UNIT-II
Manufacturing Processes: Principles of Casting, Forming, joining
processes, Machining, Introduction to CNC machines, 3D printing,
and Smart manufacturing.
Mechanical Power Transmission - Belt Drives, Chain, Rope
drives, Gear Drives and their applications.
Introduction to Robotics - Joints & links, configurations, and
applications of robotics
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Manufacturing Processes: Principles of Casting, Forming, joining
processes, Machining, Introduction to CNC machines, 3D printing,
and Smart manufacturing.
The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words manus
(hand) and factus (make); the combination means “made by
hand
Most modern manufacturing operations are accomplished by
mechanized and automated equipment that is supervised by
human workers
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Manufacturing Processes:
1. Casting / Molding: Casting is the process of putting liquid metal
into a mold and allowing it to cool. Molding is a process that is
quite similar to casting. It entails using a mold to shape a liquid or
flexible substance. Molding is frequently used to shape polymers.
2. Forming: Forming is the process of applying forces or pressure
to material and plastically deforming it to get the desired shape. It
is frequently used with metals.
3. Joining processes: Joining is the process of assembling
numerous independent components into a bigger assembly.
Joining methods such as welding, riveting, brazing, soldering, and
fastening are all distinct.
4. Machining: Machining is a material removal technique in which
material is removed from the block material item using a tool.
Introduction to CNC machines, 3D printing, and Smart
manufacturing.
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Casting Processes
• Starting material is heated sufficiently to
transform it into a liquid or highly plastic state
▪ Examples: metal casting, plastic molding
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Flask: A metal or wood frame in which mold is formed.
Cope: The upper half of the flask is called cope.
Drag: The lower half of the flask is called drag.
Core: Core is used to create an internal hollow cavity in the final
product.
Vents: These are the places created in the mold to carry off-gases
produced when the molten metal comes in contact with the sand.
Mold cavity: This is the hollow space in the mold where the metal
part is formed.
Riser: It is the reservoir of molten metal that supplies additional
metal in case of any reduction.
Runner: It is the passage from where the molten metal can be
regulated before reaching the mold cavity.
Pouring Cup: It is the cup or basin from where molten metal is
poured in the metal.
Pattern: It is the duplicate of the shape needed to form.
Sprue: It is the cavity through which molten metal flows downward.
Parting Line: This is theDr.P.NGESWARA
line thatRAO,
separates the cope and drag.
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Advantages of Casting Process is:
▪ Complex and intricate shapes can be formed.
▪ We can cast any type of material.
▪ The tools and equipment used in the casting process are inexpensive.
▪ It is possible to make the casting of any shape and size.
▪ Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can
be made by this process. As a result, many other operations, such as
machining, forging, and welding, can be minimized
▪ It is the cheapest way to produce shapes and sizes with different mechanical
properties.
Disadvantages of Casting Process:
▪ High chances of defects.
▪ The dimensional accuracy of casting is not so good.
▪ Metal casting is a labour intensive process
▪ In some cases, it is not possible to overcome defects.
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Casting Processes
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2.Forming: Forming is the process of applying forces or pressure to
material and plastically deforming it to get the desired shape. It is
frequently used with metals. The majority of forming operations
may be performed on metals that are either above or below their
recrystallization temperature. This is referred to as hot or cold
working. Hot-working makes it easier to bend the metal plastically.
However, cold working results in strain hardening, which enhances
the material’s strength. Forging, rolling and extrusion is three
common forming techniques.
• Starting workpart is shaped by application of forces that exceed
the yield strength of the material.Examples: (a) forging, (b)
Rolling (c) extrusion
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a) Forging: the metal is placed between two closed dies. Repeated
hammer strokes shape the metal into the dies. Unlike cast
components, forging generates excellent mechanical properties.
Forging, however, requires fine tolerances and expensive
equipment.
b) Rolling: a common forming process. It involves rolling metal
between two or more rollers that exert pressure and reduce metal
thickness. Rolling may also be used to make complex shapes like
I-beams. Rolling improves mechanical properties and can be
mechanized, making it a feasible choice for big volume
manufacturing. However, tooling costs might be high, and it
cannot generate complex shapes.
c) Extrusion: a continuous operation that involves heating metal in
a chamber and pushing it through a die with a ram. Extrusion is
best suited for two-dimensional shapes and has excellent surface
quality.
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Forging:
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Rolling:
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4. Joining
Joining is the process of assembling numerous independent components
into a bigger assembly. Joining, like machining, is a secondary process.
Joining methods such as welding, riveting, brazing, soldering, and
fastening are all distinct. Welding is a process that employs extremely high
heat to weld disparate metal components together. Unlike soldering and
brazing, welding causes the base metal to melt.
