example, shape casting, the various moulding processes (compression moulding,
injection moulding, transfer moulding etc.) and thermoforming etc.

5. Powder Metallurgy: The more appropriate name should be “Partic ulate

Processing Methods”. Here, the partic les of various sizes of metals, ceramics,
polymers, and glass etc. are pressed to shape and then sintered to get the final
product.

6. Joining Processes: Here, two or more components are joined together to

produce the required product. The category includes all the welding processes,
brazing, soldering, diffusion bonding, riveting, bolting, adhesive bonding etc.

7. Heat treatment and surface treatment processes: Heat treatment

processes are employed to improve the properties of a work peace. The category
includes the processes like Annealing, normalizing, hardening and tempering
methods. Surface treatment processes include electro-plating and painting etc.

8. Assembly processes: The assembly process for mac hines and the
mec hanisms is the part of the same manufacturing process concerned with the
consecutive joining of the furnished parts into assembly units and complete
mac hines, of a quality that means the manufacturing spec ific ations.

It is evident from above that, in general, no component can be produced

entirely by one single category of manufacturing processes. For example, the starting
material for the forging process is in the form of bar, stock or billet, which are the
end-products of rolling process. And, for the rolling process, the starting material id
„ingot‟, whic h is produced by casting process. Metal casting processes are normally
used to give the final shape and size (surface finish, dimensional accuracy) to the
components made by the other processes.

Accordingly, all the manufacturing processes can be grouped into two main
categories:-

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 4

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(i) Primary manufacturing Processes: These processes are involved in the
initial breakdown of the original material to shapes that are then
processed for the final product.

For example: casting, forging, rolling, extrusion, powder metallurgy and

plastic technology.

However, in many cases, parts produced by these processes do not need

other processes for producing the final shape and size.

For example: precision investment casting, die castings, prec ision

forgings, powder metallurgy parts and parts produced by plastic
processing methods.

(ii) Secondary Manufacturing Processes: These processes take the

products of some primary process and change their geometry and
properties to the semi finished or finished stage.

Example: all metal removal processes and the rest of the metal forming
processes, that is, drawing, spinning, swaging, coining, stretc hing,
bending, deep drawing, wire/rod/tube drawing, sheet metal forming and
rubber forming etc.

FOUNDRY: The solidified piece of metal, whic h is taken out of the mould, is called
casting. A plant where the castings are made is called a „Foundry‟. It is a collection of
necessary materials, tools and equipment to produce a casting. The casting process
is also called as “Founding”. The word Foundry is derived from Latin word “fundere”
meaning “melting and pouring”.

TYPES OF FOUNDRIES; All the foundries are basic ally of two types:

(i) Jobbing Foundries: These foundries are mostly independently owned. They
produce castings on contract, within their capac ity.

(ii) Captive Foundries: Such foundries are usually a department of a big

manufacturing company. They produce castings exc lusively for the parent
company. Some captive foundries whic h achieve high production, sell a part of
their output.

CASTING:

Casting is probably one of the most anc ient processes of manufacturing ma

metallic components. Also, with few exceptions, it is the first step in the manufacture
of metallic components.

These are the only processes where liquid metal is used. Casting is the one of
the oldest known processes and also first step in manufacturing of most products.

The process involves the following basic steps;

1. A solid material usually a metal is first melted.

2. Pouring it into a previously made mould or cavity (made by pattern)
whic h conforms to the shape of the desired component.
3. Allowing the molten metal to cool and solidify in the mould.
4. Removing the solidified component from the mould, cleaning it and
subjecting further treatment, if necessary.

The solidified object or piece of metal, whic h is taken out of the mould, is
called as “Casting”.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 5

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Casting processes are universally used for manufacturing a wide variety of

products. Extremely large, heavy metal objects can be made with casting process.
Casting of even 200 ton can be made. Casting processes are best option when it is
diffic ult to economically impossible to produce by any other process.

There are number of casting processes available whic h may be broadly

c lassified as sand casting processes and contemporary or special casting process.

(i) Sand casting process: In sand casting process sand is used as primary
material for making moulds. Sand casting process is used for most
commerc ial metals. The process is equally suitable for production of very
small batch as well as very large scale. These are used or producing large size
objects.

(ii) Contemporary or special casting process: Whenever the size of casting is

not large and production is on a large scale, specialized casting process offers
cost saving. Some of the specialized casting process are:
1. Shell moulding casting
2. Precision investment casting
3. Permanent mould casting
4. Die casting
5. Centrifugal casting

SAND MOULD CASTING:

This process accounts for about 80% of the total output of cast products. This
sand moulds are single casting moulds and are completely destroyed for taking out
the casting, after the metal has solidified in the mould cavity. The moulding material
is sand which is mixed with small a mounts of other materials like binders and
additives and water to improve the cohesive strength and moulding ability of sand.
For making the mould, the moulding material will have to be consolidated and
contained around the pattern. The metallic container is called as flask. There can be
one flask or more than one flask. The most common design is two f lask systems. In
the assembled position the upper flask is called “Cope” (Cope Box or Cope Flask) and
the bottom one is called “Drag” (Drag Box or Drag Flask). In three flask system, the
central flask is called “Cheek”. One flask design is used in „Full Mould Process‟ or in
„Pit Moulding‟, where it is used as cope, the pit acting as the drag.

Depending upon the type of pattern used, the sand mould casting process is
of two types:

1. Permanent or Removable Pattern Process: Here the pattern is removed from

the mould cavity, before the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity.
This is the most common sand mould casting process.

2. Expendable or Disposable Pattern Process: Here the pattern is not removed

from the mould cavity, before the molten metal is poured into the mould
cavity. It gets melted and forms a part of the final casting

PREPARING A SAND MOULD FOR CASTING:

The sequence of operations performed in the making of a sand mould is given

below. For this, a green sand mould and a split pattern have been chosen. The
appropriate split pattern is made which is split into two equal parts at the parting
plane and joined together with dowel pins. We will use a two flask system.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 6

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

1. The drag half of the pattern, that is the half dowel holes rather than dowel
pins, is placed with the flat parting plane on a flat board called “Moulding
Board”.
2. The drag is placed over the moulding board with the alignment or locating
pins downwards.
3. A parting material is dusted over the pattern and the moulding board to
facilitate both the removal of the pattern from the mould and the separation
of the two mould halves.
4. The drag is filled with moulding sand and it is pac ked and rammed around the
pattern. The ramming is done manually with hands and with hand rammers
made wood or iron. The sand should be properly rammed, that is neither too
hard nor too soft. If it is too soft, the mould will fall apart during handling or
during pouring and if it is too hard, gases produced on pouring will not be able
to leave it. Pneumatic ramming or mec hanic al ramming can be used for large
moulds.

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ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
5. After the ramming, the excess sand is sc rapped off with a straight bar called a
“Strike Rod”.
6. Vent holes are pierc ed with in 15 to 20 mm of the pattern surface with “Vent
Wires”, for the gases to escape through.
7. A second moulding board is placed on the moulded drag half and c lamped if
the mould is too heavy to be turned over conveniently by hand. The mould is
then turned over 180° and the original moulding board is removed.
8. The cope is mounted onto the drag and the two halves are properly aligned
with the help of dowel pins.
9. The cope half of the pattern is properly positioned over the drag half of the
pattern with help of dowel pins and dowel holes.
10. For making the sprue and riser, the sprue pin and riser pin are placed
approximately 25 mm on either side of the pattern usually along the parting
line passing through the alignment pins.
11. Steps 3 to 6 are repeated.
12. A pouring basin is cut adjacent to the sprue and then the sprue and riser pins
are with drawn.
13. The cope is carefully lifted off the temporarily separated from the drag and
placed on one side.
14. To take out the split pattern from the drag, “draw Spikes” are drawn into the
pattern and the pattern is loosened from the sand by rapping them slightly in
all directions with a wooden hammer called a “mallet”. Then the pattern is
lifted off with the help of draw spike. Before with drawing the pattern, the
sand around it is moistened with a “Swab” so that the edges of the mould
remain firm when the pattern is withdrawn.
15. The gate and runner are cut in the drag or both cope and drag, connecting the
mould cavity and the sprue opening. Sometimes, the gate and runner are
automatically made with the help of extensions on the pattern. If needed, all
the cavity edges are repaired. Dirt remaining in the mould cavity is blown off
with a steam of air. If core are to be used, they are properly placed in position
in the drag.
16. The mould is now assembled, the cope being carefully placed over the drag so
that the locating pins into the holes.
17. If the lifting force on the cope due to the hydraulic pressure of the molten
metal is grater than the weight of the cope, the cope must either be clamped
to the drag or else weights must be placed on the top of the edge.
18. The mould is ready for pouring.
19. Melt the metal or alloy to be cast.
20. Pour the molten metal or alloy into the mould cavity.
21. Allow the molten metal to cool and solidify. Remove the casting from the
mould. This operation is called shake out.
22. Clean and finish the casting. The operation is called as “fettling”.
23. Test and inspect the casting.
24. Remove the defects if any and if possible salvaging the casting.
25. Again inspect the casting.
26. The casting is ready for use of shipping.

DIFFERENT MOULDING METHODS:

Moulding processes in conventional foundry are c lassified as follows:

1. Bench Moulding: Bench type moulding is used for small castings. In bench
moulding process green sand, dry sand or skin dried moulds can be made. In this
hand ramming with loose pattern is employed which is slow and laborious method.
Various bench mould methods are:

(a) Two – box moulding in which moulding box or moulding flask is made in two
parts core and drag.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 8

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(b) Three – box moulding: when the pattern shape is such that two box moulding
becomes diffic ult then three box moulding is used. The middle moulding box
or moulding flask is called cheek.
(c) Stack moulding: when large number of small size casting are required (each
having one flat surface) then this method can be used. There will be common
passage for the molten metal running through the stack of intermediate
boxes. A number of parts can be cast in single pouring operation.

2. Floor Moulding: When casting size inc reases and is diffic ult to handle the
moulding is done on the foundry floor. This type of casting is used for medium and
large castings. It is a slow and laborious method as it requires ramming with loose
patterns. Green sand, dry sand or skin dried moulds can be made by this method.
The moulding is carried out usually using moulding flask having two parts – cope and
drag.

3. Pit Moulding: This method is used for moulding extremely large casting. Here
castings are moulded in a pit instead of a flask. The pit acts as drag part of the flask
and a separate cope is used above it. This pit has sides and bottoms constructed of
reinforced conc rete. At the bottom of the pit, a bed of charc oal may be placed to aid
the escape of gases. After pouring, these large castings should be allowed to cool
slowly in the mould to prevent the formation of excessive residual internal stresses.

4. Machine Moulding: Machine moulding is usually when small castings are

produced in large numbers. In some cases they may also be used for production of
small numbers of casting. Here mac hines perform a number of operations that are
ordinarily dome by hands. Operations like ramming the sand, rolling the mould over,
forming the gate and withdrawing the pattern are performed muc h better and more
effic iently by mac hined than by hand. Thus mould and cores made are better faster
and less skill is required of the workman.

AIMS or ADVANTAGES IN MAKING A CASTING:

There are basically two reasons for making a casting.

1) Liquid metal must be solidified before further processing is possible.

2) To produce finished or semi-finished artic les. The various reasons under

this second category, whic h are of more importance, can be

(a) Casting is often the cheapest and most direct way of produc ing a shape with
certain desired mec hanical properties. Desired mec hanic al properties can be
attained by operations like suitable control of alloy composition, grain
structure and heat treatment.
(b) Casting is best suited where components are desired in low quantities as high
cost of mec hanical working processes like tolling, forging, extrusion etc…
requiring heavy equipment can be justified only when components in large
quantities are required.
(c) Certain metals and alloys such as highly c reep resistant metal based alloys for
gas turbines can‟t be worked mec hanically and can be cast only.
(d) Intric ate shapes having internal openings and complex sectional variations
can be produced quic kly and economic ally by casting since liquid metals can
flow into any form, whereas tooling and machine costs in mec hanic al working
would be too high to produce them.
(e) Heavy equipment like mac hine beds, ships propellers, etc… can be cast easily
in the required size rather than fabric ating them by joining several smaller
pieces.
(f) Casting is best suited for composite components requiring different properties
in different sections. These are made by incorporating prefabricated inserts in
a casting, some examples are: steel screw threads in zinc die castings,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 9

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
aluminium conductors into slots in iron armatures for electric motors, wear
resistant skins onto shock resistant components etc…

ELEMENTS OF CASTING PROCESSES:

The metals most frequently cast are iron, steel, aluminium, brass, bronze,
magnesium, certain zinc alloys, and nic kel based super alloys. Of this cast iron is the
dominant casting material, primarily because of its low cost, good fluidity, low
shrinkage, ease of control and wide range of properties including useful strength and
rigidity.

The important terms whic h are using in making moulding and casting process
are given below in brief:

(a) Moulding Flask: The box like frame without top and bottom base into whic h
sand is rammed is called “flask”. It holds the sand mould intact. It is made up
of wood for temporary applic ations and more generally of metal for long term
use. It is generally made of two or more parts.

Drag: Lower or bottom moulding flask is known as drag.

Cope: Upper moulding flask is termed as cope.
Cheek: It is an intermediate moulding flask in three piece moulding.

Drag is provided with the pins and cope is provided with lugs with hole whic h
fit together and ensures proper alignment during the placement of cope upon drag.

(b) Parting Line or Parting Surface: It is the surface or line that separates the
cope and drags halves of the mould. In split piece pattern it is also the dividing line
between two half‟s of the pattern.

(c) Bottom Board: This is the board normally made of wood whic h is used at
starting of mould making. The pattern and drag is first kept on the bottom board,
sand is sprinkled and ramming is done in the drag.

(d) Pattern: Pattern is the duplicate of final casting to be made with some
modific ations. It is used for making the mould cavity.

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ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(e) Core: Core is placed in moulding cavity to make hole or hollow cavities
through the castings. Core is made up of core sand.

Basic difference between core and pattern: Although both core and pattern
are used to give desired shape to the castings. The removable pattern never comes
in contact molten metal because its purpose is to form mould cavity and it is always
removed before pouring the molten metal. Whereas core is present in the mould
while pouring the molten metal and is always subjected to severe thermal stresses as
core is present in the mould while pouring the molten metal. The materials used for
pattern are wood, plastic and may be metal when large numbers of casting are
required. The material used for making core is core sand.

(f) Core Box: Core boxes are used for imparting the desired shape to the core
sand. Core boxes can also be defined as mould or die used to produce cores. Core
boxes are made up of wood, or metal.

(g) Core Prints: Core prints are provided to locate and support the core within
the moulds and hold them in proper position while filling the mould. Core print is a
region added to the pattern, core or mould.

(h) Chaplets: Chaplets are the metallic support kept inside the mould cavity to
support the core. These should be of same composition as that of pouring metal.
They melt and fuse with molten metal during solidification and become the integral
part of finished casting. The use of chaplets should be minimized because they
usually cause casting defects.

(i) Chills: Chills are metallic objects of high heat capac ity and are placed in mould
to provide the uniform rate of cooling or to achieve desired rate of cooling. Chills may
be external or internal chills.

Internal chills melt during the operation and ultimately become part of the casting
so internal chills must be made from the same alloy as that being cast. Thin portion
of casting would normally cool before sect ion and set up internal stress due to
uneven contraction. If a chill is placed as shown the rate of cooling is equalized and
risk of distortion of casting of minimized.

(J)Gating System: All those elements whic h are related to flow of molten metal
from ladle to the mould cavity are referred as elements of gating system.

The elements of gating system are pouring basin, sprue, runner, gates and
riser. We will discuss this gating system in brief after casting process.

STEPS IN CASTING MAKING PROCESS:

Following are the basic steps in the making of sand castings. Any detailed
operation may be categorized as belonging to one of these fundamental steps;

1. Pattern making
2. Core making
3. Mould making (Moulding)
4. Melting and pouring
5. Solidification and mould breaking
6. Cleaning and finishing

1. Pattern Making: The casting process starts with construction of a pattern.

Pattern is the duplicate of the final casting with some modifications; these
modific ations are discussed in pattern allowances. Patterns are required to
make moulds. The mould is made by packing the moulding sand around it.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 11

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
When the pattern is withdrawn its impression provides the mould cavity whic h
is ultimately filled with molten metal to make casting.

2. Core Making: Cores are made of core sand. Basically core is a sand shape
that is kept inside the mould cavity to produce holes or hollow cavities in the
castings. With the core any complic ated shape can be easily obtained whic h
can not be normally produced by pattern alone.

3. Mould Making: Mould making consists of all operation necessary to prepare

mould for receiving molten metal. Mould making for two piece mould involves
following operations.

(i) Placing drag half of pattern and lower moulding flash drag in
position.
(ii) Pouring of sand and ramming up the drag.
(iii) Rolling over the drag and placing the cope half of pattern on drag half
of pattern with help of dowel pins. Also cope upper moulding flask is
placed over the drag.
(iv) Locating sprue pin, riser pin and ramming up the core.
(v) Removing sprue pin, riser pin and pattern.
(vi) Making of runner and gate.
(vii) Setting the core in mould.
(viii) Closing the mould.

4. Melting and Pouring: After the moulding, melting is the major factor whic h
controls the quality of casting. Melting simply means preparation of molten
metal. There are number of methods available for melting such as pit furnace,
open hearth furnace, cupola furnace etc.

Pouring means transferring the molten metal from furnace to the mould.
Some type of pouring devic e or ladle is required for pouring. Proper pouring
technique must be used so that adequate amount of molten metal at desired
temperature with minimum contamination should be supplied to mould. Thus
producing a high quality casting whic h is free from defects.

5. Solidification and Mould Breaking: After pouring the metal into the mould,
the casting is allowed to solidify and cooled in the mould itself. The sand
mould is to be broken to extract the casting. The breaking of sand mould is to
be done only when the casting is suffic iently cooled since the metal at high
temperature has very little strength. Removing the casting from mould is not
very diffic ult in sand casting as the mould is destroyed after each casting but
with multiple use mould, however, removal of complex shaped casting may
present a major design problem.

6. Cleaning and Finishing: After the castings are removed from the moulds
various cleaning and finishing operations are required to remove of sand,
scale and exc ess metal from the casting surface. Excess metal is cut off. For
removing the sand partic les stic king to metal surface sand blasting is normally
used. Tumbling is also used for c leaning the casting surface.

ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS & APPLICATIONS OF CASTING PROCESS:

Advantages;

1. Parts like both small and large of intricate shapes can be produced.
2. Almost all the metals and alloys and some plastic s can be cast.
3. A part can be made almost to the finished shape before any mac hining is
done.
4. Good mec hanic al and service properties.

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ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
Prepared by, Dr Balaji M, Assoc. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
5. Mechanical and automated casting processes help dec rease the cost of
castings.
6. The number of castings can vary from very few to several thousands.
7. Necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive.
8. Casting process is highly suitable for small lot as well as mass production.
9. Castings are generally cooled uniformly from all sides and therefore, they are
expected to have no directional properties.
10. It is possible to cast practically any material be it ferrous or non ferrous.

Limitations;

1. Casting imposes severe problems from the point of view of material properties
and accuracy.
2. A complic ated sequence of operations is required for metal casting.
3. The dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieved by normal sand casting
processes is not adequate for final applic ations in many cases.
4. With some materials it is often diffic ult to remove defects arising out of
moisture present in sand castings.

Applications;
There is hardly any mac hine or equipment whic h does not have one or more
cast components.
The list is very long, for example,
• automobile engine blocks,
• cylinder blocks of automobile and airplane engines,
• pistons and piston rings,
• mac hine tool beds,
• mac hine frames,
• mill rolls,
• wheel and housings of steam and hydraulic turbines,
• turbine vanes,
• aircraft jet engine blades,
• water supply and sewer pipes,
• sanitary fittings,
• Agricultural parts etc…

PATTERNS:

A pattern is an element used for making cavities in the mould, into whic h
molten is poured to produce a casting. It is not an exact replic a of the casting
desired. There are certain essential differences. It is slightly larger than the desired
casting, due to the various allowances like shrinkage allowance, mac hining allowance
etc. and it may have several projections or bosses called core prints. It may also
have extensions to produce runners and gates during the moulding process.

The requirements of a good pattern are:

1. Secure the desired shape and size of the casting.
2. Cheap and readily repairable.
3. Simple in design for case of manufacture.
4. Light in mass and convenient to handle.
5. Have high strength and long life in order to make as many moulds as required
6. Retain its dimension and rigidity during the definite service life.
7. Its surface should be smooth and wear resistant.
8. Able to withstand rough handling.

MATERIALS USED FOR PATTERNS:

The common materials used in pattern making include “wood, metal, plastic
and quic k setting compounds. Each material has its own advantages, limitations and

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field of applic ation. Also, the required accuracy, strength and life of a pattern depend
on the quantity of castings to be produced. Based on the above factors, we can
choose the pattern material as follows:

(i) Piece and short run production – wood

(ii) Large scale and mass production – Metal, being more durable than
wood, though costlier.
(iii) Batch Production – Plastic s for example, epoxy resins and also from
gypsum and cement.

(a) Wood: The wood used for pattern making should be properly dried and
seasoned. It should not contain more than 10% moisture to avoid warping and
distortion during subsequent drying. It should be straight grained and free from
knots.

Advantages:

1. Light in weight.
2. Comparatively inexpensive.
3. Good workability.
4. Lends itself to gluing and joining.
5. Holds well varnishes and paints.
6. Can be repaired easily.

Limitations:

1. Inherently non uniform in structure.

2. Posses‟ poor wear and abrasion resistance.
3. Can not with stand rough handling.
4. Absorbs and gives off moisture, so that it varies in volume, warps and thus
changes its mec hanical properties.

These drawbac ks, however, can be remedied by drying and seasoning it and then
giving coats of water proof varnishes and paints.

The following types of wood are commonly used for pattern making;

(i) White Pine: It is the most widely used wood, because of its straight grain
and light weight and because it is soft, easy to work and unlikely to warp.
(ii) Mahogany: It is harder and more durable than white pine. Can be worked
easily if straight grained. It is less likely to wrap than some of other woods.
(iii) Maple, Birch and Cherry: These woods are harder and heavier than white
pine. They tend to warp in large sections, so should be used for small patterns
only. They should be carefully treated, because they pic k up moisture readily.

The other common wood materials are Teak, Shisham, Kail and Deodar.

(b) Metal: A metal pattern can be either cast from a master wooden pattern or may
be mac hined by the usual methods of mac hining. Metal patterns are usually used in
mac hining. Metal patterns are usually used in mac hine moulding.

Advantages:

1. More durable and accurate in size than wooed pattern.

2. Have a smooth surface.
3. Do not deform in storage.
4. Are resistant to wear, abrasion, corrosion and swelling.
5. Can with stand rough handling.

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BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Limitations:

1. Expensive as compared to wood.

2. Not easily repaired.
3. Heavier than wooden patterns.
4. Ferrous patterns can get rusted.

The common metals used for pattern making are:

(i) Cast Iron: With this fine grain can be used as a pattern material. It has low
corrosion resistance unless protected. Heavier and diffic ult to work. However it is
cheaper and more durable than other metals.

(ii) Brass: May be easily worked and built up by soldering or brazing. It has a
smooth, c losed pore structure. It is expensive therefore generally used foe small cast
parts.

(iii) Aluminum: It is the best pattern material, because it is easily worked, light in
weight and is corrosion resistant. It is however subject to shrinkage and wear by
abrasive action.

(iv) White Metal: It has low shrinkage, can be cast easily, has low melting point, is
light in weight and may be built up by soldering. However, it is subject to wear by
abrasive action of sand.

(c) Plastics: The use of plastics for pattern material results in following advantages;

1. Facilitates the production process.

2. Makes it more economical in cost and labour.
3. Plastic patterns are highly resistant to corrosion, lighter and stronger than
wood patterns.
4. Moulding sand stic ks less to plastics than to wood.
5. No moisture absorption.
6. Smooth surface of patterns.
7. Strong and dimensionally stable.

Various plastic patterns make good materials for the production of patterns.
These are the compositions based on epoxy, phenol formaldehyde and polyester
resins; polyac rylaes, polyethylene, polyvinylchloride and others. In most wide use
are cold curing plastics based on epoxy resins and ac rylates.

Plastic patterns are made by one of the following methods:

(i) By injecting a plastic material into a die.

(ii) Utilizing laminated construction by building up successive layers of resin and
glass fibre.
(iii) By pouring a plastic material into a plaster mould.

Gypsum patterns are capable of producing castings with intric ate details and to
very close tolerances. The two main types of gypsum are soft “Plaster of Paris” and
hard metal casting plaster. However soft plasters do not have the strength of hard
plaster. Gypsum can be easily formed, has plastic ity and can be easily repaired.

After the patterns are made, they should be finished by sanding so that tool
marks and other irregularities are erased. Then they should be applied with 2 to 3
coats of shellac. Shellac fills up the pores and imparts a smooth finish.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
The finish of the casting depends on the finish of the pattern. If the pattern is
to be preserved for a long period and if a color scheme is to be used good quality
enamel paint should be selected to spray or brush paint it.

PATTERN ALLOWACES:

Pattern allowances means the dimensions of the pattern are slightly different
from the final dimensions of the casting. This difference is required because of
various reasons whic h are as follows:

(a) Shrinkage Allowance: All metals shrink while cooling except bismuth. To
compensate for shrinkage the pattern is slightly larger in every dimension.

The rate of shrinkage or contraction with temperature is different for different

materials. For example steel contracts to a higher degree as compared to aluminium.

Shrinkage allowances for various metals

Material (Non Ferrous) Shrinkage allowance (mm/mm)

Aluminium 0.0130

Aluminium Bronze 0.0200 to 0.0230

Brass 0.0155

Copper 0.0100 to 0.0160

Lead 0.0260

Magnesium 0.0130

Magnesium alloys 0.0160

White metal 0.0060

Zinc 0.0100 to 0.0150

Material (Ferrous) Shrinkage allowance (mm/mm)

Grey cast iron 0.0105

White cast iron 0.0160 to 0.0230

Plain carbon steel 0.0210

Chromium steel 0.0200

Manganese steel 0.0250 to 0.0380

It may be noted that there are two types of shrinkages in casting:

1. Liquid Shrinkage: Liquid shrinkage means reduction in volume when the

metal changes from liquid to solid state. To account for this shrinkage
risers are provided.
2. Solid Shrinkage: Solid shrinkage is the reduction of volume caused when
solid metal loses its temperature i.e., from high temperature to room
temperature. In solid state the shrinkage allowance are provided take care
of this reduction.