Welding is a manufacturing technique that fuses materials, often metals or
thermoplastics, together with by melting them together and allowing them
to cool.
Riveting: the technique of attaching structural components to one another
with rivets, resulting in a permanently riveted junction.
Soldering is a joining technique that involves melting solder to connect
several types of metals together.
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5. Machining: Machining is a process in which a material (often metal)
is cut to a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-removal
process. Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products,
but it can also be used on other materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic,
and composite material. The three principal machining processes are
classified as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling into
miscellaneous categories include shaping, planning, boring, broaching,
and sawing.
Turning operations rotate the workpiece as the primary method of
moving metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are the principal machine
tool used in turning.
Milling operations are operations where the cutting tool rotates to bring
cutting edges to bear against the workpiece. Milling machines are the
principal machine tool used in milling.
Drilling is the process of creating a circular hole in a solid object by
pushing a spinning drill bit against it.
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Turning Milling
Drilling
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Turning
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Milling
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Drilling
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Advantages:
❖ Machining processes offer a high degree of accuracy.
❖ can be used to create complex shapes.
❖ create parts with a high degree of surface finish.
❖ Machining processes can be used to create parts with tight
tolerance.
❖ Machining processes offer a high degree of repeatability.
Dis advantages
❖ High initial investment
❖ Generates waste material
❖ Requires skilled workers
❖ softer metals—may not be suitable for machining
❖ small features can’t be created using conventional cutting tools
❖ cost associated with tooling and setup times
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3D printing (ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING)
Additive Manufacturing(AM)refers to a process by
which digital 3D design data is used to buildup a
component in layers by depositing material.
Additive Manufacturing(AM) is an appropriate name to
describe the technologies that build 3Dobjects by adding layer-
upon-layer of material, whether the material is plastic, metal,
concrete.
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3D printing:
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3D printing
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3D printing
Advantages
❖ Freedom of design
❖ Complexity for free
❖ Potential elimination of tooling
❖ Light weight design
❖ Elimination of production steps
Applications
❖ industries
❖ Automotive
❖ Aerospace
❖ Biomedical
❖ Consumer goods and many others
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Smart Manufacturing:
Smart manufacturing combines industrial automation and
information technology. It integrates physical machinery with
networked sensors and software, used to predict, control and
improve performance. The aim is to create a self-regulating
system that optimizes productivity, reduces waste, and
increases overall operational effectiveness.
It brings together all aspects of the manufacturing
process, from supply chain management to production to
customer service, under a single digital umbrella
❑ Predictive maintenance
❑ Real-time monitoring
❑ Product Quality Assurance
❑ Supply Chain Optimization
❑ Cost Savings
❑ Industrial Safety
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Key Technologies Driving Smart Manufacturing
❖ Internet of Things (IoT)
❖ Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML)
❖ Big Data Analytics
❖ Robotics and Automation
❖ Cloud Computing
❖ Digital Twins
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Predictive maintenance
For example, a manufacturing plant might use vibration
sensors on its machinery to detect abnormal patterns that could
signal an upcoming failure.
Real-time monitoring
Real-time monitoring and control involves the continuous tracking of
production processes and the ability to make instantaneous
adjustments as necessary.
For example, a beverage company can use real-time monitoring to
track the filling of its bottles. If the system detects a deviation from
the desired fill level, it can immediately adjust the flow rate to correct
the error. This level of control reduces waste, ensures consistency,
and enhances product quality.
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Product Quality Assurance
Smart manufacturing also plays a critical role in product quality
assurance. By leveraging data and analytics, manufacturers monitor
and control every step of the production process, from raw material
selection to final product testing.
For instance, a car manufacturer might use smart manufacturing
technologies to ensure that every vehicle it produces meets stringent
quality standards. Sensors might monitor variables such as
temperature, pressure, and speed during the assembly process, with
any anomalies immediately flagged for investigation. This ensures
that only top-quality products leave the factory.
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Supply Chain Optimization
By digitizing and integrating all elements of the supply chain,
manufacturers can achieve greater transparency, efficiency, and
resilience. Supply chain optimization improves efficiency, minimizes
waste, and promotes sustainability in the manufacturing sector.
Consider a clothing manufacturer that uses a smart manufacturing
system to track its supply chain. The system might monitor factors
such as raw material availability, production rates, and delivery
times, providing real-time insights that enable the manufacturer to
optimize its operations.
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Cost Savings
By automating processes and enhancing efficiency, manufacturers
can significantly reduce their operational costs. Smart manufacturing
technologies can also monitor the utilization of resources, helping
manufacturers to optimize their use and reduce waste.