To compensate shrinkage allowance all the dimensions of casting are altered

uniformly unless they are constrained in some way. For example, dry sand core at
the centre of casting may constrain the casting fro, contraction but edges are not

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
constrained so it may be desirable to provide a higher shrinkage allowance for outer
dimensions as compared to those whic h are constrained.

(b) Draft Allowance: While withdrawing the pattern from sand mould the vertical
faces of the pattern may damage with mould cavity. To reduce the chances of this
happening vertic al faces of pattern are always tapered from parting line. Thus the
pattern horizontal section is largest at the parting and becomes smaller the deeper it
goes into sand. This is called draft.

a. Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the job. For external surfaces
it is normally 1˚ and for inner surfaces, holes and poc ket up to 3˚ may be
provided.
b. One thing is to be noted that draft is added to the original dimension of
casting thus making pattern slightly larger.

Draft value for patterns

Outer Draft Angle

Pattern
(in degrees)
Inner Draft Angle
Plastic 0.25 to 1.00 0.35 to 2.25
Wood 0.25 to 3.00 0.50 to 3.00
Metal 0.35 to 1.50 0.50 to 3.00

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

(c) Finish or Machining Allowance: The finish and dimensional accuracy obtained
in sand casting are generally poor, and when dimensional accurate part is to be
produced, it is achieved by subsequent mac hining operation.

(i) Also ferrous material would have scale on surface whic h is to be removed.
Hence extra metal is provided whic h is removed by mac hining or cleaning
process. The amount of extra metal depends on the dimensions, casting
material and surface finish required.

(ii) Machining allowance of some materials are shown in table.

Machining allowances on patterns

Dimensions Surface allowance

Bore allowance Cope side Allowance
(mm) (mm)
Non – ferrous metals

Less than 200 2.0 1.5 2.0

200 to 300 2.5 1.5 3.0

300 to 900 3.0 2.5 3.0

Cast Iron

Less than 300 3.0 3.0 5.5

300 to 500 5.0 4.0 6.0

500 to 900 6.0 5.0 6.0

Cast steel

Less than 150 3.0 3.0 6.0

150 to 500 6.0 5.5 7.0

500 to 900 7.0 6.0 9.0

(d) Distortion Allowance: Certain objects such as long flat plate, U – shaped
casting, V – section or complic ated casting whic h have thin and long section are
distorted in the process of cooling because of metal shrinkage. So extra metal is
provided to reduce the distortion of such object.

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ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::TIRUPATI
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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2024 - 25
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Figure shows the distortion of I section.

(e) Shake Allowance: In all the allowances mentioned above the dimensions of
pattern are larger than the cast component. But shake allowance is negative
allowance. Before the pattern is withdrawn from sand mould, it is rapped to enlarge
mould cavity slightly whic h make the removal of pattern easy. In average size
casting this inc rease in size can be ignored but in large size casting shake allowance
is considered by making the pattern slightly smaller. One way of reducing this
allowance is to increase the draft whic h can be removed during subsequent
mac hining.

PATTERN TYPES:

There are many type of patterns used in foundry industry. Selection of pattern
is usually based on complexity of the part, number of castings required and moulding
procedure adopted.

Following are the pattern types used in foundry shop.

(a) Single Piece Pattern: As the name suggest single piece pattern are the
simplest and often least expensive type to make.

Single piece pattern.

(i) These are used when the shape of casting is simple and does not create problems
while with drawing the pattern from the mould. The above figure represent casting
and single piece pattern corresponding to the casting. As disc ussed earlier various
allowances are provided while manufacturing the pattern. Draft allowance is shown in
pattern.
(ii) These are generally used when number of casting required is rather small.
(iii) The pattern is expected to be entirely in drag box. If the shape of pattern is
complex and contains no flat surface then moulding may become complic ated with

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
the necessity of follow board. This is a time consuming process and requires a skilled
worker.

(b) Split Piece Pattern: Many patterns can not be made in single piece because
they cannot be removed from mould. To eliminate this problem some pattern are
made in two parts. Lower half of pattern rests in drag box while upper half of pattern
is in cope box i.e., upper box.

The split surface of pattern is same as the parting plane of the mould. The two
halves of pattern should be aligned properly by making use of dowel pins whic h are
fitted to the upper cope half pattern. These dowel pin match the prec isely made hole
in the lower half drag box of the pattern.

These patterns are also used when the depth of casting is too high or when
moderate quantities are to be made.

(c) Cope and Drag Pattern: These type of patterns are generally used for moulding
medium and large castings. However, they can also be used for producing small
castings. These are similar to split pattern. Cope and drag half of the pattern along
with gating and rising system are attached separately to metal or wooden plates
along with alignment pins. Thus cope and drag mould can be produced independently
on moulding mac hine using these plates. Then they are assembled to from complete
mould. In this way large mould can be handled more easily in separate mould and
small moulds can be made at faster rate.

(d) Match plate patterns: When large quantity of small casting is to be produced
with higher dimensional accuracy then match plate patterns are used. It is the
extension of cope and drag patterns.

In this cope and drag halves of the split match plate along with gates and
raisers are permanently attached t the opposite sides of single match plate which is
made up of wood or metal. One side is moulded in the drag and after turning over,
the cope side is moulded. The upper and lower moulding boxes are now separated

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
and match plate pattern is removed. Using lugs with hole and alignment pin, cope
and drag are reassembled in proper alignment.

The below figure shows the casting of 8 components at once in the matc h
place with pattern as shown.

(e) Loose Piece Pattern: When the shape of part is such that one piece or split
pattern could not be removed from moulding sand, loose piece pattern may be used.
During the moulding obstructing part of the pattern is held as loose piece by a wire.
After the moulding is over first the main pattern is removed then the loose pieces are
removed through the cavity generated by removal of main pattern. One advantage of
loose pattern is that some shifting is possible during mould ma king. Loose piece
pattern are expensive and moulding with loose piece is a highly skilled job. However
they enable the sand casting of complex shape whic h would other wise require other
processes. Whenever, possible design changes should be considered that would
eliminate the need for loose piece pattern.

(f) Follow Board Pattern: These types of patterns are used where some portions of
pattern are structurally weak and if not supported properly are likely to break under
the force of ramming. Hence the bottom board is modified as follow board. Fellow
board is provided with projection or cavity corresponding to the shape of pattern.
Actually fellow board acts as a seat for the patterns. During the preparation of core
no fellow board is necessary because the sand whic h is rammed in drag will support
the weak portion of pattern.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(g) Master Pattern: A master pattern, usually made of wood, is used as an original
for casting metal patterns. Several patterns may be cast from the master patterns
and mounted on the pattern plate after they have been finished to the proper
dimensions. Master pattern may be the first step to obtain match plates. Most metal
pattern are cast in sand mould from a wooden master pattern provided with double
shrinkage allowance.

(h) Sweep Patterns: It is the one of the type of special pattern. These type of
patterns are used for producing large casting, particularly whic h are circ ular in cross
section and are axis symmetrical like bell shape castings or large kettles of cast iron.
The main advantage of this pattern is that it eliminates the cost of manufacturing in
a three dimensional pattern.

The equipment consists of a base suit able placed in sand, a vertic al spindle
and a wooden template called sweep. The sweep consists of flat board and on the
one end has the shape corresponding to the shape of desired casting. The sweep is
rotated about the spindle to form the mould cavity like if conical cavity is desired the
shape of sweep will be fight angle triangular plane. When this plane will rotate about
the edge the conic al cavity will be formed.

Sweep and spindle are then removed leaving the base in sand. The hole made
by removal of spindle is filled up by sand. Hence cavity is prepared. If shape desires
then we may place core and chaplets in the cavity.

(i) Segmental Pattern: These patterns are used for producing large circ ular
castings avoiding the use of solid pattern of exact size. Segmental pattern differs
from sweep pattern in the sense that sweep is given a continuous revolving motion
to generate desired shape, whereas a segmental pattern is a portion of solid pattern
itself and mould is prepared in parts by it. In the use of this pattern a vertic al central
spindle is first firmly fixed near the center of drag and after preparing the part mould
in one position the segment is moved to the next position. The process is continued
until a complete circular mould cavity has been made. A large cast gear can be
moulded with a segmental pattern with only three to four teeth.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(j) Skeleton Pattern: These patterns are ideal when preparation of a regular solid
pattern would be too expensive and the shapes to be cast permit their use. A
skeleton pattern is merely a wooden frame. The space between wooden frames is
filled with moulding sand. The exact over all shape is obtained by firmly pressing the
sand and stric kling it. Skeleton pattern for round shape such as pipes and cylinders
are prepared in cope and drag halves.

In some instances cope drag and interior core may all be formed from same
skeleton pattern, there by saving the expense of large core box.

The below figure shows the skeleton pattern for casting a large diameter
flanged pipe.

GATING SYSTEM:

The molten metal from ladle is not introduced directly into the mould cavity,
because it will strike the bottom of the mould cavity with a great veloc ity and can
cause considerable erosion of the bottom of the mould cavity. Due to this, the molten
metal is introduced into the mould cavity from the ladle, through a gating system.
The gating system for a casting is a series of channels whic h lead molten metal from
the ladle into the mould cavity. It may include any or all of the following,

1. Pouring Bain
2. Sprue
3. Sprue Base or well
4. Runner
5. Choke
6. Skim Bob
7. Gates or ingates
8. Riser

Elements of gating system have a great impact on the quality of casting

produced. The gating system should be designed in such a manner that defect free
casting is produced.

The following points should be considered while designing the gating system:

1. The metal should enter the mould cavity with as little turbulence as possible.
2. The metal should enter the mould cavity at minimum optimum flow rate. High
flow rate causes erosion of gating system and mould cavity where as low flow
rate can result in casting defects like misrun and coldshut.
3. Proper thermal gradient should be maintained so that cooling takes place
without shrinkage, cavities and distortion.
4. Molten metal flow through gating system should be properly controlled in such
a manner that absorption of gases and atmospheric air is prevented.
5. Unwanted materials like sand partic les, slag and dross should not be allowed
to enter the mould cavity.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
6. The gating system chosen should be economical, easy to operate and
removable after solidific ation.

1. Pouring Basin: A pouring basin or cup is a reservoir at the top of the sprue that
receives the stream of molten metal poured from the ladle. Some times the metal is
directly poured into the top of the sprue, whic h is made with a funnel shaped
opening.

The pouring basin may be moulded into the cope at the top of the sprue, or it
may be made of core sand and placed on the cope above the sprue. The pouring
basin is filled quickly at the start of the pour and it should remain full of molten metal
during pouring. Thus dross c onsisting of oxides and slags whic h float may be kept
from entering the sprue.

To prevent the slag from flowing down the sprue, it is sometimes useful to
close the sprue entrance with a plug or tin plates and allow the molten metal to fill
the basin. The plug is then lifted off.

There can be many designs of pouring basins, but the most commonly used
one is shown in below figures. The metal must be poured into the pouring basin that
is remote from the sprue entrance. If the metals poured directly down the sprue
entrance, lot of vortexing and turbulence take place, resulting in unsound and
defective casting. However when the metal is poured into the far low side of the
pouring basin, a dam effect enables the operator to reach and optimum pouring
speed before any metal enters the sprue. The weir will hold back the heavier
inclusions and the skimmer or dam will bold back the dross.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Another means of preventing slags from entering the sprue and hence the
mould cavity is to use a ceramic strainer at the top of the sprue. The strainer is made
from core sand, chamotte and refractory fibre materials. The strainer is maintained in
the pouring basin for constant flow of molten liquid and also controls the slag.

2. Sprue: Sprue is the vertic al portion of gating system through whic h molten metal
is brought into the parting plane from where it enters the runners. Sprue is gradually
tapered and having reduced c ross sectional area as it moves down from top of cope
as shown in figure. This is because molten metal moving from top gains velocity
downwards and as result requires smaller cross sectional area for same volume flow
rate. If the sprue has straight cylindrical shape low pressure region will be created
and atmospheric air may be sucked into this low resume region and may cause
casting defects like air inclusions and blow holes.

When runner is partially full, slag is not effectively trapped and may enter
mould cavity along metal.

3. Sprue Well or base: Where a sprue joins a runner, usually an enlargement in the
runner is made. This enlargement whic h is called as “Sprue Base” or “Sprue Well”
serves a dual function. A molten metal pool is an exc ellent device for preventing
exc essive sand erosion where the molten metal impinges on the runner at the sprue
base. Also, there is sudden slowing of flow whic h dissipates kinetic energy and helps

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
to drop out inclusions, scum and various other refractory materials that may have
been washed in with the molten metal.

4. Runner: Runner is a horizontal channel located in parting plane which connects

the sprue to gates and allowing the molten metal to enter mould cavity. Runners are
normally made trapezoidal in cross section. It is a normal practice to cut runners in
the cope and gates in the drag. The main reason behind this is to trap the slag and
dross which are lighter and thus trapped in the upper portion of runners. When the
amount of molten metal flowing from sprue is more than amount flowing through
gates, runner would be always full and thus slag would be trapped effectively. On the
other hand when the metal coming through gates is more than that flowing through
the runners then runner would be partially filled and slag would enter the mould
cavity as shown in fig. Formed runner and gates resist the erosion better than those
are cut in mould.

5. Choke: The choke is that part of the gating system which has the smallest cross
sectional area. Its function is to control the rate of metal flow to help lower the flow
veloc ity in the runner, to hold back slag and foreign material and float these in the
cope side of the runner and to minimize sand erosion in the runner.

Gate Ratio: It is defined as the ratio of sprue base area, followed by the total runner
area and the total ingate area. The sprue base area is taken as unity.

Depending upon its location, the gating system may be classified as;

(i) Pressurised or choked system.

(ii) Unpressurised or free system

Pressurised gating system: In this system, the ingates serve as the choke. This
system maintains a back pressure and causes the entire gating system to become
pressurized. It is usual to cut runners in the cope and gates in the cope and gates in
the drag. And since in the pressurized system the runner flows full, the slag will
remain in the runner while floating up to its upper section. The system will flow full
even if a straight sprue is used once the flow has been established. The full flow
system will minimize aspiration and oxidation in the gating system. However the
molten metal will enter the mould cavity with relatively high veloc ity , causing
turbulence. This will cause erosion and oxidation in the mould cavity. But in this
system the molten metal will enter the mould cavity uniformly through all the gates.
A typic al gating ratio in this system can be 1: 0.75: 0.50

The gating ratio is defined as the ration between Sprue area, Runner area,
and Ingate area.

→ Gating Ratio = Sprue area: Runner area: Ingate area = 1: 0.75: 0.50

Unpessurised gating system: In this system, the sprue base serves as the choke.
Typical gating ratios in this system can be, 1 : 2 : 4 or 1 : 4 : 4.

This system reduces veloc ity and turbulence and hence minimizes erosion and
oxidation in the mould cavity. But, since the system will not flow full, it may favour
absorption of gases and oxidation of metal in the gating system. Also, the slag will
not float up and will get access to the mould cavity. This system must have tapered
sprues, sprue base wells and pouring basins. This system can deliver metal uniformly
to multiple gates only if the runner is reduced after each gate.

For casting alloys such as light metals and manganese bronze, usually the
unpressurised system is used in contrast, for casting heavy and ferrous metals,
pressurized system has been used. However, according to Briggs, for high quality

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ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
steel castings, a gating ratio of 1 : 2 : 2 or 1 : 2: 1.5 will produce castings nearly
free from erosion and will minimize oxidation which in turn gives uniform flow.

6. Skim Bob: A skim bob is an enlargement along the runner, whose function is to
trap heavier and lighter impurities such as dross or eroded sand. It thus prevents
these impurities from going into the mould cavity.

7. Gates / Ingates: Gates are channels whic h connect the runners to the mould
cavity and through whic h the incoming metal directly enters into the mould cavity.
The gates should break off easily from the casting after solidific ation. For this at the
junction to the cavity, the gates are muc h reduced in thic kness. This will also choke
the flow of metal and ensure its quiet entrance into the mould cavity. From
experience, the best cross section for gates is a trapezoidal one that smoothly passes
into a rectangular section at the junction of the cavity.

Ingate: This is the end of the gate where it joins the mould cavity and through
whic h the molten metal will be introduced into the mould cavity.

Depending upon the applic ations and spec ific requirements there are various
types of gates. They are:

1. Parting gate
2. Bottom gate
3. Top gate
4. Step gate.

Parting Gate: Parting gate is most common gate used in sand castings. As name
suggests metal enters the mould cavity at the parting plane separating cope and
drag as shown in fig. this parting gates are very easy to make as they forms in the
parting surface.

Bottom Gate: Bottom gates are used to overc ome the diffic ulty of mould erosion of
deep moulds. Here the metal enters of the mould cavity at the bottom of the mould.
The molten metal slowly rises in the mould cavity and it takes somewhat higher time
for filling the mould. The preparation of bottom gate requires spec ial sprue or spec ial
cores.

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ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Top Gate: As the name suggests, in this case all metal enters the mould cavity from
top as shown in fig. Since the metal whic h enters first reaches at the bottom and
hotter metal is at the top and a favourable temperature gradient is c reated. Also the
mould fills quickly in this gate. Top gating is suggested only for ferrous metal
castings whic h are of simple shape and having a little depth. To reduce the mould
erosion pencil gates are provided in pouring cups.

Step Gate: The step gate ensures gradual filling of mould without mould erosion and
produces good quality castings. Step gates are used for deep, heavy and large
castings. The molten metal enters the mould cavity through a number of side gates
as shown in fig. It ensures the gradual filling of mould without any mould erosion and
produces a good quality casting.

8. Risers: Risers are the added reservoirs provided in mould to feed molten metal
into mould cavity to compensate for the shrinkage. In order to make the risers
effective, following points should be kept in mind while designing them:

• The metal in risers should remain molten as long as possible and should
solidify after the casting.
• The riser should be located near heavy sections subjected to large shrinkage.
• The volume of riser should be suffic ient for compensating the shrinkage in
castings.
The risers are of various types:
1. Top risers: Top risers are located on top of castings. They are convenient to
make and occupy less space with in the mould. A top riser of open type is
shown in above fig.
2. Side risers: Side risers are located adjacent to the mould cavity. They are
placed on parting line. Side riser of blind type is shown in above fig.
3. Blind risers: Blind risers are in the cope half of the mould and are not open to
the atmosphere. It is surrounded by moulding sand and losses heat slowly, so
they are more effective.
4. Open riser: If the risers are open to atmosphere they are known as open
risers.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 28

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Defects in Casting:

Casting defects are usually not accidental but due to improper control of
manufacturing. The major defects generally found in the sand castings are as
follows:

1. Gas defects
2. Shrinkage Cavities
3. Moulding material defects
4. Pouring metal defects
5. Metallurgical defects
6. Moulding and core box defects

1. Gas Defects: These are blow holes and open blows, air inclusions and pin hole
porosity. These are due to lower permeability of the mould.

(a) Blow holes and open blows: These are in the form of spherical, flattened or
elongated cavities present inside the cavity or on the surface as shown in fig. On the
surface, they are called open blow holes. These are due to the moisture left in the
mould and the core. Due to heat of the molten metal, the moisture is converted into
steam, a part of whic h may entrap in the casting. Apart from the moisture, they
occur due to the lower venting and lower permeability of the mould.

(b) Air Inclusions: The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in
the furnace, in the laddle and during the flow in the mould when not allowed to
escape, would be trapped inside the casting. The main reason for this defect is the
higher pouring temperatures which increase the amount of gas absorption.

(c) Pinhole Porosity: This is due to the hydrogen in the molten metal. The hydrogen
while leaving the solidifying metal would cause very small diameter and long
pinholes.

2. Shrinkage Cavities: These are caused by the liquid shrinkage occurring during
the solidific ation. To compensate this, proper feeding of the liquid metal is required.
Also proper casting design.
3. Moulding Material Defects: Scabs, swell, run out and drop. These defects occur
because of the moulding materials are not having required properties or due to
ramming.

(a) Scabs: These are projections on the casting which occur when a portion of the
mould face lifts and metal flows underneath in a thin layer. In other words, liquid
metal penetrates behind the surface layer of sand. (see below fig.)

These scabs are of two types: 1. Expansion scabs, 2. Erosion scabs.

Expansion scab is caused by the expansion of the surface layers of the sand.
It may occur where metal has been agitated or has partly eroded the sand.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 29

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Scabs occur due to uneven ramming, excess moisture in the sand.

(b) Swell: Under the influence of the metallostatic forc es, the mould wall may move
back causing a swell in the casting.

It may occur due to insuffic ient ramming of the sand, pouring the molten metal too
rapidly.

(c) Run out: This occurs when the molten metal leaks out the mould cavity. This may
be caused either due to faulty mould making or because of the faulty moulding flask.

(d) Drop: A drop occurs when cope surface c rac ks and breaks, thus the pieces of
sand fall into the molten metal. This is due to either low green strength or improper
ramming of the cope flask.

4. Pouring Metal Defects: The defects in this category are misrun, cold shut,
poured short.

(a) Misrun: When the mould is not completely filled with molten metal due to some
obstruction in the form of metal, the defect is called misrun.

(b) Cold shut: Sometimes metal is poured from opposite directions in the mould. If
the two streams of metal approach each other, make physic al contact, but do not
fuse together thus leaving a gap, the resulting defect is called „c old shut‟. The
reasons for cold shut or misrun may be too thin sections, improper gating system,
slow and intermittent pouring and poor fluidity of metal.

(c) Poured Short: When the mould cavity is not completely filled because of
insuffic ient metal, the defect is called „poured short‟.

5. Metallurgical Defects: Hot tears and Hot spots.

a) Hot Tears or Hot Crac ks: These are internal or external ragged discontinuous or
c rac ks on the casting surface, due to hindered contraction occurring immediately
after the metal had solidified. These will occur when the casting is poorly designed.

(b) Hot spots: These are caused by the chilling of the casting. For example, with gray
cast iron having small amounts of silic on, very hard white cast iron may result at the
chilled surface. This hot spot will interface with the subsequent mac hining of this
region. Proper metallurgical control is essential for eliminations of the hot spots.

6. Moulding and core Box Defects:

(a) Mould Shift (Mismatc h): Shifts in a mis matc h of cope and drag flasks at the
parting line. The below figure shows the mismatc h of the sections of a casting at the
parting line. This is due to worn or loose dowels in the pattern made in halves. This
defect can be prevented by ensuring proper alignment of the patterns or die parts.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Core shift may also occur due to misalignment of cores or core halves during
assembly.

(b) Fins: Thin projections of metal on the surface of the casting usually at the parting
of mould or core sections. Moulds and cores incorrectly assembled will cause fins.
Insuffic ient weight on the mould or improper clamping of the flasks may produce fin
defect.

Solidification:

A thorough understanding of the mec hanism of solidification, the rate

of heat loss from the material to the mould etc… is essential to predict how the
casting will solidify and thus avoid casting defects like seams, gas porosity, hot tears
etc… Since solidific ation requires energy to produce a c rystalline structure, some
super cooling (cooling below the freezing point) is required before the liquid starts to
solidify. It is provided by the walls of the mould whic h provide sites around whic h
c rystals can grow initially and subsequently by the solidified partic les and the metal
itself. So the crystals growing inwards until the whole of the metal has solidified. The
c rystals near the mould walls are small and equated i.e., their axes randomly
oriented. On further solidific ation, crystals grow with their axes perpendic ular to the
mould and these are columnar in shape.

Concept of solidification:

To understand the good mec hanism of solidific ation we have to know the
basic concept that when the casting solidifies it shrinks or contracts in size. This
shrinkage occurs in three stages:
(i) Liquid Contraction or Shrinkage: This shrinkage occurs when the metal is
liquid. It occurs when the molten metal cools from the temperature at whic h it
is poured to the temperature at whic h solidification occurs.
(ii) Solidification Shrinkage: This occurs when the metal looses its latent heat
that is during the metal changes from the liquid state to the solid state.
(iii) Solid Shrinkage: This occurs when the metal cools from freezing
temperature to the room temperature.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 31

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Only the first two shrinkages are considered for risering purposes, since the third
is accounted for by the pattern makers contraction allowance. Liquid shrinkage is
generally negligible, but solidific ation shrinkage can be substantial.

As already discussed, when the mould cavity is filled with molten metal, the metal
adjacent to the walls of the mould cools and solidifies first. This result in the shell of
solid metal, with the centre of the section remaining liquid, while there is a zone
between the liquid interior and solid exterior where in the metal is in a semi solid or
mushy state. The solidification then proceeds inwards towards the same centre of the
section. This solidific ation is called as “Lateral or Progressive Solidific ation”.
Longitudinal solidification occurs at right angles to the lateral solidification at the
center line (as shown in fig.). The gating should be designed in such a manner that it
permits solidific ation and cooling to progress in such a way that the accompanying
shrinkage may take place without resulting in voids, c rac ks, or porosity with in the
casting, so as to obtain a sound casting. This type of solidific ation is called
“Directional Solidific ation”. For this to occur, the following two conditions should be
satisfied:

(a) The longitudinal solidific ation must progress from the thinnest faster cooling
sections to the heavier hotter sections.
(b) The temperature gradient, in addition to being properly directed, must be
suffic iently steep so that the liquid metal can pass through the wedge shaped
channel to compensate for shrinkage as it occurs at the centre line. It implies
that the progressive solidific ation is controlled in such a way that no portion of
the casting is isolated from liquid metal feeding channels, during the complete
solidification cycle.

If the depth of a section is quite large as compared to its c ross section, then the
progressive solidific ation rate will exceed the longitudinal solidific ation and result in
fine center line porosity or even a larger or series of large cavities. To prevent such
defects, the cross section of the casting should inc rease towards the hotter sections.
.

Solidification of Casting:

Sound casting is one whic h is free from defects like porosity, shrinkage and
c rac ks etc. In order to produce a casting free from such defects, it is essential to
know cast structure developed during solidific ation of metals and alloys.

Recrystallization:

(a) In this process, old distorted grains are replaced by new equaixed stress free,
strain free grains by a process a nucleation and growth. This is called
Rec rystallization.
(b) Nucleation occurs at the points of high energy and subsequently these nuc lei
grow at the expense of old grains. The probability of forming a nucleus is the
same at every place a state suitable for homogeneous is said to be in the
system.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(c) Nucleation occurs at the surface near the mould wall contains equidistanced
grains and the nucleation is based on the volume of the partic les formed i.e.,
free energy and the energy need to join the surface layer of the partic le. The
microstructure at the end of rec rytallization process is similar to the original
structure. The grains become equaixed and the dislocation density gets
reduced to a value of strain free metal.
(d) Due to change in the mic rostructure of the casting metal, mec hanical
properties increases, internal stresses are reduced almost to the original level
with increase in corrosion resistance.
(e) The grain size of the material obtained at the end of rec rystallization depends
on the temperature of heating, time of heating, heating rate and type end
level of impurities.
(f) Insoluble partic les lock the grain boundaries and prevent their migration. They
also reduce the energy of grain boundaries. Due to this, a fine grain size rate
sharply decreases.

Formation of Grains:

All the metals are crystalline and c rystals are made up of several atoms. The
individual crystals or grains together form the visible mass of a solid metal.

A grain is a crystal with almost external shape, but with an internal atomic
structure based on the space lattice with whic h it was formed. The mec hanical
property of the metal varies with the arrangement of grains. The solidific ation
process is shown in below fig.

The metal begins to solidify when the temperature of the liquid metal drops
below the critical temperature. When two or more atoms assoc iated to form a small
c rystal called “Nuc leus‟. It happens in number of locations through out liquid metal.
They are simultaneously cooled. Slow cooling favours growth of crystals uniformly in
all directions of growth and give equaixed c rystals i.e., the c rystals with equal
dimensions in all the direction. Rapid cooling always favours tree like c rystals called
“dendrites” which consisting of unit cells, with straight line branches.

Crystal grows until it come in contact with the adjacent crystal of proper
geometrical form and having different orientations. They can be distorted by
interface of each crystal with its neighbours.

The boundary formed between two adjacent c rystalline growths because of

different orientations of the grain is known as boundary.

• As shown in above figure the formation of nuc leus in straight line branches is
shown in (a).
• Crystals having the same geometric al from but different in orientations can be
seen in (b) & (c).
• Grain boundaries formed between adjacent c rystals can be seen in (d).

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Grain Size:

The rate of whole crystallization process is determined by the rate of

nucleation (N) and rate of crystal growth (G). The size of the grain is determined by
the rate of c rystal growth (G) and rate of nucleation (N). At high value of G and low
value of N, coarse grains are formed. Besides rate of cooling, the grain size also
depends on factors.

• Temperature of liquid metal

• Impurities in metal
• Chemic al composition

Solidification of Pure Metals:

Solidification process differs from pure metal to the alloys as it is the

transformation of the molten metal back to the solid state.

As the pure metal have sharply defined freezing temperature whic h is the
same melting point composed of the small group of atoms oriented into common
c rystal pattern (See below figure). The process occurs in the overtime called a
cooling curve. During the process of solidific ation nuclei spring up, each nucleus grow
and able to form the crystal whic h is visible to the eye.

As each nuc leus grows, the atoms within it are having the same orientation.
When the nuc leus has grown to the point, they absorb all the liquid atoms and come
in contact with each other along their boundaries. The boundaries do not line up the
plan of atoms, change direction from one crystal to other so solid state composed of
a number of c rystals of different orientation i.e., mixed crystals.
The actual freezing takes time called “Local Solidification Time” in casting
during whic h the metals latent heat of fusion is released into the surrounding mould.
The total solidification time is the time taken between pouring and complete
solidification. After the casting is completely solidified, cooling gradually increases by
decreasing the slope of the cooling curve as shown in below figure.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 34

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Because of the chilling action of the mould wall, a thin skin (a thin layer) is
formed at the interface immediately after pouring. Thic kness of the skin inc reases to
form a shell around molten metal as solidific ation progress inward toward the centre
of the cavity. The rat e of freezing depends on the heat transfer in the mould.

As the conductivity of the mould is high, fine, equiaxed, random orientation

atoms of small crystal grows neat the mould face. As the cooling progress, the grain
formation in the direction away from the heat transfer gradually long columnar
c rystals, with the axis perpendic ular to the mould face are formed.

The beginning of solidification and end of solidific ation takes place at constant
temperature in pure metals. These two points are called congruent melting points.
Perfect crystals of proper external shape can be obtained only if crystallization
develops under the degree of super cooling is very low and the metal is having high
purity. In most of the cases it leads to the formation of branches form at right angles
to the first branch (Tree like c rystals) called dendrites as shown in below figure.

Solidification in Alloys:

Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather than at a single

temperature. The exact range depends on the alloy stem and the partic ular
composition. This can be explained with reference to the phase diagram as shown in
below figure.

Just below the solidific ation starts the solid phase start separating out from
the liquid. As the temperature decreases, the freezing begins from the liquids line

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and is completed when the solidus is reached. As similar to the pure metal the
freezing starts by forming a thin skin at the mould wall due to large temperature
gradient at the surfaces and dendrites grow away from the surface of the mould wall
where both liquid and solid metal together. This solid region has a sort of consistency
leading to its name as “Mushy Zone”. As the freezing progress the mushy zone is
relatively narrow, and exists through out casting. As the temperature difference
increases the dendrite matrix solidify as casting drops to the solidus line for the given
alloy composition.

Metals having the higher melting points favour the formation of the dendrites
composition in the solidification of alloys.

Composition imbalance can be seen in dendrites growth depending upon the

segregation of the elements as shown in figure.

The segregation is of two types,

(a) Mic roscopic Level

(b) Mac roscopic Level
Microscopic level: Composition varies throughout each individual grain. Each
dendrite has a higher portion of one of the elements in the alloy.

Macroscopic level: Composition varied throughout the casting as the regions of the
casting freeze first and ric her in one component than the other.

Risers:

Riser is a hole cut in the cope to permit the molten metal to rise above the
highest point in the casting. The riser is a passage of sand made in the mould during
ramming. The molten metal raises in the riser after the mould cavity is filled up.

Functions of riser:

(i) It enables the pourer to see the metal in the mould cavity. If the metal is not
seen in the riser, it indic ates that either the metal is not suffic ient to fill the
mould cavity or there is some obstruction to the metal flow between the sprue
and riser.
(ii) The riser gives passage to the steam, gas and air from the mould cavity while
filling the mould with the molten metal.
(iii) It serves as feeder to feed the molten metal into mould cavity to compensate
for its shrinkage.

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Riser Location:

Before the shape and size of the riser is determined, its location must be
spec ified. Any casting, no matter bow complex, can be subdivided into several
geometrical shapes, consisting of two heavier sections joined by a thinner section. A
riser should be located close to each heavier section. Also it should be located in such
a manner that it is the last portion of the casting to solidify.

Types of Risers:

Depending upon its location, the riser is described as „Top Riser‟ or „Side Riser‟.

Side Risers: If the riser is located between runners and casting, it is known as side
riser. It is also called a „live or hot riser‟ since it is filled last and contains the hottest
metal. The side riser receives the molten metal directly from the runner before it
enters the mould cavity and is more effective than the top riser.

Top Risers: If a riser must be placed at the top of the casting or at the end of the
mould cavity then it is called as Top riser or „dead or cold riser‟. These types of risers
fill up with the coldest metal and are likely to solidify before casting.

Open risers: These risers are open to the atmosphere at the top surface of the
mould.

Advantages:

(i) It can be easily moulded.

(ii) As it is open to atmosphere, it will not draw metal from the casting as a result
of partial vacuum in the riser.
(iii) These risers serve as collectors of nonmetallic inclusions floating up to the
surface.

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Limitations:

(i) They can be moulded only in the cope i.e., either at the top of the mould
cavity or on the side at the parting line.
(ii) Open risers are holes through whic h foreign matter may get into the mould
cavity.

Blind Risers: A riser whic h does not break to the top of the cope and is entirely
surrounded by moulding sand is known as „Blind Riser‟. Blind risers are setup in high
moulding boxes, where the use of open risers would entail a large consumption of
molten metal.
Advantages:
(i) Considerable latitude or flexibility is allowed for positioning the riser, either in
a cope or in a drag.
(ii) It is surrounded on all sides by moulding sand. Thus it looses heat slowly
whic h helps in better directional solidific ation of the casting.
(iii) A blind riser can be smaller than a comparable open riser, there fore more
yield is obtained.

The main drawback of the blind riser is that when the metal in it cool, metal skins
may quic kly form on its walls. This will result in a vacuum in the riser and the riser
will not feed and may actually draw metal from the casting.
Shape and size of Riser: The risers are designed to solidify last so as to feed
enough metal to heavy sections of the casting to make up for the shrinkage before
and during solidific ation. For this they should loose heat at a slower rate. Amount of
heat content is proportional to the volume and the rate of heat dissipation depends
upon the surface area of the riser. Thus the risers should be designed with a high V/A
(Volume/Surface Area) ratio, for a given size. This will minimize the loss of heat, so
that the riser will remain hot and the metal in the molten state as long as possible.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 38

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
This condition can be met when the riser is spheric al in shape so that its surface area
is minimum, for a given volume. The next best practical shape is a cylinder.
Rectangular sections are very ineffic ient and must be avoided as far as possible. As
risers of ideal spheric al shape are diffic ult to mould, consequently the cylinder is
probably the best shape to employ for general run of casting.

Casting Design Considerations:

A cast part must have such a design as to ensure a high level of its working
characteristics like strength, rigidity, stiffness, tightness, and corrosion resistance at
a given mass and shape of the part. Proper attention to design details can minimize
casting problems and lower costs. For this a close collaboration between the designer
and the foundry engineer is important.

The main feature of the casting process is that the molten metal poured into
the mould contracts as it cools and solidifies. The main consideration is that the
shape of the casting should allow for directional solidific ation. Some of the important
design considerations are disc ussed below:

a. The shape of the castings should be as simple as possible. That helps to

reduce the cost of patterns, cores and moulds.
b. Castings should be made as compact as possible. Large steel castings of
complex shape are divided into two or more castings, whic h can be easily
cast, and then joined by welding to produce a „cast-weld‟ construction.
c. Projecting details (bosses, lugs etc…) or underc uts should be avoided, or the
pattern elements for them should be made so that they do not hinder the
removal of pattern from the mould.

d. To facilitate removal, provision should be made for draft (1/2˚ to 3˚) on the
castings vertic al surfaces. The draft is greater for the inside surfaces than
for the exterior surfaces.
e. Where ever possible, avoid complex parting lines on the pattern, because
these increase the cost of moulding operations. Parting lines should be in a
single plane, if practicable. The design (b) is better not only because the
lines are simpler and the pattern is less costly but also because a plane
parting can be used in the process of moulding.

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f. Avoid concentration of metal so that no shrinkage cavities are formed. For
this reason, bosses, lugs, pads should be avoided unless absolutely
necessary. Metal section is too heavy at bosses whic h are diffic ult to feed
solid.

g. The position of the castings surfaces during metal pouring must be taken
into account, since gas blow holes may form on the castings upper
horizontal surfaces. Critic al surfaces of castings should lie at the bottom part
of the mould.
h. Minimum Section Thic kness: The thic kness of the casting walls is
determined depending on the size and mass of the casting, its material and
the mass of the casting. Exc ept for cast iron, the minimum section thic kness
depends mainly upon the fluidity of the molten metal. If a casting section is
too thin, or if it is relatively thin and extends too far, a misrun or cold shut
defect will occur.
i. The casting design should provide for easy removal of core materials and
reinforcements and should make for ease of c leaning and fettling after the
shake out operation. In order to remove core material from internal cavities,
spec ial bosses with holes should be provided on the casting. After the
c leaning, the holes are stopped with plugs. The outer contour of the casting
should be free of deep blind pockets and recesses. The cavities should have
openings of suffic ient size to facilitate stripping.
j. A material that has a large solidific ation shrinkage will result in hot
shortness if the moulding material does not collapse suffic iently to allow
shrinkage or the moulds should be of simple shape so as not to develop
tensile stress during solidification. If possible the casting design should be
changed to allow deformation without moving large mould masses.

Special Casting Processes:

Centrifugal Casting Process: Centrifugal casting is the method of produc ing

castings by pouring the molten metal into a rapidly rotating mould. The metal is
thrown out towards the mould face by the centrifugal forc e under considerable
pressure.

According to the shape of mould, the centrifugal casting method can be c lassified as:
1. True centrifugal casting Process
2. Semi centrifugal casting Process
3. centrifuging casting Process

1. True Centrifugal Casting Process : In this process, the axis of rotation of the
mould coincides with the axis of the casting and the molten metal is pushed outwards
because of the centrifugal forc e, no core is required for making the concentric hole.
The axis of rotation may be horizontal, vertical or inclined. The most commonly cast
parts are cast iron pipes, liners and cylindrical barrels. The mould may be permanent
type or sand lined mould. A normal centrifugal casting mac hine used for making cast
iron pipes in sand moulds is shown in below fig.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

The moulding flask is rammed with sand to confirm to the outer contour of the pipe
to be made. At the end of the mould is fitted with a gear whic h meshes with a gear
on a motor driven shaft. The ends of the hollow mould are partially covered by
covers whic h can be detached when the casting is to be pushed out of the mould. At
both end covers, a central hole is provided. From one side, the molten metal is
poured, from a ladle and from other the hot gases escape out.

Advantages:
1. The inclusions get segregated towards the centre and can be easily removed
by mac hining.
2. The casting has better mec hanic al properties.
3. No central core is required.
4. No gates and risers are required.
5. The process is used for making pipes, hollow shafts, bushes and similar parts
with a concentric hole.

Limitations:
1. This method is limited to certain shapes with axis symmetric.
2. Equipment is costly.

Applic ations: Cast iron pipes, alloy steel pipes, liners of L.I.C. engine.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 41

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
2. Semi centrifugal casting Process: Semi centrifugal casting is used for
producing parts whic h are more complic ated than true centrifugal casting i.e., gear
blanks, wheels, pulleys etc… It is not necessary that to have a central hole in the
parts. Even core can also be used.

The moulds are made of either sand or metal. The moulds are rotated about a
central vertical axis whic h is concentric with axis of sprue (as shown in fig).
Rotational speed in this process is usually lower than for true centrifugal castings.
The molten metal is poured through central pouring basin. For producing large
quantity the use of stacked moulds are quite economic al.

3. Centrifuging casting Process: Centrifuging is used to obtain higher metal

pressure during solidification of casting. The process is used to produce castings of
almost any shape, but the process is suitable for only smaller castings. A number of
small mould cavities are joined together by means of radial runners whic h are
connected to a central sprue. The cavities are uniformly placed over the periphery so
that their masses are balanced. In this processes also, stack moulds are quite
economic al for produc ing large quantities.

The difference between true centrifugal or semi centrifugal and centrifuging is that in
case of true centrifugal or semi centrifugal casting process is that the axis of mould
coincides with the axis of rotation where as in case of centrifuging the axis of
rotation and the axis of the mould are not same. A number of mould cavities are
arranged on the circ umference of circ le and are connected to a central down sprue
through radial gates. This is suitable for only small jobs of any shape.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 42

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Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Die Casting Processes:

Die Casting processes is c losely related to permanent mould casting

processes; in both processes reusable metallic moulds (dies) are used. In die casting
process metal is forced under pressure compared to permanent mould casting (in
permanent mould casting molten metal flows using simple gravity flow). Because of
high pressure involved in die castings, narrow section and complex shaped can easily
be produced. Moreover smoother casting surfaces and closer tolerances can be
achieved since no coating is applied to die cavities.

The die casting mac hine consists of two halves with vertical parting. One half
is called cover die whic h is stationary and fixed to the mac hine. The other half is
called ejector die whic h moves for opening and closing. The die halves are having
dowel pin and dowel holes to maintain proper alignment. The die casting mac hine
performs the following functions:

(i) Cycle starts when both dies are apart. Lubric ant is sprayed on die castings
manually or by auto lubric ation system.
(ii) The two die halves are closed and c lamped. Dies can be closed and clamped
by hydraulic or mec hanical mec hanism.
(iii) Molten metal is injected into closed dies under pressure. Pressure is
maintained during solidific ation.
(iv) The dies are forced opened.
(v) Casting is ejected from dies along with its attached sprue and runners.
There are basically two types of die casting mac hines:

(i) Hot Chamber Process

(ii) Cold Chamber Process

The main difference between the two types is that in hot chamber, machine itself
contains furnace for liquid metal where as in cold chamber process metal is melt in
separate furnace and then poured into die casting mac hine with help of ladle for each
casting cyc le. Let us disc uss these processes in some what more details.

(i) Hot Chamber Process: This is also called sometimes known as “submerged
plunger die casting process”. In hot chamber die casting machine, there is suitable
furnace for melting and holding the metal. A plunger is submerged in reservoir of
molten metal as shown in below figure.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Following are the steps in a casting cycle.

1. As the plunger is raised, opening of cylinder is uncovered and, molten metal

enters the cylinder from molten metal reservoir under the force of gravity.
2. The plunger is forced downward, pneumatically or hydraulically, c losing the
cylinder opening and forc ing the molten metal through a nozzle in die.
3. As soon as casting is solidified, the pressure is relieved, dies are opened and
casting is ejected by means of knockout pins. As the same time plunger
again moves up uncovering the holes in cylinder and allowing the liquid
metal from furnace to cylinder.

The cyc le timings and pressure in the mac hines are set to suit the different
metals and castings. The added advantage of hot chamber process is that molten
metal is injected from the same chamber, in whic h it is melted, i.e., there is no
handling of molten metal. The limitation of process is that it cannot be used for
higher melting point metals. The process can be used for most of low melting
temperature alloys such as zinc, lead and tin.

(ii) Cold Chamber Process: The hot process is suitable for low temperature melting
alloys. As cylinders is continuously in contact with liquid metal, aluminium and other
high temperature melting alloy will attack the cylinder material. So for these me tals
cold chamber process is used. In cold chamber processes, holding furnace foe liquid
metal is not integral with die casting machine. The metal is melted in a separate
furnace and then poured into die casting mac hine with the help of ladle. This process
reduces the contact time between liquid metal and shot chamber.

The cold chamber process is shown in below figure.

The cycle starts when,

1. Lubricants are sprayed throughout the dies.
2. Die halves are closed and clamped.
3. Measured quantity of molten is poured in shot chamber of the mac hine. The
metal can be poured either by hand ladle or by means of auto ladle is form of
robotic devic e.
4. Plunger forc es the metal into die cavity and maintains the pressure during
solidification.
5. Dies are open and casting is ejected.
6. Plunger returns to original position completing the cyc le.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Since molten metal is transferred through ladle, cold chamber process has a
longer operating cycle than that of hot chamber process. Also during the
transportation of liquid metal from furnace to die casting mac hine, it may loose the
super heat and some times may cause defects such as cold shuts.

Advantages of Die Casting Processes:

1. Closer dimensional tolerance and smoother casting surfaces can be achieved

since not coating is applied to die casting.
2. Because of high pressure involved in die casting narrow sections and complex
shapes can easily produced.
3. Very high production rates can be achieved.
4. Complex casting can be produced because of using the movable cores.
5. Die casting gives better mec hanic al properties because of fine grained skin
formed during solidific ation.
6. The process is very economical for large scale production.

Limitations of Die Casting Processes:

1. The dies and mac hines are very costly. Therefore economy in production is
possible only when large quantities are produced.
2. Not suitable for all materials because of die materials limitations. Normally
non ferrous metals like Zn, Mg, Al or Copper alloys are die cast.
3. Maximum size of casting is limited. Normally castings weighing between 4 kg
to 15 kg are cast because of mac hine limitations.
4. The air may get entrapped during the process. It is a usual problem with die
castings.

Investment Casting Processes:

These methods are called as “Prec ision” because the castings obtained by
these methods have very smooth surfaces and posses high dimensional accuracy.
The term “Investment” refers to the layer of refractory material with which the
pattern is covered to make the mould. Like sand casting method, the mould is
destroyed every time a casting is made.

The two common and widely used methods under this category are ,

(i) Lost – Wax Method

(ii) Shell – Moulding Method

(i) Lost – Wax method: The Lost – Wax method is also called simply as „Prec ision –
investment casting‟ has been used for many years by jewelers and dentists. Basic ally
the method involves the use of expandable pattern surrounded with a shell of
refractory material to form the casting mould. Castings are formed by pouring molten
metal in the mould cavities c reated by melting out t he pattern. Since the pattern
made of wax is melted out and gets destroyed, that is why the name “lost – wax
method”.

The steps involved in this method are explained below:

1. Making a master pattern of the part to be cast. The pattern is usually made of
a metal that can be easily mac hined, such as brass, aluminium alloy or steel,
or a fusible alloy. It is made to compensate for wax and metal shrinkage.

2. Making a composite die to the master pattern for casting the wax/plastic
patterns. The die material is a low melting point alloy like bismuth alloys or
even aluminium. It can be made directly from die bloc ks of steel by mac hining
the cavities.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
3. Making of wax/plastic patterns. For this the two halves of the matter die are
c lamped together and molten wax/plastic is injected into the die cavity under
pressure. The molten wax is slightly above its melting point and the injection
pressure is about 4 bars with the dies preheated to about 65°C.

4. Assembling the wax pattern to a gating system. Several small wax patterns
are assembled together to a wax gating system connected to a central sprue,
by wax welding with the aid of heated tools. In this manner, a cluster or tree
of wax patterns is formed.

5. Investing the wax patterns. The wax patterns are invested in two stages.
Firstly a thin coating about 1 mm of primary investment slurry is made around
the wax patterns by dipping these in the slurry. This slurry is made by mixing
extremely fine silica sand with a water/ethyl silic ate or gypsum solution. After
this primary coating has dried, the final investment moulds is done.

This final investment may be either solid type or shell type. A solid
type mould is formed by placing a metal container type flask over the cluster
of patterns and then pouring a hard setting moulding material into the flask.
Shell type investment moulds are made by dipping the cluster of patterns in
ceramic slurry and the procedure is repeated until the required thic kness of
mould or shell is obtained.

6. Melting out the wax patterns and baking the mould. The finished mould is
dried in air for 2 to 3 hours and then baked in an oven for 2 hours to melt out
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 46
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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
the wax. At a temperature of 100 to 120°C, the wax melts and the moulds are
inverted so that all or most of the wax will run out through sprue.
7. Melting the metal and pouring the mould. The mould or flask is transferred to
a drying furnace where it is first held at 150°Cand then gradually heated to
800to 900°C. This will vaporize any remaining wax in the mould. Then the
preheated mould is poured with molten metal whic h fills the cavity and is
allowed to cool and solidify.
8. After cooling the fragile mould material is broken away freeing the castings.
The gates and runners are removed in the normal way.
9. Cleaning and inspecting the casting.

Advantages of Lost – wax method:

1. Intric ate details can be cast.
2. Underc uts and other shapes, whic h would not allow, the with drawl of a
normal pattern are easily obtained.
3. The surface is very smooth and there is no parting line.
4. High accuracy can be obtained so that much of complic ated and costly
mac hining can be eliminated.
5. Unmac hinable alloys can be cast.
6. Mora than one casting can be made at a time.

Limitations:
1. The process is involved and thus expensive.
2. The process has the limitations in use of and location of holes.
3. The parts are limited in size to a few Kg.

(ii) Shell – Moulding Method: It is a modification of the sand mould process. In

this process, the mould is made up of mixture of dried silica sand and phenolic resin,
formed into a thin half mould shells which are clamped together for pouring metal.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

The sand is first mixed with either urea or phenol formaldehyde resin in a
muller. Metal pattern is heated to 205 to 230˚C in an oven and sprayed with silic on
grease and kept on the top of the dump box. The dump box contains sand mixed
with thermo plastic resin. The box is inverted, causing the sand mix to fall on the hot
pattern. The resin melts and flow in between the grains of sand, acting as a bond.
After 30 seconds, a hard layer of sand is formed over the pattern. Then the dump
box is inverted back to its original position. The pattern with a thin shell is cured for
two minutes at 315˚C. The shell is finally removed from the pattern by ejector pins.
The two shells are clamped together to form the mould and placed in the flask with
backing sand.

Advantages:

1. High dimensional accuracy and good surface finish.

2. The chances of blow holes or poc kets are reduced since the shells are highly
permeable.
3. Thin wall sections can be produced.
4. Shells can be stored for long time.

Disadvantages:

1. The metal patterns are costly than wood pattern.

2. Resin is an expensive binder.
3. Spec ialized equipments are to be used.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

UNIT 2 – Joining Processes

• Welding Process
• Welding
• Classification of Welding Processes
• Types of Welds
• Types of Welded Joints
• Edge Preparation for Welding
• Welding Techniques
• Design aspects of Weld Joints
• Gas Welding
• Arc Welding
• Forge Welding
• Resistance Welding
• Thermit Welding
• Cutting of Metals
• Oxy – Acetylene Gas Cutting
• Plasma Arc Cutting
• Soldering
• Brazing
• Heat Affected Zones in Welding
• Welding Defects
• Testing of Welds
• Destructive and Non-destructive testing
• Comparison between welding, soldering & brazing

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Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Welding Process:
Welding is a metal joining process in which fusion is obtained by application of
heat and r pressure. Combination of these two variables may be high temperature
with no pressure, high pressure with no rise in temperature or both high temperature
and pressure. Welding is an atomic bonding process and metallurgical bond is
accomplished by attracting forces between atoms. One beauty of welding process in
comparison to other processes is that by this process we can have strength of joint
equal and sometime greater than the parent metals. This makes welding one of the
most extensively used manufacturing process.

Welding is extensively used in automobile industry, airc raft mac hine frames,
structural work, tank repair work, ship building, etc. It is also useful method for
repairing of broken castings and defective metal parts.

Welding:

There are many definitions of a welding process. But the most comprehensive
is given below:

Welding is defined as “a localized coalescence of metals, where in coalescence

is obtained by heating to suitable temperature, with or without the applic ation of
pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. The filler metal has a melting
point approximately the same as the base metals”.

The welding process is metallurgically join together two metal pieces, to

produce essentially a single piece of metal. The process results in what is known as a
„Permanent joint‟. A good welded joint is as strong as the parent metal. The product
is known as „Weldment‟.

Advantages: The wide spread use of welding at the present time is due to its
following advantages:

1. Welding results in a good saving of material and reduced labour content of

production.
2. Low manufacturing costs.
3. Dependability of the medium, that is, the weldments are safer.
4. It gives the designer great latitude in planning and designing.
5. Welding is also useful as a method for repairing broken, worn or defective
metal parts. Due to this, the cost of reinvestment can be avoided.
6. Without welding techniques, the light weight methods of fabric ation, so vital
to the automotive and airc raft industries, would be unthinkable.

The welding process has the plus points that it is readily adaptable to streamline
structure and the welded joints are very tight. Welded joints are strong, especially
under static loading. However they have poor fatigue resistance due to stress
concentration, residual stresses and various weld defects, such as c rac ks, incomplete
fusion, slag inclusions and the like. But all these drawbacks can be overc ome to a
large extent.

The drawbacks of welding can be: Not all metals are satisfactorily weldable and
the weldments are less readily mac hinable, as compared to castings.

Classification of welding processes:

Welding processes may be classified according to the source of energy

employed for heating the metals and the state of metal at the place being welded.
These may be divided into two groups as follows:

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BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(a) Pressure Processes: In this processes the parts to be joined are heated to a
plastic state (fusion may occur to a limited extent) and forced together with external
pressure to make the joint.

Some of the more common processes in this group are mentioned below:
1. Forge Welding
2. Thermit Pressure welding
3. Pressure Gas welding
4. Electric Resistance welding

(b) Fusion processes: In these processes, the material at the joint is heated to the
molten state and allowed to solidify to make the joint, without the applic ation of
pressure. Here some joints may be made without the addition of a filler metal, but in
general, a filler metal must be added to the weld to fill the space between the parts
being welded. The filler metal deposited should ordinarily be of the same composition
as the base metal.

Some of the common welding processes in this group are listed below:
1. Gas welding
2. Electric Arc welding
3. Thermit Fusion welding

The welding processes can also be classified as:

Autogeneous: In „Autogeneous‟ processes, no filler metal is added to the joint

interface, for example, cold and hot pressure welding processes and electric
resistance welding.

Homogeneous: In „Homogeneous‟ processes, filler metal is added and is of the

same type as the parent metal, for example, welding of plain low C steel with a low C
welding of 70 – 30 brass with a 70 – 30 brass welding rod etc.

Hetrogeneous: In „Hetrogeneous‟ processes, a filler metal is used but is of a

different type from the parent metal, for example, brazing and soldering processes.
Brazing and soldering are not strictly the welding processes in view of the definit ion
of welding process given above. However these processes also belong to the family
of welding processes.

The two most widely used welding methods are: Gas welding and Arc welding.

The welding processes are c lassified as follows:

1. Gas Welding
(a) Oxyacetylene Welding (b) Oxyhydrogen Welding

2. Arc Welding
(a) Carbon Arc Welding (b) Metal Arc Welding
(c) Submerged Arc Welding (d) Inert Gas Welding
(e) Plasma Arc Welding (i) TIG (ii) MIG
(f) Electric Slag Welding

3. Resistance Welding
(a) Spot Welding (b) Seam Welding
(c) Projection Welding (d) Butt Welding

4. Solid State Welding

(a) Friction Welding (b) Ultrasonic Welding
(c) Explosive Welding

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
5. Thermo Chemical Welding
(a) Thermit Welding (b) Atomic Hydrogen Welding

6. Radiant Energy Welding Process

(a) Electron Beam Welding (b) Laser Beam Welding

Types of Welds:

The following are the different types of welds used in making a joint.

(i) Bead Weld: A „Bead‟ weld is one in whic h the filler metal is deposited at a
joint where the two surfaces adjoining the joint are in the same plane. A
„Bead‟ is defined as a single run of weld metal. The below figure shows the
type of bead weld.

(ii) Fillet Weld: A „Fillet‟ weld is one in whic h the filler metal is deposited at the
corner of two intersecting surfaces, such as T or Lap joint.

(iii) Groove Weld: A „Groove‟ weld is one in whic h the filler material is deposited
in a groove formed by edge preparation of one member or of both the
me mbers.

(iv) Plug or Slot Weld: A „Plug‟ or „Slot‟ weld is one in whic h a hole is formed
through one of the pieces to be welded and the filler material is then
deposited into this hole and fused with the mating part.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Types of Welded Joints:

The relative positions of the two pieces being welded determine the type of
joint. There are five basic types of joints whic h are used in fusion welding. These are,

(a) Butt Joint: The butt–joint is used to join the ends of two plates or surfaces
located approximately in the same plane.

(b) Lap Joint: The lap- joint is used to join two overlapping plates so that the
edge of each plate is welded to the surface of the other.

(c) T – Joint: The T-joint is used to weld two plates or sections whose surfaces
are at right angles to each other.

(d) Corner Joint: The corner-joint is used to join the edges of two sheets or
plates whose surfaces are at 90° to each other.

(e) Edge Joint: The edge joint is used in joining the sheet metal work.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Edge Preparation for Welding:

The preparation of the edges of the pieces to be welded depends upon the
thic kness of metal being welded. Edge preparation is necessary when thic kness
increases so that heat would be able to penetrate the entire depth. This ensures
formation of sound welds. The edge preparation is done by beveling the edges of the
pieces after the rust, grease, oil or paint are completely removed from their surfaces.

There are five basic types of chamfers put on the mating edges prior to
welding; they are Square, V, Bevel, U and J.

These five basic types of edge preparation are applied to the different types of
weld joints.

Butt joints: The straight square butt joints with no special edge preparation are
used when the thic kness of the two joints to be welded is small so that heat of
welding penetrates the full depth of joint. These joints are suitable from 3 to 8 mm.
However, if the plate thic kness is more than 4.5 mm. edge preparation is
recommended.

Single V: For thic kness up to 16mm

Double V: For thic kness > 16mm
Single and Double U: For thic kness greater than 20mm.

Other edge preparations for a butt joint are: Single bevel, Double bevel,
Single J, Double J. Butt joints are made by bead or groove welds.

Lap Joints: These joints are used to join thin sheets, usually less than 3 mm thick.
These joints do not need any special edge preparation. The joint is produced by fillet
welds.

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Corner Joints: These joints are used to join sheets upto 5mm thic k. These joints are
welded with or without edge preparation, with the help of fillet or groove welds.

Tee Joints: Only structures subjected to low static loads can be welded without edge
preparation. Single bevel joints are employed for critic al structures in whic h the
me mbers are from 10 to 20 mm thick and Double bevel designs are used for thic ker
metals. Single J and Double J joints can also be used thic ker metals. Tee joints are
made by using fillet or groove welds.

Edge Joints: Edge joints are used for metals upto 3 mm thick. The height of flange
should be twice the thic kness of the sheet. These joints are made by Bead or Groove
welds.

Welding Techniques:

The selection of a proper technique will depend upon the metal to be welded,
its thic kness and the properties of the weld.

The following methods are commonly used:

(i) Position of Welding:

(a) Down Hand Welds (b) Vertical Welds (c) Inclined Welds
(d) Horizontal Welds (e) Overhead Welds

(ii) Direction of Travel Welding Rod and Welding Torch:

(a) Leftwards or Forwards welding
(b) Rightwards or bac kwards welding
(c) Vertical Welding

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(i) Position of Welding:

(a) Down Hand Welds (flat): These welds are deposited in any direction on a
horizontal surface so that the flame is above the face of the weld.

(b) Vertical Welds: These welds are deposited on a vertic al surface in a vertic al
direction as shown in below figure.

(c) Inclined Welds: These welds are deposited on an inclined surface as shown
in below figure.

(d) Horizontal Welds: These welds are deposited on vertical surface in a

horizontal direction as shown in fig.

(e) Overhead Welds: These welds are deposited on a horizontal surface in any
direction so that the face of welds is above the flame as shown in fig.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 8

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(ii) Direction of travel welding rod and welding torch:

(a) Leftwards (or) Forward Welding: The welder holds torch in the right hand
and filler rod in the left hand. The weld is made working from right to left as shown in
below figure. Since the flame is pointed in the direction of the welding, it preheats
the edges of the joint. This method is suitable for mild steel, cast iron, aluminium,
brass etc…

(b) Rightwards (or) Backward Welding: It is carried out from left to right as
shown in below figure. Thic ker materials can be welded by this method.

(c) Vertical Welding: It starts at the bottom of the weld joint and gives an
oscillating movement to the welding torch which points slightly upwards as shown in
below figure.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 9

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Design aspects of Weld Joints:

The following points should be kept in mind when designing a weldment:

1. Weldments should be designed to require a minimum of weld metal.

2. Thermal contraction of metal, whic h has been heated by welding, may cause
internal residual stresses and distortion. These can be controlled or reduced
by: (a) Preheating (b) Minimum number of welds (c) Smallest size of weld
that fulfills requirements (d) Maximum use of intermittent welds (e) Slow after
cooling.
3. Sharp discontinuities in metal should be kept at a minimum since these cause
stress concentration.
4. An important strength weld should not be located where muc h of it may be
removed later by mac hining.
5. Welds should be located so that adequate strength will be provided at the
proper places on a structure or part.
6. As far as possible, a straight line force pattern should be provided.
7. Laps, straps and stiffening angles should be avoided exc ept as required for
strength.
8. Lap welds and lap strap welds are not rec ommended for elements over 10mm
thic k.
9. Where ever possible, use butt joints.
10. The ends to be welded should be of equal thic kness.
11. The use of welding fixtures should be avoided as far as possible.
12. Welds should not be subjected to bending.
13. A weld should not be located at the point of maximum deformation.
14. Ribs should be designed correctly and these should be used with care.
15. Provide for easy access to welds so that they are accessible for inspection.
16. Distribute heavy loading over long welds in the longitudinal direction.
17. Avoid large flat walls, whic h tend to bulge and flex.
18. The joint should have properly prepared grooves.
19. If alternating stresses are involved, avoid running a weld at right angles to
the direction of maximum principal stress owing to the low fatigue resistance
offered by welds.
20. Whenever possible, the design should provide for welding in the flat or
horizontal position, not overhead.

Gas Welding:

Gas welding is a fusion welding process. It joins metals using the heat of
combustion of an oxygen/air and fuel gas i.e., acetylene, hydrogen, butane mixture.
The intense heat (flame) thus produced melts and fuses together the edges of the
parts to be welded, generally with the addition of a filler metal.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 10

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Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
1. Oxy – Acetylene Welding:

Oxy – acetylene is used for welding almost all metals and alloys. When
acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the welding torch and
ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torc h is suffic iently hot to melt and join
the parent metal. The flame reaches a temperature of about 3000°C. A filler metal
rod is generally added to the molten metal pool to built up the seam slightly for
greater strength.

Oxygen is produced by either electrolysis or liquification of air. Electrolysis

separates water into hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric current through it.
Most commerc ial oxygen is made by liquefying air and separating the oxygen from
the nitrogen. It is stored in the steel cylinders. Acetylene gas (C2 H2) is obtained from
the chemical reaction of water and calc ium carbide.

CaC2 + 2H2O - ------ > C2 H2 + Ca (OH)2

Calcium Water Acetylene Hydrated
Ca rbide Lime

The reaction provides acetylene gas and hydrated lime as sludge. A spec ial
hopper of dropping the calc ium carbide into a tank of water at controlled rate is
referred as acetylene generator. Acetylene cylinders are also readily available.

Equipment for Oxy – Acetylene Welding:

Oxy – acetylene welding equipment consists of the following:

(i) Oxygen Cylinder: Oxygen is filled in the cylinder at a pressure of 150 kg/c m2.
This cylinder is made of steel and it is in black colour.

(ii) Acetylene Cylinder: Acetylene is dissolved in acetone in a cylinder containing

porous calc ium silicate filler. These cylinders are usually filled to a pressure of
16 kg/c m2. The cylinder is made of steel and it is in maroon colour.

(iii) Welding Torch: It is used to mix the gases in the right proportions to control
the volume of gases burned at the welding tip and to direct the flow. It has a

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 SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
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handle to carry it and two inlet connections for gases at one end. Each inlet has
a valve to control the volume of oxygen or other gases. The two gases mix up in
a mixer and flame is produced by igniting the mixture at the tip of the torc h.

(iv) Pressure Regulator: It is located on the top of the gas cylinder. Its function is
to reduce the pressure from the cylinder and to maintain it at constant value.
The pressure regulator located on the oxygen cylinder is called oxygen pressure
regulator and the other one located on the top of the acetylene cylinder is called
the acetylene pressure regulator.

(v) Hose and Hose Fittings: The hose is a rubber tube whic h permits the flow of
gas. Two hoses to carry oxygen and acetylene separately are required. They
connect the regulator mounted on cylinders to the torc h. Generally, green colour
is adopted for oxygen hose and red colour for acetylene. The hose should be
strong, durable, flexible and light in weight.

(vi) Goggles: Goggles fitted with coloured lenses should be provided to protect the
eyes from harmful heat and ultraviolet and infrared rays.

(vii) Gloves: These are used to protect hands from heat and the metal splashes
during welding.

(viii) Spark Lighter: It is used to provide a convenient and instant means for lighting
the welding torch.

(ix) Wire Brush: Its function is to clean the surfaces of joints before and after
welding.

Other Equipments:

Welding Rods: These are used for providing extra metal to the weld. These are also
known as filler rods. The filler rod should have the same composition and properties
as that of parent metal. The filler rods are available in 1, 1.25, 1.6, 2, 2.25, 3, 4.5,
6, 8 and 10 mm diameter. The selection of filler rod depends on the welding
technique and thic kness of the base metal. Steel rods are generally employed when
welding ferrous metals. They have a higher carbon content and more manganese and
silicon than the base metal. The last two components act as deoxidizing agents and
prevent the inclusions of oxide in the weld. Rods containing chromium and vanadium
are used for welding alloy steels.

Flux: When the metal to be welded is heated by oxy – acetylene flame, the oxygen
of the atmosphere combines with the heated metal and forms metal oxides. These
metal oxides have higher melting point than the parent metal. Therefore it is
essential that these oxides are removed otherwise slag inclusions will result in poor
quality of weld. These oxides can be removed from the weld location by the use of
certain fluxes whic h react chemic ally with the oxides of most metals and from fusible
slag and floats at the top of the molten puddle and do not interfere with the
deposition of filler metal. Besides it also protects the molten puddle from atmospheric
oxygen. Fluxes are available in several forms such as dry powder, paste or in the
form of coating on the welding rod. For ferrous metal, borax, sodium carbonate and
sodium bicarbonate are used as suitable fluxes. For copper and copper alloys,
mixture of sodium and potassium borates, carbonates, chlorides and boric ac id are
suitable.

Types of Flames:

The correct adjustment of the flame is important for the production of

satisfactory welds. The flame must be of proper size, shape and condition in order to

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
operate at maximum effic iency. The three types of oxy – acetylene flames, whic h are
used in engineering works, are as follows;

(a) Neutral flame.

(b) Reducing or carburising flame.
(c) Oxidising flame.

(a) Neutral Flame: A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal volumes
of oxygen and acetylene are supplied to the torc h. The temperature of the neutral
flame is in order of about 3260°C.

The neutral flame consists of sharp brilliant inner cone extending a short
distance from the tip of the torc h and an outer cone or envelop. The first one
develops heat and second protects the molten metal from oxidation, because the
oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere is consumed by gases from flame.

The neutral flame is commonly used for welding most of the metals such as
mild steel, stainless steel, cast iron, copper, aluminium etc…

(b) Reducing or Carburising Flame: If the volume of oxygen supplied to the

neutral flame is reduced, the resulting flame will be reduc ing flame. The temperature
of the reducing flame is of order of 3038°C.

This flame has three zones (i) Inner core (ii) An intermediate of whitish colour
(iii) The bluish outer cone. The outer flame envelop is longer than the other two
flames. Being rich in carbon, this flame is suitable for welding steel. It is also used for
surface hardening.

(c) Oxidising Flame: If the volume of oxygen to the neutral flame is increased, the
result will be oxidising fla me. The temperature of the oxidising flame is of the order
of 13000°C. It is hotter than neutral flame.

The oxidising flame consists of one smaller core whic h is more pointed than
the neutral flame. The outer envelop is shorter. Oxidising flame is used in welding
brass, copper base metals, zinc base metals and few ferrous metals such as
manganese, steels and cast irons.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 13

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Advantages of Oxy – Acetylene Welding:

1. The equipment is comparatively in expensive.

2. Low maintanenance cost.
3. The oxy – acetylene flame is generally more easily controlled and not as
piercing as metallic are welding. Therefore, it is used extensive ly for sheet
metal fabrication and repair works.
4. The equipment is versatile. Besides gas welding, the equipment is used for
preheating, brazing, metal cutting etc…
5. With proper technique, practically all metal can be welded.
6. Since the source of heat and filler metal are separate, the welder has
controlled over the filler material deposition rates.

Disadvantages of Oxy – Acetylene Welding:

1. It takes considerable longer for the metal to heat up than in arc welding.
2. Prolonged heating of the joint in gas welding results in larger heat affected
area. This often results in inc reased growth, more distortion.
3. These are safety problems involved in handling and storing of gases.
4. Flame temperature is less than the temperature of the arc.
5. Heavy sections cannot be joined economic ally.
6. Flux shielding in gas welding is not so effective as an inert gas shielding in TIG
or MIG welding.

Applications of Gas Welding:

1. For joining thin materials.

2. For joining most ferrous and non – ferrous metals.
3. In automatic and airc raft industries and sheet metal fabric ations.

2. Oxy – Hydrogen Welding:

Oxy – Hydrogen welding is used for aluminium, magnesium, lead etc. In this
process hydrogen is used in place of acetylene and the flame temperature is very low
2000°C. An advantage of this process is that no oxides are formed on the surface of
the weld.

Arc Welding:

In arc welding process, the welding temperature is produced by an electric

arc , established between an electrode and the metal being welded. The temperature
of the arc is 7000°C. The arc welding set up is shown in below figure.

Arc Welding Equipments:

The equipments required for arc welding consists of:

(a) Arc welding Power Sources

(b) Electrode
(c) Electrode Holder
(d) Cables, Cable connectors
(e) Earthing Clamps
(f) Chipping Hammer
(g) Helmet
(h) Safety Goggles
(i) Apron
(j) Hand Gloves

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 14

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Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

(a) Arc Welding Power Source: The power source is required to maintain the arc
between the electrode and base metal is available in (i) DC generator (ii) AC
transformer with DC rectifier (iii) AC transformer.

(i) DC Generator: DC Generator is run either by an electric motor or diesel

engine. These generator supplies voltage in the range of 15 to 50 volts and
output current 200 to 600 Amps. These produce DC in either straight or
reverse polarity. The heat generated is split into two parts in the ratio of 66
perc ent at positive pole and 33 percent at negative pole. For welding thin
materials, the work is made negative and the electrode positive. This is called
reverse polarity. For welding heavy sections the electrode is made negative
and the work to be positive, this is called straight polarity. It can be used for
welding ferrous and non – ferrous metals. The disadvantage of the generator
is the high investment and maintenance cost. Its operation is noisy.

(ii) AC Transformer: AC Transformer changes high voltage, low amperage to low

voltage, high amperage. The main advantage of transformer over generator
is low cost and ease of operation. Since there are no moving parts in the
equipment, the operation is noiseless. The disadvantage of the transformer is
that the polarity cannot be changed.

(b) Electrodes for Arc Welding: Electrodes for arc welding may be broadly
c lassified as:

1. Non – consumable electrodes

2. Consumable electrodes

Non – Consumable electrodes are usually made of carbon, graphite or tungsten.

These electrodes do not get consumed during the arc welding. These are used in
carbon arc welding like TIG welding, atomic hydrogen welding.

Consumable electrodes get consumed during the welding. These are made of
various metals depending upon the purpose and chemical composition of patent
metals being welded. These electrodes are further c lassified into, (1) Bare Electrodes
(2) coated electrodes.

Bare electrodes are used in submerged arc welding and metal inert gas welding
(MIG) welding.

Coated electrodes are again subdivided into (1) Light coated electrodes (2) Heavy
coated electrodes.

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Light coated electrodes are used for welding non–essential jobs. The primary
purpose of light coated is to inc rease are stability. These produce poor mec hanical
properties welds due to the lack of protection of the weld.

Heavy Coated electrodes are used to produce high quality welds.

Functions of Coated Electrode:

The coating on electrodes performs the following function:

1. Protects the weld from atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen by producing a

shield of gas around the arc and weld pool.
2. Stabilize the arc.
3. Provide the slag so as to protect the weld from rapid cooling.
4. Remove oxides and impurities.
5. Add alloying elements to the weld metal.
6. Inc rease deposition effic iency.

Types of Arc Welding:

(a) Carbon arc welding

(b) Metal arc welding
(c) Submerged arc welding
(d) Inert gas welding
(i) TIG welding (ii) MIG Welding
(e) Plasma arc welding
(f) Electro Slag welding

(a) Carbon Arc Welding:

In carbon arc welding process the arc is obtained between the carbon
electrode and the work piece or between two carbon electrodes. This welding is
suitably used in welding of steel sheets, copper alloys and brass etc…

In this, coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc between a

carbon electrode and the work. Shielding is generally not used. Pressure is not used,
and filler metal may or may not be used. The electric are can also be struck by the
“twin arc method” that is between two carbon electrodes. Filler metal, when used is
fed into the arc and allows a fairly high rate of weld metal deposition. Sometimes a
filler rod is placed into the joint groove, and the carbon arc is passed slowly along the
joint until fusion is completed.

The weld metal is not shielded from contamination of oxygen and nitrogen in
the atmosphere. More ever, very little if any carbon is picked up by the weld from the

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ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
carbon electrode. Thus this process is generally limited to those materials whic h are
not suffic iently contaminated by these elements, that are copper alloys, brass,
bronze, aluminium alloys etc… It will be better if the filler metal incorporates
deoxidizer.

(b) Metal Arc Welding:

This is also called Shield Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). Heat required for the
welding is obtained from the arc struck between the coated electrode and the work
piece. The material droplets are transformed from the electrode to the work piece
through the arc and deposited along the joint to be welded. The coat ing produces a
gaseous shield and slag to protect from atmosphere.
During the process of welding, the electrode is given three movements. The
electrode is continuously fed downward along its axis to maintain the arc length. It is
progressively fed along the weld and thirdly the electrode tip is given an oscillating
movement ac ross the weld. The side ways oscillating movement of the electrode tip
is given to:

(i) Obtain and maintain proper bead width.

(ii) Float out slag.
(iii) Secure good penetration at the edges of the weld.
(iv) Allow gases to escape and there by avoid porosities.

Advantages:

1. It is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.

2. The equipment is portable and less cost.
3. Wide range of metals and their alloys can be welded.

Disadvantage:

1. Mechanization is diffic ult due to limited length of the electrode.

Applications:

1. All commonly used metals and their alloys can be welded.

2. This process finds applic ation on ship building, airc raft industries, automobile
industries etc…

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 17

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(c) Submerged Arc Welding:

This process is so named because of metal arc is shielded by a blanket of flux

as shown in figure. In this process instead of flux covered electrode, granular flux
and a bare electrode is used. Flux is deposited continuously in front of the electrode
and the flame feeder and the electrode feeder together move as the welding
proceeds. The flux is suffic ient depth to submerge completely the arc column so that
there is no smoke or splatter and the weld is shielded from the effect of all
atmospheric gases. As a result of this unique protection, the welds are exceptionally
smooth.

The arc is started either by striking the electrode beneath the flux on the work
or by placing the steel wool between the electrode and the work piece before
switc hing on the welding current. The intense heat of the arc immediately produces a
pool of molten metal in the joint and at the same time the flux adjacent to the arc
column melts and floats on top of the molten metal. This forms a blanket that
eliminates spatter losses and protects the welded joint from oxidation. The current
density is 300 to 400 amps whic h is 5 to 6 times than that of metal arc welding.
Submerged arc welding is done manually or automatic and semi-automatic . The
manual and the automatic submerged arc welding process are most suited to the flat
welding position, or slightly vertical, down hill welding position. Backing strip of steel,
copper or some refractory material is used under the joint to avoid loosing some of
the molten metal.

This process is used to weld low alloy, high tensile steels as well as mild steel, low
carbon steels.

Advantages:

1. Deep penetration is obtained due to the high current, density whic h is 5 to 6

times than that of metal arc welding.
2. Welding is fast due to high melting rate of electrodes.
3. Minimum distortion due to high speed.
4. Quality of the weld is excellent and uniform.

Applications:

The submerged arc welding process has many industrial applic ations. It is
used for fabric ating pipe, boiler vessels, structural shapes and practically any job
where straight line welding is required.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 18

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(d) Inert gas welding:

In this coalescence is produced by heating with an electric arc between a

suitable electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained form an inert gas such as
carbon dioxide, helium and argon. Pressure is not used, and the filler metal may or
may not be used. Inert gas welding is done either with nonconsumable electrode or
with consumable metal electrode.

In conventional arc welding, the fluxes are used to shield the atmosphere
around the molten metal. In inert gas welding, inert gases such as argon, helium,
carbon dioxide are used for surrounding the electric arc and thus keeping
atmospheric air and other contaminations away from the molten metal pool.

Two methods are employed.

(i) Tungsten-inert Gas (TIG) Welding

(ii) Metal-inert Gas (MIG) Welding

(i) Tungsten – inert Gas Welding:

A tungsten inert gas welding equipment is shown in below figure. This process
is also known as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). It uses a non-consumable
tungsten electrode mounted at the centre of the torc h. The inert gas is supplied to
the welding zone through the angular path surrounding the tungsten electrode.
Welding operation is done by striking the arc between the work piece and tungsten
electrode in the atmosphere of inert gas.

Advantages:

(i) No flux is required.

(ii) TIG welds are stronger, more ductile and more corrosion resistance than
welds made with ordinary shield arc welding.
(iii) Welding is easily done in all the position.

Disadvantages:

(i) Equipment is costlier.

(ii) Separate filler rod is needed.
(iii) Dec rease in welding speed.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 19

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Applications:

(i) It is used for fusion welding of aluminium, magnesium alloys, stainless steel,
low alloy steel high alloy steel, brass, bronze, silver, molybdenum and a wide
range of other metals.
(ii) It can also be used to weld many dissimilar metals.
(iii) The TIG process can be used to braze and to supply the heat source for
brazes welding.
(iv) It can also be used as heat source for the hard surfacing of the metals.

(ii) Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding:

MIG welding stands for Metal Inert Gas Welding. In this process, the tungsten
electrode is replaced with a consumable electrode. The electrode is continuously fed
to the arc at the rate at whic h it is consumed and transferred to the base metal. Arc
is shielded by an inert gas, whic h flows from the holder nozzle through whic h the
electrode also passes. It is similar to submerged arc welding in feeding the bare
electrode from a reel. It differs in the fact that the shielding is done by an inert gas
and the arc is visible during the welding process.

Advantages:

(i) No flux is required.

(ii) High quality welds are produced.
(iii) Less operator skill is required.
(iv) High welding speed.
(v) It is suitable for ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

Disadvantages:

(i) Welding equipment is more complex and costly.

(ii) It is diffic ult to weld in small corners.

Applications:

(i) It can be done on most of the commerc ial metals.

(ii) It is used for welding carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels nic kel and
its alloys, copper alloys.
(iii) MIG welding is used in aircraft and automobile industries.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 20

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(e) Plasma Arc Welding:

The term „Plasma‟ refers to a gas whic h is suffic iently ionized to conduct
freely. A conventional welding arc is an example of plasma. A plasma jet is c reated
when the arc is passed through a constructive nozzle. As a result of this construction
the plasma jet will take on a narrow, columnar shape with unique properties that
make it ideal for welding. Plasma jet welding is an electric arc welding process whic h
employs a high temperature constricted arc or plasma jet to obtain the melting and
coalescence of metal. Shielding is obtained from the hot, ionized gas issuing from the
nozzle, whic h may be supplemented by an auxiliary sourc e of shielding gas. Pressure
is not applied and filler may or may not be supplied.

The basic circ uitry of a plasma arc welding torc h is shown in below figure. The
plasma torc h is constructed with an electrode centrally with in a metal cup that
guides an inert streaming gas past the electrode. The discharge end of the cup is
smaller in dia meter than the upper diameter so that a discharge nozzle is created. In
addition, the inner wall of the nozzle is lined with a ceramic material. The torch ahs
passages for supplying gas and water i.e., air and water to cool in.

There are two arrangements of plasma arc welding:

(a) Transferred Plasma arc.

(b) Non – transferred Plasma arc .

In the transferred plasma arc , the arc is produced between the electrode (-
ive) and the work (+ ive). In other words the arc is transformed from electrode to
the work piece. This possesses high energy density. For this reason it is used to cut
and melt the metals.

In the non-transferred arc , the arc is produced between the electrode (- ive)
and the nozzle (+ ive). Plasma arc comes out of the nozzle as a flame. This arc is
independent of the work piece and the work does not form a part of electric circ uit .
This arc is used for only welding.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 21

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SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
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(f) Electro Slag Welding:

In this process, electrode wire is fed into a molten slag pool. An arc is drawn
initially, but is then snuffed out by the slag, and the heat of fusion is provided by
resistance heating in the slag.

The pieces to be welded are positioned vertic ally with necessary gap between
them. Two copper shoes (water cooled) sides on either side of the gap form a well in
whic h flux is deposited. An electric arc is stuck between the electrode and the joint
bottom with the help of a piece of steel wool. The arc melts the electrode and flux
and forms the molten slag. When enough slag accumulate, the arc action stops and
further requirement heat is provided by the resistance offered by the slag to the
current flowing through it. The molten metal temperature is 2000°C. This heat is
suffic ient to fuse the edges of the work pieces and the welding electrode. The heated
metal collects in the pool beneath the slag slowly solidifies there by forming the weld
bead joining the two work pieces.

Advantages:

(i) Thic ker plated can be welded in a single pass and economically.
(ii) High welding speed.
(iii) Minimum joint preparation.
(iv) Little distortion.
(v) The weld metal is totally out of contact with atmosphere and hence the best
quality of weld.

Applications:

It is used partic ularly for welding thic kness of 30 mm over plates and structures for
turbine shafts, boiler parts and heavy presses.

Forge Welding:

Forge Welding is defines as “A solid state welding process where in

coalescence is produced by heating and by applying pressure or blows suffic ient to
cause permanent deformation at the interface”.

This is the oldest industrial welding process. The parts to be welded are
heated in a forge or some other furnace to within the hot-working temperature range
and then forged together by hand or power hammering or pressing. During forging,
oxides slag and other contaminants are squeezed out, ensuring inter atomic bonding.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 22

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
The work pieces commonly forge welded and are of wrought iron and steel.
The commonly used forge welding processes are : (i) Hammer welding (ii) Die
welding, and (iii) Roll welding.

Resistance Welding:

Resistance welding is “a group of welding processes where in coalescence is

produced by the heat obtained from resistance of the work to electric current in a
circ uit of whic h the work is a part, and by the application of pressure and without the
use of a filler metal”.

In this welding, a heavy electric arc current is passed through the metal
pieces to be joined, over a limited area, causing them to be locally heated to plastic
state and the weld is completed by the application of pressure. In this process two
copper electrodes are used. The metal pieces to be welded are pressed between
electrodes and current is passed through the electrodes. A transformer in the welding
mac hine reduces the voltage from either 120 or 240 volts to4 to 12 volts and raises
the amperage suffic iently to produce a good heat.

The amount of heat (H) generated is given by the following relation:

H = KIRT
Where, H = The heat generated in the work in joules
I = Electric current in amperes
R = Resistance of the joint in ohms
T = Time of current flow in seconds
K = A constant to account for the heat loss from the welded joint

For good resistance welding the following factors are properly controlled.

(i) Welding Current: Enough current is required to bring the work pieces to
plastic state for welding. It is properly adjusted on the current control devic e on
the mac hine.
(ii) Welding Pressure: Mechanic al pressure is required to hold the work pieces
and squeeze the pieces to form the weld during plastic state.
(iii) Cycle Time: It is the combination of weld time and hold time. The duration of
current flowing through the work piece to raise the temperature is called
welding time. After this the current is switc hed off while the pressure is still
acting. The pressure is applied till the weld cools and regains suffic ient
strength. This period is known a hold time.

The types of resistance welding are:

(a) Spot Welding (b) Seam Welding

(c) Projection Welding (d) Butt Welding

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 23

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(a) Spot Welding:

This is called as Resistance Spot Welding (RSW). It is the simple st and most
commonly used method of overlap welding of strips, sheets or plates of metal at
small areas.

In this method, sheets of a metal to be welded are held between copper

electrodes (water cooled) by applying pressure through foot pedal lever. A current of
low voltage and suffic ient amperage is passed between electrodes causing the parts
to be brought to welding temperature. The metal under electrodes pressure is
squeezed and welded. After this the current is turned off while the pressure is still
acting. The pressure is applied till the weld cools and produces a solid bond. Now the
pressure is released and the work is removed from the mac hine.

The welding cyc le to produce one spot can be written as:

(i) Position the work pieces and squeeze between the electrodes.
(ii) Apply a low voltage current to the electrode.
(iii) Hold until the proper temperature is attained.
(iv) Release current, continue pressure.
(v) Release pressure and remove work.

Advantages:
(i) No edge preparation is needed
(ii) Low cost
(iii) High speed of welding

Applications:
(i) This technique is used mostly in thin sheet work like making sheet metal boxes,
containers such as receptac les.
(ii) Thic ker metals up to 12.5 mm have been successfully spot welded.
(iii) It finds applic ation in automobile and airc raft industries.

Disadvantages:
The main disadvantage is high cost of equipment, and there are limitations to
the types of joints made.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 24

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(b) Seam Welding:

Seam welding is similar to spot welding, exc ept that the electrodes in spot
welding are replaced by copper rollers or wheels. The work pieces to be welded are
passed between the rollers as shown in figure. A current impulse is applied through
the rollers to the material in contact with them. The heat generated makes the metal
plastic and the pressure from the rollers completes the weld.

To obtain a series of spot welds along a line by the RSW (Resistance Seam
Welding) method, an interrupt work movement will be necessary. The same result
can be achieved muc h more conveniently and rapidly in the resistance seam welding
where the electrodes are in the form of rotating disc electrodes, with the working
being welded moving continuously by the electrodes.

In Seam welding, there are two types of welds are obtained:

(i) Stitch Welding

(ii) Roll Welding

(i) Stitch Welding: Stitch weld is made by the current on the rollers off and on
quickly enough, so that continuous fusion zone made of overlapping nugget is
obtained.

(ii) Roll Welding: It is obtained by constant and regular timed interruptions of

welding current, whic h causes individual nuggets to be formed.

Seam welding is used on many types of pressure tight or leak proof tanks for various
purposes, exhaust systems, barrels etc…

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 25

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(c) Projection Welding:

The Resistance Projection Welding process is similar to spot welding except

that the current is concentrated at the spots to be welded.

In this welding small projections are raised on one side of the sheet or plate
where it is to be welded to another. The projections serve to concentrate the welding
heat at these areas and facilitate fusion without the necessity of employing a large
current. During the welding process, the heated and softened projections collapse
under the pressure of the electrode there by forming the weld. The working principle
of projections welding is shown in below figure.

Advantages:

(i) This method of welding gives longer electrode life.

(ii) Outer or top surfaces can be produced with no electrode marks.

Disadvantages:

(i) All projections should be seated in one blow.

(ii) A prior operation is necessary to form the projection.

Applications:

A common use of projection welding is attaching small fasteners, nuts, spec ial
blots, studs and similar parts to large components.

(d) Butt Welding:

Resistance Butt Welding is used to join the pieces end to end. This process is
best suited to rods, pipes and many other parts of uniform cross section.

There are two types of Resistance Butt welding:

(i) Upset welding

(ii) Flash Welding

(i) Upset Welding: In upset welding, the parts are c lamped and brought in solid
contact and current is applied so that the heat is generated through the contact area
of the parts as illustrated in below figure. At this point, the two parts are pressed
together firmly. This action of pressing together is called upsetting. It is used on non-
ferrous materials for welding bars, rods, tube formed parts etc…

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 26

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

(ii) Flash Welding: Flash welding is similar t upset welding except that the heat is
obtained by means of an arc than the simple resistance heating. The two parts are
brought together and the power supply is switched on. As the parts moved closer,
flashing or arc ing raised the temperatures of the parts to a welding temperature.
Now power is switched off and the parts are forced together to form a weld.

Thermit Welding:

This process is a type of thermo chemical welding process. Thermit welding is

“A group of welding processes where in coalescence is produced by heating with
superheated liquid metal and slag resulting from a chemic al reaction between a
metal oxide and aluminium with or with out the application of pressure”.

The process is basically a fusion welding process in whic h welding is effected

by pouring super heated steel around the parts to be welded. In this process, neither
arc is produced to the parts nor flame is used. In this an exothermic chemical
reaction is utilized for developing high temperature.

A mixture of finely divided aluminium and iron oxide called „Thermit mixture‟
is kept in a crucible hanging over the mould. The Thermit mixture is ignited using a
magnesium ribbon or highly inflammable powder having barium peroxide. The
reaction takes place about 30 seconds only and heat is liberated whic h is twic e the
temperature of melting point of steel. The following reaction takes place as per
equation:

8AI + 3F3 O4 ------------- > 4Al2 O3 + 9Fe + heat

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 27

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
The resultant is super heated molten iron. The molten iron is made to flow
into the mould and fuse with the parts to be jointed.

The figure shows the method of preparing the mould. The two pieces to be
joined are cleaned and a gap is left between them. Then wax is poured on the joint
and a wax pattern is formed. Moulding sand is rammed around the wax pattern and
pouring, heating and risering gates are cut. A gas flame is used melt the wax pattern
and at the same time it preheats the parts to be welded. Then the preheating gate is
plugged with sand. When the ends of the pieces to be welded reach the welding heat,
they are forced together by means of clamps to make a pressure butt weld. The
mould is then removed and the Thermit iron and slag are knoc ked off from around
the weld.

Advantages:

(i) The welds are sound and free internal residual stresses.
(ii) Broken parts can be welded on the site itself.
(iii) The heat necessary for welding is obtained from a chemic al reaction and thus
no costly power supply is required.

Limitations:

Thermit welding is applicable only to ferrous metal parts of heavy sections.

Applications:

It is applic able in the repair of heavy parts such as rail track, spokes of driving
wheels, broken motor castings, connecting rod etc.

Cutting of Metals:

The welding equipments are not only used for welding that is joining the work
pieces but some of the equipments are also used for cutting of the metals.

Oxy – Acetylene Cutting:

It is a chemic al process in the sense that the metal, at the portion where it is
to be cut is actually made to oxidize under the action of flame with the following
reaction.

3Fe + 2O2 ---------- > Fe3 O4 + 26,691 cal

Iron Oxygen Black Iron Oxide Heat

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 28

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
All ferrous metals can be cut by means of oxy-acetylene flame cutting. The
oxy-acetylene flame cutting process makes use of cutting torc h. The torc h mixes the
acetylene and oxygen in the correct proportions to produce preheating flame and
also the torc h supplies a uniformly, concentrated stream of high purity oxygen to the
reaction zone. The tip has a central hole for pure oxygen jet with surrounding holes
for preheating flames as shown in below figure.

To produce a cut, the steel is heated to ignition temperature (900°C) i.e.,

reddish yellow colour by preheating flame, keeping the torc h 3 mm above the surface
of material to be cut. A jet of pure oxygen is directed at this heated area. This forms
the iron oxide there and the same melted immediately (burning the steel in its path).
It is then blown off by the oxygen jet, thus providing a narrow slit along the cutting
line.

This method is suited for cutting of ferrous metals and its alloys.

Oxygen cutting can be accomplished manually or by mac hine (automatic ).

Oxygen cutting mac hines are further divided two c lasses:

1. Portable mac hine

2. Stationary mac hine

On a portable mac hine, the carriage supports the torc h. It is usually run by an
electric motor on a straight track. The speed of the motor is adjustable to the size of
the metal being cut.

The stationary type of cutting mac hines is designed on two different

mec hanic al principles for cutting torc h. One is the pantograph design and the other
uses a c ross carriage mec hanism.

Plasma Arc Cutting:

As we know, plasma is the high temperature ionized gas. The plasma arc
cutting is done with a high speed jet of high temperature plasma. The plasma jet
heats up the work piece causing a quic k melting. Plasma arc cutting can be used on
all those materials whic h conduct electric ity, including those whic h are resistant to
oxy-fuel cutting. The process is extensively used for profile cutting sheets upto 40
mm thic k by using programmable logic controllers (PLC) or CNC.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 29
ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Plasma is generated by subjecting the flowing gas to the electron
bombardment of an arc . For this the arc is set up between the electrode and anodic
nozzle, the gas is forced through the arc . Gases used or plasma arc O2, N2 and H2 .
The method produces higher temperatures of about 9500°C.

The process has got the following advantages:

1. The process is fast, that is high cutting speeds.

2. Good surface finish.
3. Good reproducibility of parts.
4. Higher productivity than that of oxy-fuel methods.
5. The process is very economical.

Due to the above advantages, it is the preferred way to produce large

quantities of cut parts.

Cutting is done under water to avoid distortion of sheets due to high

temperatures generated. Water also helps in accurate cutting, cooling the metal and
protecting eyes from plasma arc.

Soldering:

It is a method of joining two pieces of metal by means of a fusible alloy called

solder, applied in the molten stage. The melting point of the filler metal is below
420°C. The solder is usually an alloy of Lead and Tin, Lead and Silver. A suitable flux
is used in soldering to prevent oxidation of the joint. Fluxes are available in the form
of powder, past or liquid.

A good soldering process involves: (i) Pre Cleaning (ii) Fluxing (iii) Heating

(i) Pre-Cleaning: Cleaning is done to provide chemically clean surface to obtain

proper bond and may be done by means of acid pic kling, solvent cleaning
etc…

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 30

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(ii) Fluxing: Fluxing is done to remove the oxides from joint surface and to
prevent the filler metal from oxidizing. Fluxes are in form of powder, paste or
liquid.

(iii) Heating: The most common source of heating is the electric al resistance
heating with soldering iron. Other methods of soldering are disoldering, wave
soldering, oven soldering, induction soldering and infra red soldering.

Soldering is done in the following ways:

(i) Hand Soldering: The soldering iron is heated by keeping in a furnace or by

means of electrically. The joint is heated by soldering iron and solder is
applied whic h melts and flows the joint by capillary action.

(ii) Dip Soldering: In dip soldering, the parts to be soldered are first cleaned
and dipped in flux bath and finally dipped in the molten solder bath and lifted
after the soldering is completed.

(iii) Wave Soldering: In this method, parts are not dipped into the solder tank,
but a wave is generated in the tank so that the solder comes up and makes
necessary joint. This is used in electronic printed circ uit board, PCB.

Brazing:

It is a process of joining two pieces of metals in whic h a non-ferrous filler

metal or alloy is introduced between the pieces to be joined. The melting point of the
filler metal is above 420°C but lower than the melting temperature of parent metal.
The filler metal is distributed between surfaces by capillary action. The copper base
alloys and silver base alloys are commonly used as filler metal in brazing. A suitable
flux such as borax is used.

Steps in Brazing:

(i) The surfaces to be joined are cleaned and subsequently rinsed and dried and
fitted closely together.

(ii) A flux is applied to all surfaces where the filler metal is to flow.

(iii) After that, the joint is heated to the proper brazing temperature. Solid filler
metal may be replaced on the metal pieces and thus melted as the metal pieces
are heated, or it may be applied to the metal pieces after the brazing
temperature is reached. Only a small amount of filler metals needed to fill the
joint completely.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 31

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Fluxes: Fluxes are used to prevent oxidation of the base metal and the filler metal
during brazing, form a fusible slag of any oxides whic h may be present or formed,
and promote the free flowing of the filler metal by capillary attraction.

Common fluxes are: compositions of borates, fluorides, chlorides, borax and

boric ac id in various proportions according to spec ific requirements. Fluxes are used
in form of powder, paste or slurry. Borax is used as fused borax, because water in it
will cause bubbling during heating.

Filler Materials: The filler metal or braze metal must:

1. Wet the surfaces of the base metals at the joint.

2. Have high fluidity to penetrate c revices. For capillary attraction to exist, the
c learance between the parts being joined must be quite small, other wise the
filler metal would run out of the joint. A wider clearance in a joint leads to its
reduced strength.
3. Preferably have a narrow melting range.
4. Not lead to galvanic corrosion during service.

The filler metal is applied in the form of wire, strip, performs, powder or paste
to the joint area as noted above in step (iii) under „steps in brazing‟. Alternatively the
filler metals pre applied to the surface of one of the contacting parts as a coating or
c ladding, often by rolling, electrolyte deposition or hot dipping.

Brazing Joints:

The following are the different type of Brazing joints whic h are regularly used
at different applications.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 32

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Brazing Methods:

The selection of brazing method is based on the size and shape of the
components to be joined, the base metal and the production rate.

(a) Torch Brazing: Torc h brazing is the most versatile method. It is similar to
oxy-acetylene welding. In this process, reducing flame is used to heat the
joint area. A flux is applied and as soon as it melts, the filler metal is hand
fed to the joint area. When the filler metal melts, it flows into the clearance
between the base metal components by capillary action. This method finds
applic ations in fabric ation industry and repair work.

(b) Furnace Brazing: In this method the atmosphere of the furnace is

controlled to prevent oxidation by hydrogen, dissoc iated ammonia, nitrogen
or any gas, thus allowing the molten brazing metal to flow smoothly and
uniformly around the joint.

(c) Induction Brazing: In these metals, the metals to be welded are

surrounded by metallic coils through whic h high frequency current is passed.
This induces eddy current whic h produces localized heating. The parts to be
brazed are pre-fluxed and the brazing is placed in the joint before switc hing
on the current.

(d) Dip Brazing: In dip brazing, the parts to be brazed are dipped into a bath of
molten filler metal covered by a layer of molten flux. Surface not required to
be coated with the brazing alloy must be protected by molasses or by lamp
black. This process is used for small parts.

(e) Salt Bath Brazing: The source of heating in salt bath brazing is a molten
bath of fluoride and chloride salts. This salt bath removes thin oxide films
from the metals to be joined. The filler metal replaced in the joint area and
is also sometimes cladded before dipped in the salt bath.

(f) Resistance Brazing: It is similar to spot welding. Electric al resistance is

used for joining parts. The parts to be joined are placed between the
electrodes of the welding mac hine with the filler metal and flux preloaded at
the joint area. Current is then applied until the filler metal melts and flows
around the joint.

Advantages:
(i) It gives a stronger joint than soldering
(ii) Joint is clean
(iii) Any metal can be brazed
(iv) Less distortion and residual stress
(v) The process can be done more quic kly and more economic ally

Limitations:
(i) Limited size of parts.
(ii) Machining of the joint edges for getting the desired fit is costly.
(iii) Degree of skill required to perform the brazing operations is high.

Applications:
Brazing is used for the assembly of pipe fittings, carbide tips to tool shank,
radiators, heat exc hangers and the repair of castings.

Uses of Brazing: Assembly of pipes to fittings, carbide tips to tools, radiators, heat
exc hangers, electrical parts and repair of castings. Leak-tight joints for pressurized
and vacuum systems are readily joined by brazing.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 33

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ):

Heat Affected Zone is the zone where in the base metal is metallurgic ally
affected by the heat of welding, but is not melted.

Heat affected zone is the zone where the base metal is affected
metallurgically due to the heat of welding. It is the region closed to the weld, where
large thermal fluctuations are encountered due to the fusion welding. This leads to
changes in mec hanic al properties and structure.

Heat Affected Zone contains three regions.

(a) The grain growth zone (1150°C)
(b) The grain refined zone (1150°C to 950°C)
(c) The transition zone (950°C to 750°C)

(a) The grain growth zone: It is immediately adjacent to the fusion zone. In
this zone, parent metal has been heated to a temperature above upper
critic al temperature. This resulted in grain growth.

(b) The grain refined zone: Adjacent to the grain growth zone is the grain
refined zone. In this zone, parent metal has been heated just above the
transition temperature where grain refinement is completed.

(c) The transition zone: In this zone, base metal temperature is below the
transition temperature.

Welding Defects: Welding Defects can be defined as the irregularities formed in the
given weld metal due to wrong welding process or incorrect welding patterns, etc.
The defect may differ from the desired weld bead shape, size, and intended quality.
Welding defects may occur either outside or inside the weld metal. Some of the
defects may be allowed if the defects are under permissible limits but other defects
such as c rac ks are never accepted.

Welding defects can be c lassified into two types as external and internal defects:

External Welding Defects:

1. Weld Crack
2. Underc ut
3. Spatter
4. Porosity
5. Overlap
6. Crater

Internal Welding Defects:

1. Slag Inclusion
2. Incomplete Fusion
3. Necklace c rac king
4. Incompletely filled groove or Incomplete penetration

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 34

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

External Welding Defects

The various types of external defects with their causes and remedies are listed
below:

1. Weld Crack
This is the most unwanted defect of all the other welding defects. Welding crac ks can
be present at the surface, inside of the weld material or at the heat affected zones.

Crack can also appear at different temperatures:

Hot Crack – It is more prominent during crystallization of weld joints where the
temperature can rise more than 10,000-degree Celsius.
Cold Crack – This type of crack occurs at the end of the welding process where the
temperature is quite low. Sometimes cold c rac k is visible several hours after welding
or even after few days.
Causes Of Weld Crack:
1. Poor ductility of the given base metal.
2. The presence of residual stress can cause a crack on the weld metal.
3. The rigidity of the joint whic h makes it diffic ult to expand or contract the metals.
4. If there is high content on sulfur and carbon then also the c rac ks may appear.
5. Using hydrogen as a shielding gas while welding ferrous materials.
Remedies for Weld crack:
1. Using appropriate materials may decrease the chances of crack.
2. Preheating the weld and reduc ing the cooling speed joint helps in reducing crac k.
3. Reduce the gap between the weld joints by using reasonable weld joints.
4. While welding releases the c lamping force slowly whic h increases fill to capac ity of
welding material.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 35

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
2. Undercut

When the base of metal melts away from the weld zone, then a groove is formed in
the shape of a notch, then this type of defect is known as Underc ut. It reduces the
fatigue strength of the joint.
Causes of Undercut:
1. If the arc voltage is very high then this defect may occur.
2. If we use the wrong electrode or if the angle of the electrode is wrong, then also
the defect may form.
3. Using a large electrode is also not advisable.
4. High electrode speed is also one of the reasons for this defect.
Remedies for Undercut:
1. Reduce the arc length or lower the arc voltage.
2. Keep the electrode angle from 30 to 45 degree with the standing leg.
3. The diameter of the electrode should be small.
4. Reduce the travel speed of the electrode.

3. Spatter

When some metal drops are expelled from the weld and remain stuck to the surface,
then this defect is known as Spatter.
Causes Of Spatter:
1. High Welding current can cause this defect.
2. The longer the arc the more chances of getting this defect.
3. Incorrect polarity.
4. Improper gas shielded may also cause this defect.
Remedies for Spatter:
1. Reducing the arc length and welding current
2. Using the right polarity and according to the conditions of the welding.
3. Inc reasing the plate angle and using proper gas shielding.

4. Porosity

Porosity in the condition in whic h the gas or small bubbles gets trapped in the welded
zone.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 36

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Causes of Porosity:
1. It occurs when the electrode is not coated properly.
2. Using a longer arc may also inc rease its chances.
3. Inc reased welding currents.
4. Rust or oil on the welding surface.
Remedies for porosity:
1. Proper selection of the electrode.
2. Dec reasing the welding current.
3. Using smaller arc and slowing the process to allow the gases to escape.
4. Remove rust or oil from the surface and use a proper technique.

5. Overlap

When the weld face extends beyond the weld toe, then this defect occurs. In this
condition the weld metal rolls and forms an angle less than 90 degrees.
Causes of Overlap:
1. Improper welding technique.
2. By using large electrodes this defect may occur.
3. High welding current
Remedies for Overlap:
1. Using a proper technique for welding.
2. Use small electrode.
3. Less welding current.

6. Crater
It occurs when the c rater is not filled before the arc is broken, which causes the outer
edges to cool faster than the crater. This causes a stress and then c rac k is formed.
Causes of the crater:
1. Incorrect torch angle.
2. Use of large electrode:
3. Improper welding technique
Remedies for crater:
1. Using a proper torc h angle may reduce the stress on the metal
2. Using a small electrode may also dec rease the c rater.
3. Use a proper technique.

Internal Welding Defects

The various types of internal welding defects with their causes and remedies are
listed below:

1. Slag Inclusion

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 37

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
If there is any slag in the weld, then it affects the toughness and metal weldability of
the given material. This decreases the structural performance of the weld material.
Slag is formed on the surface of the weld or between the welding turns.
Causes Of Slag:
1. Slag is formed if the welding current density is very small, as it does not provide
the required amount of heat for melting the metal surface.
2. If the welding speed is too fast then also slag may occur.
3. If the edge of the weld surface is not c leaned properly then also slag may form.
4. Improper welding angle and travel rate of welding rod.
Remedies for Slag Inclusion:
1. Inc rease the current density
2. Adjust the welding speed so that the slag and weld pool do not mix with each
other.
3. Clean the weld edges and remove the slags of previous weld layers
4. Have a proper electrode angle and travel rate.

2. Incomplete Fusion

Causes of Incomplete fusion:

1. It occurs because of the low heat input.
2. When the weld pool is very large and runs ahead of the arc.
3. When the angle of the joint is too low.
4. Incorrect electrode and torch angle may also lead to incomplete fusion.
5. Unproper bead position.
Remedies for Incomplete Fusion:
1. Inc reasing the welding current and decreasing the travel speed helps in removing
the chances of incomplete fusion.
2. Reducing the deposition rate.
3. Inc reasing the joint angle.
4. Try to position the electrode and torc h angle properly so that the edges of the
plate melt away.
5. Positioning the bead properly so that the sharp edges with other beads can be
avoided.

3. Necklace Cracking
It occurs in the use of electron beam welding where the weld does not penetrate
properly. Therefore, the molten metal does not flow into the cavity and results in a
c rac king known as “Nec klace Cracking”.
Causes of Necklace Cracking:
1. Improper welding technique.
2. It occurs in materials such as nic kel base alloys, stainless steel, carbon steels and
Tin alloys.
3. Using high speed of electron beam welding
Remedies for Necklace Cracking:
1. Using a proper welding technique reduce the chances of necklace c rac king.
2. Using proper materials for welding.
3. Using a constant speed during the welding process.
3. Improper welding technique

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 38

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Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
4. Incompletely Filled Groove or Incomplete Penetration

These defects occur only in the butt welds where the groove of the metal is not filled
completely. It is also called as incomplete penetration defect.
Causes of an Incomplete filled groove are:
1. Less deposition of the weld metal
2. Use of improper size of the electrode
3. Improper welding technique
Remedies for Incomplete filled groove are:
1. More deposition of the weld metal.
2. Use a proper size of the electrode.
3. By using a proper welding technique.

Testing and Inspection of Welded Joints:

Testing and inspection of welded joints is done on the same lines as for
castings. The tests fall under two categories: Destructive testing and Non-destructive
testing.

Destructive Testing: These tests are done on a sample to improve the design of
the weld, welding technique etc. and to know the mec hanic al properties of the
weldment. These mec hanical tests included: Tensile test, Bend test, Impact strength
test, Hardness test and relative elongation test. The shape and size of the test
specimen are selected to comply with state standards.

Non – Destructive Testing (NDT): The tests under this category include:

1. Visual Inspection: Visual Inspection of the weld and checking of its

dimensions can reveal: shape of profile, uniformity of surface, underc uts of
surface, underc uts, surface cavities and slag inclusions, crac ks, porosity,
unfilled c raters etc.

2. Hydraulic tests (pressure tests) are applied to weldments that are to operate
under pressure.

3. Air pressure tests are done to check the air tightness of the work.

The other NDT include:

→ Radiographic inspection of the weld (X-ray and gama-ray testing) will

reveal such defects as porosity, blowholes, crac ks, poor fusion and slag
inclusion.
→ Fluorescent penetrant inspection to reveal fine surface c rac ks.
→ Magnetic inspection reveals fine c rac ks and pores in the weld.
→ Ammonia penetrant test: This is a leak test. The welded vessel is filled with
compressed air to which 1% ammonia has been added. The welded joint is
then covered with paper impregnated with a 5% solution of merc uric nitrate.
Black spots appear on the paper in case of leakage.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 39

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Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJEC T: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Comparison among Welding, Brazing and Soldering:
Welding Soldering Brazing
1. In welding process 1. In Soldering the joint is 1. In brazing the joint is
fusion is obtained by obtained by means of obtained by means of
heat and or pressure. filler material whose filler material whose
melting point is less melting point is above
than 450°C and less the 450°C and less
than the melting point than the melting
of base metal. temperature of base
metal.
2. The strength of the 2. The soldering joints are 2. The brazed joints are
joint is highest weakest among the stronger than soldered
comparing to soldering soldering, welding and joint but weaker than
and brazing. brazing. welded joints.
3. The joint strength at 3. The joint strength 3. The joint strength
times may be equal to depends upon the depends upon the
even greater than the adhesive qualities of adhesive qualities of
strength of the base filler material and can filler material and can
metals. never reach the never reach the
strength of base metal. strength of base metal.
4. The filler material may 4. The filler material is 4. The filler material is
or may not be used. essentially used essentially used
because joint is made because joint is made
by filler material only. by filler material only.
5. The composition of 5. Essentially filler metals 5. he filler metals are
filler metal is normally are alloys of lead and alloys of copper (e.g.
same as that of base tin copper zinc alloys and
metal. (the metal to be copper silver alloys)
welded)
6. Welded joints can 6. Soldered joints are not 6. Brazed joints are also
withstand high suitable for high not suitable for high
temperature. temperature servic e temperature servic e
because of lower because of lower
melting point of the melting point of filler
filler metal. metal.
7. The process cannot 7. The process can join 7. The process can join
joint dissimilar metals dissimilar metals whic h dissimilar metals whic h
whic h are insoluble in are insoluble in each are insoluble in each
other. other. other.
8. The parent metals are 8. Heating of parent 8. Heating of parent
heated to the melting metal is negligible to metal is negligible to
temperature, so cause any change in cause any change in
welding is likely to their structure and their structure and
cause the metallurgical properties. properties.
damage and change in
the properties.
9. Welding has wide 9. Soldering is widely 9. Brazing is used for
applic ations in used in joining small joining electrical parts,
construction and assemblies, electric joining carbide tips to
maintenance of boilers, and electronic s parts. tools, heat exchangers,
pressure vessels, tanks radiators etc…
bridges, building
constructions, cutting
tools dies, and
furnaces.

==================XXX==================

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 40

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
Prepared by, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., Dept. of ME
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

UNIT 3 – Metal Forming Processes

• Introduction
• Classification Of Metal Forming Process
• Differences Between Hot Working And Cold Working
• Recrystallisation
• Advantages Of Hot Working Processes
• Limitations
• Rolling
• Terminology Associated With Rolled Products
• Production Sequence in Getting Rolled Products
• Hot And Cold Rolling
• Classification Of Rolling Mills
• Range Of Rolled Products
• Lubrication In Rolling Process
• Mechanism Of Rolling And Forces During Rolling
• Defects In Rolled Products
• Stamping (Metal Working)
• Forming Processes
• Cold working Processes
• Cause of Strain Hardening
• Residual Stresses
• Advantages & Limitations of Cold Working Processes
• Blanking
• Punching
• Piercing
o Shaving
o Trimming
o Nibbling
o Notching
• Bending
• Forming
o Stretch Forming
• Embossing
• Drawing
• Tube Drawing
• Coining
• Spinning

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ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Introduction:
Forging processes are primary manufacturing processes. In these processes
metals are deformed to get desired shape and size. The necessary deformation in
metals can be achieved by application of large amount of mechanical forces only or
by heating the metal and then applying comparatively less forces. The desired shape
and size is obtained by means of set of tools called dies which may be open or closed
dies. The stresses induced during the process are greater than yield strength but less
than fracture strength.

During plastic deformation metal is said to flow plastically. The crystals and
grains of metals get elongated in the direction of flow of metal. So the mechanically
worked metals have better strength in specific direction. The metal is strong when
stresses are acting across the direction of grain flow line. The metal of course would
be comparatively weak along the flow lines. The wastage of material is negligible or
there may be no wastage as the metal is deformed to get desired shape and size.

Compare three methods of manufacturing a crank shaft. Casting, machining

and forging (hot working process):

(i) The crank shaft produced by castings has no grain flow so has the poorest
mechanical properties.
(ii) The crank shaft made by machining has interrupted fibre flow of metal so the
mechanical properties of this shaft will be proper than those of forging.
(iii) The third figure shows the crank shaft made by forging process. Here the fibre
of metal is not interrupted and is continous along the entire length of the
shaft. Hence it will develop superior mechanical properties.

It is clear from above discussion that components manufactured from metal

forming processes will have higher strength and mechanical properties as compared
to casting and machining processes. Direction of grain flow lines can be controlled in
metal forming process and these components will develop maximum mechanical
properties in application where components are subjected to impact or fatigue
loading. For static loading direction of grain flow lines is not so important.

Classification of Metal Forming Processes:

On the basis of heat applied forming process can be classified into two broad
categories:

1. Hot Working Processes.

2. Cold Working Processes.

(1) Hot working is the plastic deformation of metals above recrystallisation

temperatures.
(2) Cold working is the plastic deformation of metals below recrystallisation
temperatures.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

METAL FORMING PROCESSES

Hot Working Cold Working

1. Rolling 1. Wire Drawing

2. Extrusion 2. Cold Extrusion
3. Forging 3. Cold Rolling
4. Hot Drawing 4. Cold Forging
5. Sheet Metal
Processes

Differences between Hot Working and Cold Working:

Hot Working Cold Working

1. Hot working is done at a 1. Cold working is done at
temperature above temperature below recrystalli-
recrystallisation but below melting sation temperature. So no
point. It can be therefore be appreciable recovery can take
regarded as a simultaneous place during deformation.
process of deformation and
recovery.
2. Hardening due to plastic 2. Hardening is not eliminated since
deformation is completely, working is done at a temperature
eliminated by recovery and below recrystallisation.
recrystallisation.
3. Mechanical properties such as 3. Cold working decreases
elongation, reduction of area and elongation, reduction of area.
impact values are improved. Increases ultimate tensile
Ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, yield point and
point, fatigue strength, hardness hardness.
are not affected by hot working.
4. Surface finish of hot worked metal 4. Good surface finish is obtained.
is not nearly as good as with cold
working because of oxidation and 5. Crystallisation does not occur.
scaling. Grains are only elongated.
5. Refinement of crystals occurs. 6. Possibility of crack formation
6. Cracks and blowholes are welded and propagation is great.
up. 7. Internal and residual stresses ate
7. Internal or residual stresses are developed in the metal.
not developed in the metal. 8. Cold parts posses less durability.
8. Oxide forms rapidly on metal 9. Higher forces are required for
surface. deformation.
9. Less force is required. 10. More powerful and heavier
10. Equipment used in hot working is equipments are required for cold
light. working.
11. Handling and maintenance of hot 11. Easier to handle cold parts.
metal is difficult and troublesome.

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
12. Hot working processes: 12. Cold working processes:
(a) Hot forging (a) Cold rolling
(b) Hot rolling (b) Cold extrusion
(c) Hot spinning (c) Press work
(d) Hot extrusion (i) Drawing
(e) Welded pipe and tube (ii) Squeezing
manufacturing (iii) Bending
(f) Roll piercing (iv) Shearing
(g) Hot drawing

Recrystallisation:

Recrystallisation temperature is temperature at which entirely new crystals

or grains are formed and old grain structure is destroyed. Recrystallisation varies for
different materials. The following table shows recrystallisation temperature of some
of the metals. It is generally one-half to one-third for most of the metals. It also
depends upon other variables like if the material is already cold worked and there is
large plastic deformation, material would have low recrystallisation temperature. This
is because after cold working and deformation metal have more stored energy in
form of vacancies and dislocation. With this energy available it takes less thermal
energy for atoms to rearrange themselves. Therefore, recrystallisation can occur at
lower temperatures.

Metal Temperature in (°C)

Aluminium 150°C
Copper 200°C
Gold 200°C
Iron 450°C
Silver 200°C
Nickel 590°C
Zinc At room temperature
Lead Below room temperature
Tin Below room temperature

The dividing line between hot working and cold working processes is
recrystallisation temperature. Hot working does not necessarily mean high absolute
temperature. The process may be carried out with or without actual heating. For
example, lead and tin have recrystallisation temperature below room temperature.
So mechanical working of these metals at room temperature is always hot working
process. For steels recrystallisation temperature is around 1000°C and working below
this temperature is still a cold working process.

Advantages of Hot working Processes:

1. As the metal is above the recrystallisation temperature large deformation can

be obtained because there is no strain hardening.
2. Because of grain refinement, ductility and toughness are improved, strength is
increased and greater homogeneity is developed in metal.
3. At high temperature metals have high ductility so less force is required to
achieve the necessary deformation.
4. Porosity in the ingot is eliminated to a large extent.
5. Directional properties resulting from grain flow are obtained.
6. Even brittle materials can be hot worked.

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Limitations:

1. There is rapid oxidation or scaling of surfaces due to high temperature of

metal which results in poor surface finish.
2. Because of the thermal expansion of metal dimension accuracy cannot be
achieved.
3. Hot working equipment handling and maintenance costs are high.
4. Some metal cannot be hot worked as they become brittle at high
temperatures.

Rolling:

Rolling is the process of compressing the metal by passing it between two

revolving cylinders called rolls. As the metal is compressed its cross section area is
reduced and length is increased.

Rolling is normally a hot working process unless specifically mentioned as

cold working. The starting material is the moulded ingot which is rolled into
intermediate shapes like blooms, billets and slabs. These intermediate shapes are
rolled further into plates, sheets, bars, structural shapes, I, L, T or channel section.

The rolling process is explained in below. Heated metal is passed between

two rolls that rotate in opposite direction; the gap between the rolls is some what
less than the thickness of metal at entrance.

Following are the characteristics of rolling process:

1. The amount of thickness that can be reduced in single pass between a given
pair of rolls depends upon the friction between the roll surface and metal.
Rougher rolls would be able to achieve greater reduction than smoother rolls,
but the roll surface gets embedded into rolled metal and produces rough
surface. The reduction that can be achieved with given pair of rolls in single
pass is known as angle of bite.
2. In the process of rolling, the speed of metal is continuously changing between
the entry and exit of roll where as roll speed remains constant. Since cross-
sectional area is decreasing metal enters the rolls with a speed less than
speed of rolls and exits from rolls traveling at a higher speed than it enters. At
a point between contacts length A and B as shown in above figure the metal
speed is same as the roll speed. This is designated as neutral plane.
3. During the rolling of ingot, the volume of the metal that enters rolling mill is
same as that leaving except in initial passes when there might be some loss
due to filling of voids and cavities.

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
The following figure shows, how grain structure is refined during rolling by
recrystallisation. Original coarse grains are elongated by rolling action. Because of
high temperature recrystallisation starts and small grains begin to form.

Terminology Associated with Rolled Products:

1. Ingot: This is the raw material used in rolling. This is obtained by pouring
molten metal into ingot moulds having standard dimension. The ingot is rolled
in intermediate shapes like slabs, billets and blooms.
2. Slab: The standard dimensions of slab are 50 to 150mm thickness and 600 to
1500mm width.
3. Bloom: Blooms have square cross-section and are small than bloom. They
can have any cross-section of from (38.1 X 38.1mm) upto the size of bloom.
They are further rolled into shapes such as rounds, rods or bars.
4. Plate sheets and Strips: Plates, sheets and strips are obtained by further
rolling the slab with flat rolls.

Production Sequence in Getting Rolled Products:

The ingot is rolled to intermediate shapes – blooms & slabs. These blooms,
billets and slabs are further rolled into plate sheets, bar stock and structural shapes
as shown in above figure.

Hot and Cold Rolling:

In hot rolling the metal is fed between rolls after being heated above the
recrystallisation temperature. This leads to grain refinement, thereby mechanical

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
properties are improved. During hot rolling, the work hardening does not occur and
coefficient of friction between the rolls and the metal is higher. Heavy reduction in
area of the work piece can be obtained. Hot rolled parts do not have a good surface
finish due to scaling.

In cold rolling, the metal is fed to the rolls when it is below its
recrystallisation temperature. This results in elongation of grain structure. The metal
shows work hardening effect after cold rolling. This increases harness and decreases
the ductility of the metal. Heavy reductions are not possible. The coefficient of
friction between the rolls and the metal is lower. The cold rolled a surface is smooth
and oxide free.

Classification of Rolling Mills:

Rolling mills are classified according to the number and arrangement of rolls in a
stand. They are as follows:

1. Two – high rolling mill Generally used for

2. Three – high rolling mill Hot Rolling of Metals
3. Four – high rolling mill
4. Tandem rolling mill Generally used for
5. Cluster rolling mill Cold Rolling of Metals

1. Two – High Rolling Mill:

It consists of two heavy horizontal rolls placed one over the other. The
space between the rolls can be adjusted by raising or lowering the upper roll. The
position of the power roll is fixed. The rolls rotate in opposite direction. The work can
be rolled by feeding from one direction only. This is called non – reversing mill.

There is another type of two – high mill, which incorporates a drive

mechanism that can reverse the direction of rotation of the rolls. This is knows as
two – high reversing mill. In this, the rolled metal is passed backward and forth
through several times. This type is used in blooming and slabbing mills and for rough
work.

2. Three – High Rolling Mill:

It consists of three horizontal rolls placed one over the other. The upper and
lower rolls rotate in the same direction; where as the intermediate roll rotates in
direction opposite to the outer roll.

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

First of all the work piece passes through the bottom and the middle rolls
and then returning between the middle and top rolls so that the thickness is reduced
at each pass. Mechanically operated lifting tables are used which move vertically on
either side of the roll stand. It may be used ot make plates or sections.

3. Four – High Rolling Mill:

It consist of four horizontal rolls, two of smaller diameter and two of large
diameter. The bigger rolls are called back up rolls because they reinforce the smaller
rolls to maximize roll deflection there by minimizing the tendency of producing plates
and sheets thicker at the centre than at the two outer edges. The two smaller rolls
are called work rolls. It is used for both hot and cold rolling of plates and sheets.

4. Tandem Rolling Mill:

It is set of two or three stands of rolls set in parallel alignment so that a

continous pass may be made through each one successively without change of
direction of material.

5. Cluster Rolling Mill:

It consists of two working rolls of smaller diameter and one or more backup
rolls of larger diameter. The number of backup rolls may go up to 20 or more,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 8

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
depending on the amount of support needed for the working rolls during the
operation. Cold rolling is employed for providing a smooth and bright surface finish.

Range of Rolled Products:

The whole range of rolled products can be divided into the following:

(a) Structural Shapes or Sections: This includes section like round square,
hexagonal bars channels, H and I beams and special section like rail sections. The
following figure shows some structural shapes.
(b) Plates and Sheets: Plates and sheets are produced by rolling.
(c) Special Purpose Rolled Products: These include rings, balls, wheels and ribbed
tubes.

Lubrication in Rolling Process:

Lubrication in rolling process protects the rolls against wear, reduces friction
and allows smooth flow of metal between rolls. It also protects the metal surface
from scratching and peeling.

The selection of lubricant depends on

(i) Material
(ii) Roll Pressure
(iii) Speed of rolling.

The most commonly used lubricants are

(i) High penetrating and wetting soluble oils
(ii) Synthetic soluble
(iii) Oils with excellent polarity.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 9

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Mechanism of Rolling and Forces during Rolling:

The above figure shows a schematic diagram of the rolling process. The
metal contacts each of the two rolls along the arc AB, which is known as the arc of
contact. The arc corresponds to the central angle , called the “angle of contact or
bite”. The process of metal rolling is made possible by the friction that occurs
between the contact surfaces of the rolls and the part being rolled. At the moment of
bite, two forces act on the metal from the side of each roll, normal force P and the
tangential for µP, where µ is the co-efficient of friction between the metal and the roll
surfaces. The part would be dragged in if the resultant of horizontal component of
the normal force P and tangential force (frictional force) µP is directed in that
direction.

In the limiting case,

P sin α = µ P cos α
µ = tan α
α = tan -1 µ

Or
If α is great er than tan -1 µ, the metal would not enter the space between
the rolls automatically, that is, unaided.

The maximum permissible angle of bite depends upon the valve of „µ‟ which
in turn depends upon the materials of the rolls and the job being rolled, the
roughness of their surfaces, and the rolling temperatures and speed.

In hot rolling, the primary purpose is to reduce the section and hence the
maximum possible reduction is desired. So, the value of and hence of µ should be
greater. In hot rolling, lubrication is generally not necessary. On the other hand, on
primary reduction rolling mills such as blooming or rough rolling mills for structural
elements, the rolls may sometimes “ragged” to increase µ. Ragging is the process of
making certain fine grooves on the surface of the roll to increase the friction. In cold
rolling, the rolling loads are very high; hence µ should not be much. Besides, cold
rolling being a finishing operation, rough rolls will impair the surface of the cold rolled
product. Due to this, rolls for cold rolling are ground and lubricants are also used to
reduce µ.
The usual values of biting angle are:

α = 3° to 4° for cold rolling of steel and other metals with lubrication on

well-ground rolls.
= 6° to 8° for cold rolling of steel and other metals with lubrication on rough
rolls.
= 18° to 22° for hot rolling steel sheets

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
= 20° to 22° for hot rolling aluminium at 350°C
= 28° to 30° for hot rolling steel (blooms and billets) in ragged or well
roughed rolls.

Defects in Rolled Products

The various defects in rolled products are as follows:

1. Edge cracking: This defect occurs in plate or slabs because of either limited
ductility or metal or uneven deformation, especially at the edges.
2. Folds: These defects occur during plate rolling when reduction per pass is
very small.
3. Lamination: These are small cracks, which develop when reduction in
thickness is quite high.
4. Alligatoring: This defect takes place in rolling of slabs of aluminium alloys
where the work piece splits along a horizontal plane on exit.

Stamping (metalworking)

Stamping includes a variety of sheet-metal forming manufacturing

processes, such as punching using a machine press or stamping press, blanking,
embossing, bending, flanging, and coining. This could be a single stage operation
where every stroke of the press produce the desired form on the sheet metal part, or
could occur through a series of stages. The process is usually carried out on sheet
metal, but can also be used on other materials, such as polystyrene.

Operations
• Bending
• Blanking
• Coining
• Drawing
• Piercing

Forming Processes (Mechanical Working Processes):

Forming processes or mechanical working processes are primary

manufacturing processes. In these processes metals are deformed to get desired
shape and size. The necessary deformation can be achieved by application of large
amount of mechanical force only or by heating the metal and then applying less
force. The desired shape and size is obtained by means of set of tools called dies
which may be open or closed dies. The following figure shows a closed die. The
stresses induced during the process are greater than yield strength but less than
fracture strength.

Forming processes are very economical processes as they involve minimum

amount of material wastage and result in faster production. The materials processes
by forming processes develop superior mechanical properties like strength, hardness
and toughness etc… Ductility is quite desirable property of materials in forming
processes.

Forming processes can be grouped into two categories:

1. Cold working processes
2. Hot working processes
If the working temperature is lower than recrystallization temperature then
process is termed as cold working process.
When the working temperature is above recrystallization temperature then
process is termed as hot working process.

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Some of the metals forming processes are:
• Rolling
• Extrusion
• Forging
• Wire drawing
• Sheet metal operations

The applications of metal forming processes include structural shapes, tooth

paste tubes, cans, pipe and tube manufacturing, screws, rivets. Sheet metal
operation applications include car bodies, ship building, air craft bodies, boilers, toys,
containers for edibles etc.

Cold Working Processes:

Cold working processes come under the category of metal forming

processes and can be defined as processes in which desired shape and size are
obtained through the plastic deformation of material below recrystallisation
temperature. The stresses induced during the process are greater than yield strength
but less than fracture strength of the material. In other words we may say that
stresses are intentionally exceeded to shape of components.

Following are the salient characteristics of cold working processes:

1. Cold working increases the strength and hardness of material. This increase in
strength is called strain hardening. Strain hardening is of prime importance to
the design engineer as it permits the use of smaller parts with great strength.
2. Surface finish and dimensional accuracy, obtained in cold working processes is
quite good.
3. During cold working process hardness and strength is increased and ductility
is decreased. Ductility is quite useful property in metal forming processes. The
amount of cold work that can be done on the metal depends on the ductility.
Higher the ductility of metal mote it is able to be cold worked.
4. The amount of deformation withstand by pure metal is higher as compared to
metal having alloys because alloys increase the tendency and rapidly of strain
hardening which reduces ductility.
5. Metals having large grain structure are more ductile than smaller grained
metals.

Cause of Strain Hardening:

It has been shown that only 85 to 90% of the energy absorbed by material
during cold working process is accountable in the form of heat, sound and elastic
strain energy. The remaining 10 to 15% of energy or work done on the material goes
to change the molecular or grain structure of the material by atomic dislocation,
fragmentation or lattice distortion or combination of three phenomena. Thus the

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
material being worked after elastic limit becomes stronger and harder. This could be
possible explanation for the phenomena of work hardening or strain hardening.

Residual Stresses:
During the cold working processes internal or residual stresses are
developed. To remove these undesirable stresses, the metal is reheated slightly
below the recrystallization range temperature. In this range stresses are eliminated
without appreciable change in grain structure because heating into recrystalline
range eliminates the effects of cold working.

Advantages of Cold Working Processes:

1. Cold working increases strength and hardness by strain hardening at the
expense of ductility which is useful in some applications.
2. Good surface finish is achieved because no oxides are formed during cold
working processes.
3. Better dimensional accuracy is achieved.
4. It is easier to handle cold metals and economical for some cases like
manufacturing small size components.

Limitations of Cold Working Processes:

1. Since the metal has highly yield strength and low ductility at lower
temperature the amount of deformation that can be achieved is less, further
deformation can be achieved only after annealing.
2. The material gets strain hardened and internal stresses are developed which
remains unless they are removed by annealing.
3. The ductility of metal decreases. After cold working ir becomes brittle if it is
over worked.

Blanking:
Blanking is the operation of cutting out flat shapes from sheet metal strip.
The removed portion is called blank which is required product of the operation and
metal with hole left behind discarded as waste. Blanking is usually first operation and
blank is further processed to produce desired part. Blanking is identical to the
punching except that in blanking removed portion is desired product where as in
punching sheet with the hole is desired product.

➢ The punch and die are made of suitable hard and strong material such as
hardened high carbon steel, high chromium oil hardening steel, or tungsten
carbide.
➢ In blanking operation die opening size equals the blank size and punch size is
obtained by subtracting clearance form die opening size.

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Following are the terminologies associated with punch and die setup in
shearing:

1. Angular clearance: The angular clearance is shown in above figure.

In blanking and punching operation first the material is elastically deformed
and then plastically and finally removed from the sheet metal strip. After the final
breaking, the size of blank will slightly increase because of spring back and this will
make the blank to jam in die. It is usual practice to provide angular clearance on dies
to avoid sticking of blank to die face. The angular clearance or draft provided
depends on the material, thickness and shape of stock used. For thicker and softer
materials generally higher angular clearances are provided. The normal value is from
0.25° to 0.75° per side but occasionally a value as high as 2° may be used.

2. Cutting land: The diameter of die at the top keeps on increasing after every
sharpening because of the provision of angular clearance. In order to maintain the
die size as per design it is a usual practice to provide straight portion along with
angular clearance. This is called die land or cutting land. The length of cutting land is
about 3 mm for sheets which are less than 3 mm thick. For greater thicknesses die
land same as the material thickness has been found to be a good practice.

3. Stripper: During shearing operation after the final breaking, the hole size of metal
strip will slightly decrease because of spring back and strip will cling tightly to the
punch. A stripper therefore is provided to remove the metal strip from sides of punch
as punch returns upward.

Application of shear in Blanking and Punching and its use:

While discussing the shearing processes it was assumed that bottom of punch and
top of die block are flat and lie in parallel planes. This process requires very high
shearing force exerted over a very short time. It is usual practice to reduce cutting
forces and to smooth out the shock of heavy loads by providing shear on either die or
punch. The effect of providing shear is to distribute the cutting action over a period
of time depending on the amount of shear provided. The following figure shows
punching and blanking operations where shear is provided on punch and die
respectively.

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

It may be noted that providing the shear only reduces the maximum force
to be applied but not the total energy required in shearing the component. Shearing
energy is equal to shearing force multiplied by penetration or distance necessary to
effect the completer shearing. By providing shear on die or punch, maximum
shearing force decreases and distance necessary to affect complete shearing
increases. Thus we can say total energy required to shear provided on die and punch.

Effect of shear on shearing force is shown in below figure.

The provision of shear on the punch distorts the shape of blank and provision of
shear on die would bend the stock with hole. So, in blanking operation to obtain the
flat blank shear is provided on the die and for punching operation shear provided on
the punch to obtain sheet with hole as flat.

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Punching:
The punching is cutting operation by which various shaped holes are made
in sheet metal strip. In punching operations sheet with the hole is desired product
and material punched out is scrap. Normally punching operation is performed after
blanking.

➢ The punch and die are made of a suitable hard and strong material, such as
hardened high carbon steel, high chromium oil hardening steel or tungsten
carbide.
➢ In punching operation the punch size equals the size of hole and die opening
size is obtained by adding the clearance to punch size.

Piercing:
Piercing is a shearing process where a punch and die are used to create a
hole in sheet metal or a plate. The process and machinery are usually the same as
that used in blanking, except that the piece being punched out is scrap in the
piercing process. There are many specialized types of piercing: lancing, perforating,
notching, nibbling, shaving, cutoff, and dinking.

The amount of clearance between a punch and die for piercing is governed
by the thickness and strength of the work-piece material being pierced. The punch-
die clearance determines the load or pressure experienced at the cutting edge of the
tool, commonly known as point pressure. Excessive point pressure can lead to
accelerated wear and ultimately failure.

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Burr height is typically used as an index to measure tool wear, because it is
easy to measure during production.

For simple piercing operations a pancake die is used.

Specialized types of piercing are,

• Lancing
• Perforating
• Notching
• Nibbling
• Shaving
• Cutoff

Shaving:
In blanking or piercing, the edge of blank or the hole is not perfectly clean
because of burr generated in the shearing process. It is basically a finishing operation
in which the small amount of material is sheared away from the edge of an already
blanked or pierced part. Its primary use is to obtain greater dimensional accuracy. It
is also used to produce a smoother edge. Because of only small amount of metal is
removed the punches and dies must be made with very little clearance. Blanked
parts such as small gears can be shared to produce dimensional accuracy within
0.025 mm.

Trimming:
In operations such as forging, die casting and drawing of sheet metals the
small amount of excess metal gets spread out neat the parting line. This extra metal
is called flash. The flash is to be trimmed before forging or casting is to be used. The
dies used for this purpose are similar to blanking dies. The main difference is the
type of presses used for trimming, which should normally have a large table. The
figure shows trimming operation.

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Nibbling:
In nibbling operation a specific contour is cut by producing a series of over
lapping holes or notches as shown in figure. In this manner simple punches can be
used to cut a complex shape from sheet metals. Nibbling is used when contour is
long and separate punch is impractical and uneconomical. The punches used may be
square, round or triangular depending upon the applications.

Notching:
Notching is essentially same as the piercing except that it removes small
portion of metal along the edge of the stock.

Bending:
Bending is the plastic deformation of metals about a linear axis with little or
no change in surface area. The bending of flat sheet is shown in below figure. Here
due to applied forces, metal on the outside is stretched while that on the inside is
compressed. There is a plane in between which is neither stretched nor compressed.
This plane is known as neutral plane. Neutral plane should be at the center when the
material is elastically deformed. When the material is plastically deformed the neutral
axis move downward towards compressed layer. Since materials oppose compression
much better than tension. The thickness is slightly decreased.

In bending operations there is some elastic recovery after the punch is

removed. This is known as spring back. Thus is metal is to bent at specific angel the
metal must be slightly over bent to compensate for the unbending action of spring
back. Bending operation is performed while manufacturing many components such as
trays, boxes, brackets, clips etc…

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Different types of bending methods are shown in below figure. The first one
is edge bending which is used for simple 90° bend only. Here the work piece is held
firmly to the die with hold down and punch bends the extended portion of metallic
blank. Here the work piece behaves a cantilever beam. V-bending and U-bending is
shown is second figure. The punch and die often form a 90° internal angle between
the faces of the metal.

Bending operation is closely related to forming operation. Bending is

sometimes called forming operation, when multiple bends are made with single die.
If the axes of deformation are not linear or are independent, the process becomes
drawing and or stretching.

Forming:

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Forming is the operation which reproduces flat stock into the shape of punch
and dies with little or no plastic flow of the metal. An example is a punch and dies
designed to form a flat strip of steel into a U – shape.

Stretch Forming
Stretch forming is an attractive way of producing the large sheet metal
parts in limited or low quantities. In this process the sheet of metal is gripped by two
or more sets of jaws that stretch it and wrap it around a single form die block. This
process of simultaneously stretching and bending is called stretch bending.

In stretch forming most of the deformation is induced by the tensile

stretching, therefore forces on the die are far less than those normally present in
bending or forming because forces are so low that the dies can often be made of
wood, low melting point metal or even plastic.

➢ As in the process deformation is carried out in plastic region there is very little
spring back and work piece closely conforms to the shape of tool.
➢ In stretch forming we can have component either single or double curved
surfaces. The sheet should have uniform thickness other wise the thinner
portions are likely to be over stretched. Also if the sheer is having any holes
before the stretch forming they are likely to be enlarged.
➢ Stretch forming is quite popular in the air craft industry and frequently used
to form aluminium and stainless steel into wing tips, scoops and other large
panels.

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
➢ Sometimes mating male and female dies are used to shape the metal while it
is being stretched. This process is known as stretch draw forming.

Embossing:

Embossing is the operation in which projected or raised figures are made on sheet
metals with corresponding relief on the other side. It basically involves drawing and
bending operation. There may be the negligible change in the thickness of the metal.

➢ The die set consists of punch and die with required contours which are desired
on the final product. The clearance between punch and die at meeting is same
as the thickness of required product.
➢ Embossing is used for providing rigidity to sheet metals and for decorative
sheet work used in houses and religious places.

Drawing:

It is also known as cold drawing refers to two different operations.

(a) If the starting material is sheet metal than the operation is sheet metal
drawing.
(b) If the starting material is wire, rod or tube then the operation is wire drawing
rod drawing or tube drawing respectively.

(a) Sheet Metal Drawing:

Sheet metal drawing is defined as process for making cup shaped articles
from flat sheet metal blanks. Common examples of such components are dishes,
trays, brake drums, cylindrical container etc… Sheet metal drawing operation is
shown in below figure.
The set up is similar to that used in blanking except that punch and die are
provided with necessary rounding at the corner. The rounding is provided to allow
the smooth flow of metal during drawing. The blank is first placed and located above
the die. The blank holder comes down properly holds the edges of the blank. After
this punch moves downwards to force, the blank to take the shape of cup formed by
the end of the punch. The punch and blank holder then returns upward to complete
the cycle.

➢ The punch and die radius should be equal and sufficient large (about 5 times
thickness of metal). Large punch radius prevents fracture of metal near the
end of punch where tensile forces are maximum. Large die radius prevents
tearings of metal as it flows over the edge of the die. The radius should not be
too large otherwise wrinkle may form.

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
➢ The depth of draw in sheet metal drawing may be shallow, moderate or deep.
If the depth of formed cup is less than half its diameter the process is called
shallow drawing. If the depth of formed cup exceeds the diameter, it is known
as deep drawing. Bottle caps and automobile panes are the examples of
drawing process.

(b) Wire Drawing:

Wire may be defined as metal in form of thread or slender rod which id
flexible. Wire drawing process is to obtain wires from rods of bigger diameter through
die. Rods are the bars with circular cross section. Wire drawing is always a cold
working process.
The below first figure shows wore drawing die and second figure shows wire
drawing machine. The opening in the die is generally conical. The end of the wire to
be drawn is made in to a point shape and inserted through the die opening. This end
is then gripped properly and pulled sufficiently by suitable means so that this end can
be attached to power reel. From them on, power reel rotates at proper speed and
pulls the entire piece through die.

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BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Before the wire is drawn stock needs to be prepared for wire drawing. The four major
aspects of stock preparation for wire drawing are as follows:

1. Annealing: The wire should be annealed properly as the material looses its
ductility during wire drawing process and when it is to be repeatedly drawn to
bring it to the final size, intermediate annealing is required to restore the
ductility.

2. Preparation of conical end: As the wire is to go through conical portion of

die and then pulled out through the exit by gripper. In this process there is no
force applied for pushing the wire into die from entrance side. To make an
easy entry of wire into die the end of the stock is made pointed by means of
simple hammering or by rotary swaging.

3. Cleaning: The wire should be cleaned properly as it flows through the die.
Cleaning is essentially done to remove any scale and rust present on the
surface which may severely affect the die. Cleaning is normally done by acid
pickling.

4. Lubrication: The pressure acting at the interface of metal and die is quire
high and, therefore lubrication of die is a serious problem. Two methods of
lubrication are widely employed. In one method wire surface is cleaned,
coated with lime and thoroughly dried. Before entering the die lubricant such
as grease or soap is applied to surface of wire or rod. Second method is used
for very thin wires. In this case electrolytic coating of copper is used to reduce
friction.

The material of wire drawing die are generally chilled cast iron,
hardened alloy steel, tungsten carbide of diamond. Tungsten carbide die
are preferred because of their long life.

Tube Drawing:

Tube drawing is also similar to the other drawing processes. There are three
basic types of tube drawing processes as shown in below three figures.

The first figure indicates the simplest form of tube drawing process. In this
process, no internal mandrel is used hence if is called sinking process. The technique
shown in second figure reduces the tube diameter and controls its thickness.
However, the imitation is length of the tube by length of the mandrel. To over come

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
this problem, moving mandrel as shown in third figure is used. The tubes are also
first pointed and then entered through the die and on the other side of the die; this
end is gripped in tongs, which is connected to the draw bench. There may be more
than one pass required to get the final size. The reduction in one pass is about 40
percent. The metal is annealed after every pass in order to remove the effect of
strain hardening. Hot drawn tubes are also cold drawn to provide good surface finish,
better dimensional accuracy and improved physical properties.

Coining:

Coining is basically a cold forging operation. The only difference is that here
the flow of metal occurs only at top layers and not at the entire volume as in case of
cold forming.

The process is used to produce coins, meals and similar products where
exact size and fine details are required. The coining die consists of punch and dies

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BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
which are engraved with necessary details required on the both sides of final product.
A blank is kept on the die and squeezed by it. The pressure required in coining is
quite high as very fine details are required in coining. For example, a pressure of
240,00 psi may be required to make a nickel coin of 50 paise.

Spinning:

Spinning is the process used for making cup shaped parts having symmetrical
shapes. In this process a blank is rotated, fixed against the forms block and then
gradually force is applied on blank so that, blank takes the shape of form block.

The spinning process may be carried out on machine similar to a lathe machine. A
circular blank properly centered with lathe axis is held against the chuck by the
pressure of follower attached to tails stock. The form block, which has the shape of
desired part, is fixed to the head stock of lathe machine. The tool used in spinning is
simple round ended wooden or metal tool or small roller. As the blank and form block
are made to rotate, the tool is pressed and moved gradually on the blank so that
blank take the shape of form block.

Spinning Lathe

The spinning lathe consists of,

1. Bed
2. Head Stock
3. Form
4. Tail Stock

The bed supports head stock, tail stock and other accessories. The form
block is fixed in the lathe spindle and turns with it. The work piece is bent over the
form block to take its shape by applying pressure by means of tool. The follower
supports the work piece. Steps in spinning are shown in below figure.

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ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Types of Spinning Processes:

The Spinning process is classified in two types i.e., hot-spinning and cold-spinning,
depending upon whether the blank or work piece has been heated before spinning or
not.

(i) Hot Spinning:

In hot spinning, the metal blank is heated to forging temperature and then
forming it into the desired shape.
A blunt pressing tool is used which contacts the surface of the rotating part
and causes the flow of metal over the form mandrel. This method is generally used
for thicker plates and sheets, which do not plastically de-formed at room temperature
by pressing tool.
In order to avoid wrinkling at the outer edge a back-up support (hard wood
bar) opposite to the tool is used, when working with relatively thin sheets. Hot
spinning produces parts such as heads for pressure vessels, refinery equipment‟s and
large tanks.

(ii) Cold Spinning:

Cold spinning process is similar to hot spinning except that the metal blank
is worked at room temperature. This method is generally best suited for thin plates
and sheets of aluminum and other soft metals.
Cold spinning produces parts such as light reflectors, cooking utensils, liquid
containers, radial engine cowling, domestic use hollow parts etc.

Products of Spinning:

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

UNIT – 4: Extrusion and Forging Processes

• Extrusion
• Range of Extrusion Products
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
• Classification of Extrusion Process
• Hot Extrusion Process
• Cold Extrusion Process
• Forging
• Forge Ability of Metal And Alloys
• Forgeable Materials
• Forging Temperatures
• Hand Forging Tools and Equipment Used In Smithy:
• Basic Forging Operations
• Forging Processes & Classification
• Die
• Open Die Forging
• Impression Die Forging
• Roll Forging
• Rotary Forging or Swaging
• Fibrous Structure of Forgings
• Advantages of Forging
• Limitations of Forging
• Defects in Forging Parts

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Extrusion:
Extrusion is the process of confining the metal in closed cavity and then
forcing it to flow from one opening (die), so that metal will take the shape of
opening. The operation of extrusion is similar to the squeezing of tooth paste out of
toothpaste. The paste inside the tooth paste has no shape, when the tooth paste
tube is squeezed the paste flows out of the circular opening taking the shape of the
opening.

Range of Extrusion Products:

Extrusion process is used to manufacture products like;

(i) Rods
(ii) Tubes
(iii) A variety of circular, square, rectangular, hexagonal and other shapes
both in solid or hollow form.
(iv) Channels like I and T and other sections.

Some of the extruded shapes are shown in below figure:

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Advantages of the extrusion process are as follows:

1. Extrusion is a single pass process unlike rolling.

2. Dies are easy to manufacture.
3. Variety of shapes of high strength, good accuracy and surface finish can be
obtained.
4. High production rate with relatively low die cost.
5. Complicated cross – sectional shapes which are not possible to achieve by
rolling can be achieved by extrusion.
6. Larger deformation can be achieved by this process than other processes
except casting.
7. Dies can be easily replaced and removed with no loss of time.

Disadvantages:

1. Tools are expensive.

2. Metal blank should be free from internal or external defects.

Classification of Extrusion Processes:

The process of extrusion consists of forcing a heated billet inside a chamber

through a small opening called die under high pressure. The high pressure is
obtained by hydraulic press or mechanical press. In its cross section, the extruded
metal acquires the contour and dimensions of the die opening. Extrusion is more
widely used in fabricating non-ferrous metals and their alloys.

The Extrusion process can be classified as:

1. Hot extrusion process

2. Cold Extrusion Process

Extrusion Processes

Hot Extrusion Cold Extrusion

Forward Backward Forward Backward

Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion Extrusion
(Direct) (Indirect)

Hydrostatic Impact
Extrusion Extrusion

Hot Extrusion Process:

(i) Direct Hot Extrusion (Forward extrusion)

This is the most widely used method. A hot billet is placed in the container
and the forced through the die with the help of pressure by a hydraulic driven ram.
The extruded metal comes out of the die opening. In this process, the flow of metal

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ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
through the die is in the same direction as the movement of the ram. The length of
the extruded part will depend on the size of the billet and cross section of the die.

(ii) Indirect Hot Extrusion:

For this type of extrusion, the ram used is hollow and the die is mounted over
the bore of the ream. In this process, the billet remains stationary, while the die is
pushed into the billet by hollow ram. The metal flows in the direction opposite to the
movement of the ram. Indirect extrusion does not require as much force as direct
extrusion because no force is required to move the billet inside the chamber.

(iii) Backward Extrusion:

This is another indirect extrusion method used in manufacturing hollow

sections as shown in figure. In direct and indirect extrusion methods the ram is of
the same diameter as the bore of the container, where as in backward extrusion the
ram is smaller in diameter than the container. In this process, the metal is extruded
through the gap between the ram as the container.

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Cold Extrusion Process:

(i) Forward Cold Extrusion:

The forward cold extrusion is similar to forward hot extrusion except that
temperature is comparatively lower and extrusion pressures are higher than got
extrusion. It is usually used for simple shapes. The cold extruded products have
better surface finish and improved mechanical properties. The common applications
of cold extrusion are aluminium brackets, tubes, shock-absorber cylinders etc… Now
a day‟s cold extrusion has also been used for forming mild steel parts often in
combination with cold forging.

Hydrostatic Extrusion:

It is another extrusion process which makes possible to cold extrude many

difficult to form materials such as high strength super alloys, molybdenum etc… Here
instead of applying the load directly by ram, a liquid medium us used. The presence
of liquid inside the container eliminates the need of lubricant and also force
transmitted is uniform from all sides through out the deformation zone. Because of
this highly brittle materials such as grey cast iron can also be extruded. Applications
include extrusion of reactor fuel rods, making wire of less ductile materials.

(ii) Backward Cold Extrusion (or)Impact Extrusion:

The backward cold extrusion is called impact extrusion. This process involves
striking a cold slug of soft metal (like aluminium) which is held in a shallow die cavity
with a moving punch. The metals then extruded through the gap between the punch
and die opposite to the punch movement. The height of the sidewalls is controlled by
the amount of metal in the slag. Various items of daily use such as tubes for shaving
cream, toothpaste and paints are made by impact extrusion.

There are three types of impact extrusion processes:

(a) Reverse impact extrusion

(b) Forward impact extrusion
(c) Combination impact extrusion

(a) Reverse Impact Extrusion: The following figure indicates the process of reverse
impact extrusion. In this process, the metal flows in reverse direction of the plunger.
It is used for making hollow parts with forged bases and extruded walls. The flowing
metal is guided only initially, thereafter if goes by its own inertia.

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ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

(b) Forward Impact Extrusion: The process of forward impact extrusion is shown in
below figure. It is mainly used for making hollow or semi hollow products with heavy
flanges.

(d) Combination Impact Extrusion: Complex shapes can be produced by a

combination of the two preceding procedures, which are performed
simultaneously in the same single stroke as shown in below figure.
(e)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 6

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Forging:

Forging is the oldest metal working process known to mankind. In this process
material is squeezed between two or more dies to deform its shape and size in such a
way that required final shape is obtained.

Forging is the operation where the metal is heated and then a force (impact
type or squeeze type) is applied to manipulate the metal in such a way that the
required final shape is obtained.

Forging always considered as hot working unless specified. Forging enhances

the mechanical properties of metals and improves the grain flow, which in turn
increases the strength and toughness of the forged component.

Forge ability of Metal and Alloys:

It is important to know the deformation behaviour of the metal to be forged

with regard to the resistance to deformation and any anticipated adverse effects such
as cracking. Hence, forgeability can be defined as the tolerance of a metal or alloy for
deformation without failure. It can be evaluated on the basis of the following tests:

(a) Hot twist test

(b) Upset test
(c) Hot-impact tensile test

(a) Hot Twist Test: In this test, hot bar is twisted and count the number of twists
until failure. A large number of twists before failure indicate better forgeability.

(b) Upset Test: This test is widely used in the forging industry. In this test, a number
of cylindrical billets are upset-forged to various thicknesses. The limit for upset
forging without failure or cracking is considered a measure of forgeability.

(c) Hot Impact Tensile Test: A conventional impact testing machine fitted with a
tension test attachment is used. The impact tensile strength is taken as measure of
forgeability.

Forgeable Materials:

In general, the selection of a forging material is made on the basis of certain

desirable mechanical properties inherent in the composition and for those which can
be developed by forging such as strength, resistance to fatigue, good machining
characteristics, durability etc…

Following is a list indicating the relative forgeability of some alloys in a

descending order i.e., alloys with better forgeability are mentioned first;

1. Aluminium alloys 7. Austenitic stainless steels

2. Magnesium alloys 8. Nickel alloys
3. Copper alloys 9. Titanium alloys
4. Plain carbon steels 10. Tantalum alloys
5. Low – alloy steels 11. Molybdenum alloys
6. Martensitic stainless steels 12. Tungsten alloys

Forging Temperatures:

For forging, the metal work piece is heated to a proper temperature to attain
plastic properties before deformation which is essential for satisfactory forging.
Excessive temperature may result in burning of the metal. Insufficient temperatures
will not induce sufficient plasticity in the metal so that it is difficult to shape by

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
hammering. Like wise finishing temperatures is also important to posses a fine
grained structure. The temperature ranges for forging some common metals are
given below:

Forging Temperature °C
Metal / Alloy
Starting Finishing

Mild Steel 1300 800

Wrought Iron 1275 900
Medium Carbon Steel 1250 750
High Carbon Steel 1150 825
Copper, brass and bronze 950 600
Aluminium and magnesium alloys 500 350

Forging Temperatures

Hand Forging Tools and Equipment used in Smithy:

In order to carry out forging with hand, various tools are required:

(1) Black Smiths Forge:

The smith‟s forge or hearth is made up of cast iron or cast steel. It has four
legs as shown in figure. The hearth can also be made of masonary construction but
have a disadvantage that they are not portable.

The major parts of furnace are hearth, tuyere, hood and water tank.

(a) Hearth carries fuel (which may be either coal or coke). Hearth is provided
with fire brick lining to withstand the excessive heat produced due to
combustion of fuel.
(b) Tuyere the nozzle in the centre of hearth. It is used to direct the air for
combustion of fuel. The blower supplies the air through tuyere. A valve is
incorporated in the air pipe, before the tuyere, to control the supply of air to
furnace.
(c) Water tank may be provided in front of hearth for quenching and to prevent
fire from spreading.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 8

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(2) Anvil:

It is block made of cast iron or steel on which forging work is carried out. It
supports the work piece and is capable of with standing heavy blows of hammer.
Apart from supporting work piece, its shape helps in doing other forging operations.
The thickness of Anvil is 20 to 25 mm and weights approximately 150 kg.

The main parts of Anvil are:

Horn or Beak: It is used in bending the metal or forming curved shape.

Chipping Block: It is the flat step provided between horn and anvil face. It may be
used for supporting metal when cutting through chisel.

Face: It is the flat surface provided on the top of anvil.

Tail: The projected flat surface at the end of anvil is known as tail. It carries a
square hole and round hole to accommodate various jobs and hand tools like fullers,
swages etc…

(3) Swage Block:

It is a block of cast iron or cast steel carrying number of holes of various

shapes and size from top to bottom face. These holes are used in punching and their
use prevents punch from spoiling by striking against hard surface. Swage block also
carries number of different shapes and sizes. Those slots are useful for holding bars
while bending, swaging etc…

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(4) Swages:

These are made of carbon steel. These are used for reducing and finishing the
work pieces to round or hexagonal form. They are made in two halves called top and
bottom swages. The two halves may be separate or connected by a strip of spring
steel. Connected swages can be hold by single handed.

(5) Flatters:

They are used for finishing flat surfaces. The flatters may also be used after
fulling or drawing to remove fullering marks. These are made with perfectly flat face
of about 75mm square (or round).

(6) Set Hammer:

Set hammer works like a flatter but it is a smaller tool. It does not have
enlarged bottom face (like flatter) and is used for finishing in corners and confined
spaces. The job may be supported on the anvil.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 10

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(7) Fullers:

Fullers are used in necking down a work piece. They are made in two halves
namely bottom and top fuller. The bottom fuller is held in anvil where as top fuller is
held by means of handles or by tongs. The work piece is held between top and
bottom fuller and then hammered to carry out fullering operation.

(8) Tongs:

Tongs are used to hold job during forging operations. Tongs are usually
named after inside shape of jaws. Various types of tongs are:

(i) Flat Tongs: Used for gripping thin sections and small flat pieces.
(a) Open mouth
(b) Closed mouth

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(ii) Tongs for round jobs: Used for holding round work pieces.
(a) Hollow bit
(b) Round mouth

(iii) Tongs for square jobs: Used for holding square or hexagonal jobs.
(a) square mouth
(b) Vee mouth

(iV) Pickup Tongs: Used for picking up jobs. Jaws are designed to pickup even
small section.

(9) Chisel:

These are used for cutting metals and for making a notch before breaking.
Chisels may be classified as hot chisel and cold chisels.

Hot chisel: As name suggest, these are used for cutting hot metals. Included angle
for hot chisel is 30°. The edge of chisel is slightly rounded for better cutting action.
Hardening of these chisel is not necessary because the hot metal would re-soften it.

Cold Chisel: These are made up of carbon steel. The lip angle of cold chisel is 60°
and it is edge hardened and tampered to provide more strength.

(10) Hardie Set:

When chisel are used in pair these are called hardie set. Pair consists of top tool
which is a chisel and bottom tool, which is known as hardie. The hardie has a square
shank which fits in the square hole of anvil face. The top tool (chisel) is held by black
smith. Chisel may be fitted with a handle of metal wire to hold.

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(11) Punches and Drifts:

Punch is a tool used for producing hole in red hot metal. These holes are
enlarged through a larger tapered punch called drift. Various types of punches and
drifts are shown in below figure:

(12) Hammers:

Hammers are major striking tool in fitting and smithy shop.

Hammers consist of a heavy iron body and wooden handle. The parts of hammer are
peen, eye, neck and face. Depending upon the shape of peen hammers may be
classified as,

(i) Ball Peen Hammer: Shape of peen is hemi – spherical ball.

(ii) Straight Peen Hammer: The peen is parallel to the axis of hammer (which
passes through the eye).
(iii) Cross peen hammer: The peen is perpendicular to the axis of hammer (which
passes through the eye).
(iv) Double faced hammer: The hammer has no peen formation and has flat faces
at both ends.

Depending upon the size hammer may be classified as;

(i) Hand Hammer: Usually ball peen hammer of weight 1.0 to 2 kg.
(ii) Sledge Hammer: Usually double face hammer weight of 3 to 8 kg. It is used
when heavy blows are needed.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 13

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Basic Forging Operations:

For giving desires shape to the products the following operations are used in smithy
shop by hand on an anvil.

1. Upsetting: Upsetting is the process of increasing the thickness of a bar with a

corresponding reduction on length by end pressure. The pressure is applied at the
end of the bar against the anvil or clamping in vice and then hammering. For this,
force is applied in a direction parallel to the length axis.

2. Drawing Down: Drawing down is used to reduce the thickness of the bar to
increase its length. For this purpose, the force is applied in a direction of the length
axis.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 14

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
3. Bending: Bending is very common forging operation. This may be angular or
curvilinear. It is done on the edge of the anvil face, over the anvil horn or by
inserting the end in the pritchel hole and bending the bar with tong. The below figure
shows the stages in bending bar over the horn of an anvil using a hammer.

4. Cutting: Cutting off is a form of chiseling to cut a long piece of stock into several
pieces of specified lengths. For hot chiseling the work pieces must be heated in a
black smith‟s furnace. A notch is first made about one-half the thickness or diameter
of the stock. Then the work must be tuned through an angle of 180° and the chisel is
placed exactly opposite the notch and hit the chisel with hammer to cut the piece.

5. Punching: Punching operation is used for making holes in the work during
forging. A punch is forced about half way through the work by striking it slightly with
a hand or sledge hammer. The punch is removed, the work is turned over and the
punch driven into the metal by a sledge hammer ad thus hole is made.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 15

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
6. Welding: A forge weld is made by hammering together the ends of the two bars.
In the lap weld, the ends of pieces to be joined must be upset and shaped slightly
convex, so that when put together the junction takes place first at the center and
extends to the edges. Wrought iron and mild steel can be satisfactory forge welded.

7. Heading: When the upsetting is done in such a way that the section of the stock
is increased only on one end of the stock, the operation is called heading.

8. Fullering: It is the operation of reducing the stock between the two ends of the
stock at a central place, so as to increase its length. The inclined surface of the die
prevents material movement in the width direction because there is a pressure
component acting in the direction of material flow. Repeated strokes, with the work
piece rotated around its axis between strokes, allow substantial material
redistribution.

9. Edging: The function of edging or rolling operation is to distribute the metal

longitudinally by moving metal from the portion of the stock where if is in excess to
the portion which is deficient in metal. For example, for forging a connecting rod
from a bar stock, the metal will have to be moved longitudinally since the section of
the rod varies along its length. This is an important operation in closed die forging.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 16

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
10. Flattening: This operation is used to flatten the stock so that it fits properly into
the finishing impression of a closed die.

11. Blocking: It is a forging operation which imparts to the forging its general but
not exact or final shape. This operation is done just prior to finishing operation.

12. Piercing: Piercing is the operation done with the help of a punch to obtain blind
or through holes in the metal. The pierced billet is further processed.

13. Swaging: It is the operation of reducing or changing the cross section area of
diameters by revolving the stock under fast impact blows.

14. Coining: It is cold closed die forging operation (no flash) to obtain closer
tolerances and smoother surfaces.

Forging Processes & Classification:

The process of reducing a metal billet between open dies or in a closed

impression dies to obtain the required shape are called smith forging or impression
die forging respectively. Depending on the equipment used, they are further sub
divided as hand forging, press forging, drop hammer forging, mechanical press
forging, upset or machine forging.

In general the methods of forging may be classified as follows:

(1) Open Die Forging (Smith Forging)

(a) Hand Forging (b) Power Forging

(c) Hammer Forging

(2) Closed Die Forging (Impression Die Forging)

(a) Drop Forging (b) Press Forging

(c) Machine Forging or Upset Forging

(1) Open Die Forging:

It is also called as Smith forging. In open die forging which is also called
„Hammer forging‟ or „Flat die forging‟, the work piece is struck or pressed between
two flat surfaces. Open die forging is used where number of components to be forged
is too small to justify the cost of impression dies. The shapes most commonly used
by open die forging are, bars, slabs or billets with rectangular, circular, hexagonal or
octagonal cross sections, weldless rings and many other components of simple
shapes. The accuracy of the component produced by this process is less.

(a) Hand Forging: Smith forging is known as hand forging. It is used to produce
a small number of light forgings.
(b) Power Forging: Large components cannot be forged by hand. Moreover
hand forging is lengthy process and requires repeated heating of metal.
Machines which work on forgings by blow are called hammers, while those
working by pressure are called presses.
(c) Hammer Forging: In hammer forging the hammer is lifted up to a certain
distance and then it is allowed to fall by gravity. Depending upon the lifting
mechanism the hammers may be classified as:

(i) Mechanical Hammers

(ii) Pneumatic Hammers
(iii) Steam or air Hammers

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 17

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(i) Mechanical Hammers: The mechanical hammers are helve hammers, trip
hammers and lever spring hammers. Lever spring hammer has constant lift. The arm
is driven from rocking lever acting on an elastic rod. The rocking lever consists of a
leaf spring. Mechanism is illustrated in below figure.

(ii) Pneumatic Hammers: Pneumatic hammer is used for smith forging of small
parts. A pneumatic hammer has a built in compressor to provide a compressed air to
ram cylinder. The upper die is connected to the lower end of the ram. The lower die
is supported on the anvil.

When compressed air enters the ram cylinder from the top of the ram strikes
the hot metal placed between the dies. To move the ram up, the compressed air
enters from the bottom of the cylinder. Repeated blows are struck until the desired
shape is obtained. These are operated at 70 to 190 blows per minute.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 18

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(iii) Steam or air Hammers: A steam hammer operates with the help of steam and
air hammer requires compressed air for its operation. A steam or an air hammer may
be (1) single acting (2) double acting. Steam or air pressure is usually between 6 to
8 kgf/cm2.
As shown in below figure steam entering from the top exerts pressure on its
piston which moves downwards and upper die applies force on the hot metal to get
deformed. The steam then enters from the bottom of the piston so that the piston
moves upward. This cycle is repeated till the required shape is obtained.

Die: Dies are devices used for shaping metal. The dies used in closed die forging or
impression die forging may classified into two groups:

(i) Single Impression Die: This die contains only one cavity or impression which
is the finishing impression. The preliminary forging operations are done by
hand or on forge hammers, forging rolls etc… and only final finishing operation
is done in the die cavity.

(ii) Multi Impression Die: This die contains finishing operation and one or more
auxiliary impressions for preliminary forging operations. The final shape of a part
is progressively developed over a series of steps from one die impression to the
next. Generally multi impression dies are very expensive to make and are
employed only when the quantity to be made is sufficiently large.

Advantages of Multi – Impression Die:

1. Complete sequence of forging operations can be carried out on one equipment

only avoiding the use of auxiliary forging equipment.
2. Use of multi impression dies is particularly suited for particularly suited for
production of small and medium sized forgings in large quantities as this
method gives 2 to 3 times the production compared with the method of
production using a single die.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 19

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
3. All the preliminary operations can be performed on these dies with good ease.
The use can be prepared to fairly accurate dimensions. Besides this more
accurate forgings are prepared.
4. Wastage of forging metal is reduced.
5. Use may not be reheated for the finishing impression.
6. Initial die cost becomes insignificant in case of high output.
7. Finishing impression lasts ling, because much of the load is taken by blocking
impression.
(2) Impression Die Forging:

It is also known as closed die forging. In closed – die forging, cavities or

impressions are cut in the die block, in which the metal is forced to take its final
shape and dimensions. The flow of metal is limited by surfaces of the impressions.
Closed die forgings have the following characteristics.

1. Saving the time as compared to open die forging.

2. Makes good utilization of work piece materials.
3. Excellent reproductivity with good dimensional accuracy.
4. Forgings are made with smaller machining allowances, thus reducing
considerably the machining time and the consumption of metal required for
the forging.
5. Forgings of complicated shaped can be made.
6. The equipment for closed die forging does not require highly skilled workers.
7. The grain flow of metal can be controlled ensuring high mechanical properties.
8. Method is suited for rapid production rate.
9. Cost of tooling is high, therefore suitable for large production runs.

It is used to make more complex shapes of products with greater accuracy. After
forging operations, the product should be trimmed to remove flash.

(a) Drop Forging:

The ram is raised to a definite height and then it is allowed to drop or fall
freely under its own weight. The commonly used drop hammers are:

(i) Board hammer or gravity drop hammer

(ii) Air lift hammer
(iii) Power drop hammer

(i) Board hammer or gravity drop hammer: In these hammers, tam is fastened
to a hard board as shown if below figure. The board is lifted up by two counter
revolving rolls. When the rolls are released, the ram falls down producing a working
stroke. The height to which the board is lifted determines the striking force of this
gravity hammer.

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SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(ii) Air lift hammer: These hammers use compressed air to lift the ram which is
then allowed to fall by gravity similar to the board drop hammers.

(iii) Power drop hammer: They use air or steam. They are similar to board drop
hammers except that steam or air piston and rod are substituted for board lifting
mechanism. They are largest of forging hammers and are made from 450 to 25,000
kgs falling weight hammers.

A variation of the hammer discussed above is the „gravity drop hammer‟ or

„air lift hammer‟. In this design, the steam or air that is used to lift the ram is
suddenly released to allow the ram to fall freely under gravity.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 21

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PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(b) Press Forging: The press forging is also done in impression dies. In press
forging, the metal is shaped not by means of a series of blows as in drop forging, but
by means of continous squeezing action. The manner in which the metal deformation
takes place in press forging substantially differs from that of hammer forging. Blow of
hammer works only in the surface layer of forging and deformation does not
penetrate into the volume of the metal. Squeezing pressure of a press applied to the
forging gradually increases and penetrates deep into the metal.

The two types of presses used are:

(i) Hydraulic Press (ii) Mechanical Press

(i) Hydraulic Press: The following figure illustrates a hydraulic press. The press is
operated by pump which increases the pressure in the oil or water. This pressure is
transmitted to main cylinder to move the piston (ram) downward to squeeze the hot
metal between the dies. The lifting cylinder raises the ram up. In a hydraulic press,
pressure can be changed as desired at any point in the stroke by adjusting the
pressure control valve. This will help in controlling the rate of deformation according
to the metal being forged. But in hydraulic press, the contact time between the work
piece and the dies is more; hence the die life is less.

(ii) Mechanical Press: Crank type mechanical press is shown in below figure. An
electric motor drives the flywheel mounted on the counter shaft by means of a belt
drive. Torque from the counter shaft is transmitted to the crankshaft by gearing.
From the crankshaft, the reciprocating motion is given to the ram with the help of
connecting rod. The bottom die is locked in position by means of wedge mechanism.
Disk clutch is used to start and stop motion of ram, which is brought to a gradual
stop by means of a brake. Mechanical press is faster than hydraulic press and
operates at about 25 to 100 strokes per minute.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 22

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

(c) Machine Forging or Upset Forging: Unlike press forging, it operates in

horizontal direction. As it involves the upsetting operation, it is simply called as upset
forging. Upset forging was originally developed for heading operations. But today its
scope has been widened to perform a large variety of operations such as punching,
bending, cutting and squeezing etc…

The forging machine consists of a heavy cast steel body in which three main
components, stationary die, moving die and heading punch are properly secured. The
sequence of operation of machine is explained in the below figure. First the bar stock
of one end heated is placed between the fixed and movable halved of the set of dies
up to stop. Next the moving die grips the bar stock and at the same time, a recess is
formed in the closed dies for shaping the projected stock. Stop is then brought to its
initial position. Now the heading punch advances to upset the bar end and forms the
finished forging.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 23

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Roll Forging:

A variety of shapes having straight or tapered reduced sections may be forged

with the aid of rolls. Here, the rolls are not completely cylindrical but are sector
shaped to permit the tock to enter between the rolls. These roll segments have one
ore more sets of grooves of impart a desired shape to the piece being forged. When
the rolls are in the open position, the heated stock is advanced upto a stop. As the
rolls rotate, they grip and roll down the stock. The stock is transferred to a second
set of grooves. The rolls turn again and so on until the piece is finished. Like this, the
bar stock can be increased in length, reduced in diameter and changed in section as
desired.

Roll forging being a rapid process; it can be efficiently used for the preliminary
reduction of forging stock as a preparation for subsequent die forging, as well as for
the production of certain straight and tapered forgings, for example levers, leaf
springs, axles and arrow and spear type parts.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 24

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

Rotary Forging or Swaging:

Round bars or tubing‟s can be reduced in their diameters by a process called

“Rotary forging or Swaging”. The process can be done both in the hot and cold state.
However, cold working is preferable because of the greater ease of handling and
better surface finish obtained. The figure shows schematically the rotary forging
process. Small rams 1 with dies 2 inside the spindle head 3 slot are brought together
to reduce the work-piece and separate again under the action of centrifugal force or
springs. The spindle head is housed inside cage 4 with rollers 5 which rest from the
outside on annular ring 6. As the spindle rotates, the small rams run against the
rollers and so strike blows from various directions upon the job fed axially which is
reduced in diameter by drawing out process.

Reduction is controlled by means of liners 7. The other applications of this

process are fabrication of stepped and tapered shafts, pipes with forged out ends etc.
Capacity of hot reduction is 150 mm in terms of rod diameter, and 300 mm and the
surface quality is as good as that in machining.

The advantages of this process are:

1. Low initial investment
2. Easy maintenance
3. Low tool cost
4. Low labour cost
5. Rapid production
6. Consistency of the product

The major limitations of rotary swaging are that the process is limited to parts of
symmetrical cross section only.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 25

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Advantages of Forging:

The various advantages of forging are as follows:

1. Forgings have a high strength and offer resistance to impact and fatigue
loads.
2. Forging improves the grain structure of metal and hence its mechanical
properties.
3. Close tolerances
4. Less machining or no machining in some cases.
5. Smooth surface

Limitations of Forging:

1. High tool cost.

2. High tool maintenance
3. The rapid oxidation of metal surfaces at high temperature results in scaling
which wears the dies.

Defects in Forging Parts:

Various surface and body defects may be observed in forging. The kind of
defect depends upon a lot off factors such as forging process, poor quality of stock,
improper die design, uneven cooling of stock after forging etc… The most commonly
found forging defects are as follows:

1. Mismatch: This is due to the misalignment between the top and bottom
forging dies. This may be caused due to loose wedges. This results in a lateral
displacement between the portions of the forging.
2. Scale Pits: These are shallow surface depressions caused by not removing
scale from the dies. The scale is worked into a surface of the forging. When
this scale is cleaned from the forging, depression remains which are known as
scale pits.
3. Cold Shuts or Laps: Cold shuts or laps are short cracks, which usually occur
at corners and at right angles to the surface. They are caused by metal
surface folding against itself during forging. Sharp corners in dies can result in
hindered metal flow, which can produce laps.
4. Unfilled Shapes: This defect is similar to misrun in casting and occurs when
metal does not completely fill the die cavity. It is caused by using insufficient
metal or insufficient heating of the metal.
5. Dents: Dents are the result of careless work.
6. Burnt and over Heated Metal: This defect is due to improper heating
conditions and soaking the metal too long time.
7. Cracks: Cracks occur on the forging surface may be longitudinal or
transverse. These are due to bad quality of ingot, improper heating, and
forging at low temperature.
8. Fins and Rags: These are small projections or loose metal driven into forging
surface.
9. Dirt, Slag and Sand: These may be present on the surface of the forging due
to their presence in the ingot used for forging.
10. Internal Cracks: Internal cracks in forging can result from too drastic a
change in the shape of the raw stock at too fast a rate.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 26

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

UNIT – 5: Plastics and Metallurgy

• Introduction
• Polymers
• Polymerization
• Plastics
• Types of Plastics
• Properties of Plastics
• Comparison between Thermosetting plastics and
Thermoplastics
• Advantages of Plastics
• Disadvantages of Plastics
• Applications of Plastics
• Methods of Processing

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 1

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Introduction:

Plastics belong to the family of organic materials. Organic materials are those
materials are derived directly from carbon. They consist of carbon chemically
combined with hydrogen, oxygen and other non-metallic substances, and their
structures, in most cases, are fairly complex. The large and diverse organic group
includes the natural materials: wood, coal, petroleum, natural rubber, animal fibers
and food, which have biological origins. Synthesis include the large group of solvents,
adhesives, synthetic fibers, rubbers, plastics, explosives, lubricants, dyes, soaps and
cutting oils etc. which have no biological origins. Of them plastics and synthetic
tubers termed as “Polymers”.

Polymers:

The term “polymer” is derived from the two Greek words: poly, meaning
“many”, and meros meaning “parts” or “units”. Thus polymers are composed of a
large number of repeating units (small molecules) called monomers. The monomers
are joined together end-to-end in a polymerization reaction.

The most common polymers are those made from compounds of carbon, but
polymers can also make from inorganic chemicals such as silicates and silicones. The
naturally occurring polymers include: protein, cellulose, resins, starch, shellac and
lignin. They are commonly found in leather, fur, wool, cotton, silk, rubber, wood and
many others. There are also synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polystyrene,
nylon, Terylene, Dacron etc… termed under plastics, fibers and elastomers. Their
properties are superior to those of the naturally occurring counterparts. Our concern
here is therefore with synthetic polymers, also called plastics or resins.

Polymerization: The process of linking together of monometers, that is, of obtaining

macromolecules is called “polymerization”. It can be achieved by one of the two
processing techniques i.e., Addition Polymerization and condensation Polymerization.

Polymers can be divided into three broad divisions: plastics, fibers and elastomers.
Plastic derive their name from the fact that in a certain phase of their manufacture,
they are present in a plastic stage that is acquire plasticity, which makes it possible
to impart any desired shape to the product. Plastics fall into a category of known
chemically as high polymers.

Plastics:

The “Plastics” is a term applied to compositions consisting of a mixture of high

molecular compounds and fillers, plasticizers, stains, and pigments, lubricating and
other substances, some of the plastics can contain nothing but resin.

The word plastics is from the Greek word Plastikos, means which are moulded
and shaped. Plastics can be easily machined, formed and joined into required shapes.
Hence, plastics find place in engineering materials and domestic applications. Plastics
are available in rods, sheets, films and tubes.

Types of Plastics:

Plastics are classified on the broad basis of whether heat causes them to set
(thermosetting) causes them to soften and melt (thermoplastic).

Plastics are classified as,

(a) Thermo setting plastics

(b) Thermoplastics

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(a) Thermosetting Plastics: These are formed to shape with heat, with or
without pressure, resulting in a product that is permanently hard. The heat
first softens the material, but as additional heat or special chemicals are
added, the plastic is hardened by chemical change known as “polymerization”
and cannot be resoftened. Thermosetting plastics are phenol-formaldehyde.
Urea formaldehyde, epoxy resins etc. Products made by thermosetting
plastics are T.V cabinets, telephone receivers, camera bodies and automobile
parts.

(b) Thermoplastics: Thermoplastics under go no chemical change in moulding.

They remain soft at elevated temperatures until they are hardened by
cooling. These plastics can be reused or recycled by melting and remoulding.
Most commonly used thermoplastics are polystyrene, polytene, P.V.V.
(polyvinyl chloride) Nylon, Teflon etc… Products made by thermoplastics are
photographic films, insulating tapes, hose pipes etc…

Properties of Plastics:

Their great variety of physico chemical and mechanical properties and the
ease with which they can be made into various articles have found plastics their wide
application in the engineering and the other industries.

1. Their comparatively low density, substantial mechanical strength higher

strength – to – weight ratio and high anti friction properties have enabled
plastics to be efficiently used as substitute for metals.
2. With certain special properties, plastics can sometimes replace ferrous metals.
3. From the productions point of view, their main advantage is their relatively
low melting points and their ability to flow into a mould.
4. Simple processing to obtain machine parts. Generally there is only one
production operation required to convert the chemically manufactured plastic
in to a finished article.
5. Good damping capacity and good surface finish of the product.
6. The high heat and electric insulation of plastics permits them to be applied in
the radio and electrical engineering industries as dielectrics and as substitutes
for porcelain, ebonite, shellac, mica, natural rubber etc…
7. Their good chemical stability when subjected to the action of solvents and
certain oxidizing agents, water resistance, gas and steam proof properties
enable plastics to be used as valuable engineering materials in the automobile
and tractor, ship building and other industries.

Comparison between Thermosetting plastics and Thermoplastics:

Thermosetting plastics
1. Once hardened and set, they do not soften with the application of heat.
2. These are stronger and harder.
3. Objects made by these plastics can be used at comparatively high
temperatures.
4. These are supplied in monomeric or partially polymerized form in which these
are either liquids or semi solids.
5. T.V. Cabinets, Automobile parts are made by these plastics.

Thermoplastics
1. They can be repeatedly softened by heat and hardened by cooling.
2. They are comparatively softer and less strong.
3. Objects made by thermoplastics cannot be used at higher temperatures as
these lend to soften under heat.
4. These are usually supplied as granular material.
5. Insulating tapes, photographic films are made by these plastics.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 3

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
Advantages of Plastics:
1. Light in weight compared to metals.
2. Excellent surface finish.
3. Close dimensional tolerances.
4. Moisture and corrosion resistance.
5. Easy to shape and mould.

Disadvantages of Plastics:
1. Low strength.
2. Low heat resistance.
3. Deteriorate in sunlight.

Applications of Plastics:
Plastics find applications in manufacturing of:
1. Photo films in film industry.
2. Insulating tapes
3. Electrical parts like plugs, switches etc…
4. Radio, T.V. cabinets
5. Furniture like chairs, tubs
6. Telephone receivers
7. Camera bodies
8. Gears and Bearings
9. Toys, bottles, bucket etc…
10. Hose pipes
11. Automobile parts

Methods of Processing:

(a) Moulding of thermoplastics

1. Injection Moulding
2. Blow Moulding
3. Extrusion
4. Thermoforming
5. Calendering

(b) Moulding of thermosetting plastics

1. Compression moulding
2. Transfer moulding

(a)1. Injection Moulding:

Injection moulding machines are somewhat similar to those used for die
casting. In this method, the moulding material in the form of granules or pellets is
fed through the hopper into the cold end of the injection cylinder. Then the injection
ram forces the powder into the heating section of the cylinder where its temperature
is raised to 300°C. Then the ram is moved forward by applying hydraulic pressure to
inject the soften material through die into water cooled mould. After the mould is
filled, it is allowed to cool and harden. Then the ram is retracted, the mould is
opened and the product is ejected.

Injection moulding machines have a high production capacity; some can

produce from 12 to 16 thousand parts per shift. This method is suitable for making
parts with complex threads and intricate shapes. Typical parts include: Cups,
containers, housings, tool handles, toys, knobs, plumbing fittings, electrical and
communication components such as telephone receivers etc…

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 4

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.

The limitations of the process are: Equipment of cylinder and die should be
non-corrosive. Also reliable temperature controls are essential.

(a)2. Blow Moulding:

The blow moulding commences with the extrusion of heated tubular piece of
plastic known as parison which is transferred to the two piece mould. The parison is
gripped in the two-piece mould and its bottom end is sealed. Compressed air is blown
into the parison to force the plastic against the walls of water cooled mould. Air
pressure ranges from 0.7 to 10 kg/cm2. The mould is allowed to cool and then
opened to remove the article.

Blow moulding is used for making plastic bottles, toys, doll bodies and many
other items.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 5

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
(a)3. Extrusion Moulding: Polymer sheets and films can be produced using a flat
extrusion die. These are advantages of extrusion process. The tooling cost is low
compared to injection moulding. Material thickness can be controlled. In addition
production rates are high and intricate profiles can be produced.

(a)4. Thermoforming: It consists of heating a thermoplastic sheet until it softens

and then forcing it to confirm to some mould either by vacuum or air pressure.

The products made by thermoforming are jelly containers used in restaurants,

refrigerator inner panels, packing containers etc…

(a)5. Calendering: This is an intermediate process in which extruded thermoplastic

sections are reduced to sheets of films.

(b)1. Compression Molding: This is usually for thermosetting plastics. In

compression moulding thermosetting material is placed in heated mould (female die).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 6

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.
SUBJECT: Manufacturing Processes YEAR: 2021 - 22
BRANCH: Mechanical Engineering II B.Tech - I Sem.
The upper part of the mould is brought down to compress the material into the
required shape and density. When the mould is closed, the material undergoes a
chemical change or polymerization that hardens it.

The moulding temperature ranges from 150 – 180°C. The moulding pressure
ranges from 150 – 500 kg/cm2. The time required to harden the product ranges from
1 to 1.5 minutes. It also depends on the thickness of the product.

The products made by this process include dishes, container caps etc…

(b)2. Transfer Moulding: Transfer moulding is variation of compression moulding

in which heat and pressure is applied to the moulding materials outside the mould
until they become fluid. The fluid material is then forced through a series of channels
from external chamber to the mould cavity where final cure takes place.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 7

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES::RAJAMPET
PREPARED BY, G Suresh Babu, Asst. Prof., ME DEPT.