For example, a steel production company may use smart
manufacturing technologies to monitor energy consumption in real-
time, identifying areas of excessive energy use and inefficiency. By
adjusting these processes, the company can lower its energy costs,
reduce its carbon footprint, and improve its overall operational
efficiency.
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Industrial Safety
Safety is a top priority in any manufacturing environment, and smart
manufacturing can significantly enhance it. Automation and robotics
can handle dangerous tasks, reducing the risk of accidents and
injuries. Additionally, smart manufacturing systems can monitor the
working conditions and alert operators about potential hazards,
helping to create a safer workplace.
For instance, a chemical manufacturing plant may employ smart
sensors that continuously monitor the environment for hazardous gas
leaks. Should such a leak occur, the system would immediately alert
workers and initiate emergency protocols, preventing potential
accidents and ensuring worker safety.
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Mechanical Power Transmission - Belt Drives, Chain, Rope
drives, Gear Drives and their applications
Power may be transmitted from one point to another by belt,
ropes, chains and gears. belt and ropes are used when the
distance between pulleys are at considerable distance apart.
chain and gears are used when the distance is very small
❖ Belt Drives
❖ Chain Drives
❖ Rope drives
❖ Gear Drives
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Belt Drives
It consist of driven pulley and
driver pulley are connected
by an endless belt, due to
frictional grip that exist
between the belt and pulley
surface ,power transmission
takes place.
Types of Drives Material used for Belt
Light drive (speed<10m/s) Leather, Rubber, canvas, Cotton
Medium drive (speed10-22m/s) or fabric , Balata, steel
Heavy drive (speed>22m/s)
Types of Belt
Flat belt -Center distance between pulleys <8m
V Belt -Center distance between very near
Round Belt -Center distance between pulleys >8m
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Open belt Drives Cross belt Drives Compound belt drives
Classification of Belt Drives
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Classification of belt drive:
1.Open belt drive.
2.Cross belt drive
1.Open belt drive:
In the figure shown below , the arrangement consist of driver
and driven (Follower) pulleys. rotate in the same direction. the
driver pulley pulls the belt from one side and delivers it to the
other side. Hence the tension in the lower side is more than
that on the delivery side. therefore upper side is known as
slack side and lower side is known as tight side.
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2. Cross belt drive
In the figure shown below , the arrangement consist of driver
and driven (Follower) pulleys rotate in the opposite direction.
the driver pulley pulls the belt from one side and delivers it to
the other side.at point E .where the belt crosses rubbing action
takes place result in excessive wear and tear
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Advantages Of Belt-Drive
❖ It can be easily installed and easily removed.
❖ The price of the belt drive is low.
❖ Simple in construction.
❖ The maintenance cost is low.
❖ No additional lubricant is required.
❖ It can transfer power vertical, horizontal and inclined too.
❖ Power consumption is low.
Disadvantages Of Belt-Drive
❖ Power loss due to slip and creep.
❖ Not useful for a very short distance.
❖ Speed is limited to some extent.
❖ It is quieter.
❖ No possibility of a Longer life.
❖ Chances of breaking are high.
❖ The operation temperature is limited between -35 to 85 degrees Celsius.
If it exceeds its temperature range then it causes wear.
❖ Angular velocity ratio is not necessarily constant or equal to the ratio of
pulley’s diameter because of slipping.
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Applications Of Belt-Drive
❖ The belt drive is used in the Mill industry.
❖ The belt drive is used in Conveyor.
❖ Power transmission in industrial machinery and equipment
❖ Automotive applications, in different types of engines and
transmissions
❖ Agricultural machinery, such as tractors and harvesters
❖ Conveyor systems in manufacturing and distribution facilities
❖ HVAC systems in buildings, such as fans and air handling units
❖ Exercise equipment, such as treadmills and stationary bikes
❖ Office equipment, such as printers and copiers
❖ Power tools, such as table saws and drill presses.
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Rope drives
Rope drive is referred to as a simplified form of a belt drive, which is most
commonly found having the application of power transmission
mechanically. Rope drives are found performing multiple use of circular
section ropes instead of the single flats or V-belts. The rope drives are the
ones which are widely used where ever there seems to be a large amount
of power that needs to be transmitted, from one pulley to another for any
particular considerable distance. The ropes which are used for the purpose
of transmitting power are the ones which are usually made from the fibrous
materials like hemp, manila and cotton.
The ropes drive is found using these two types of ropes:
1.Wire ropes. 2.Fibre ropes.
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Rope drives
Advantages of Rope Drive
❖ Appreciable power transmission.
❖ Used for long-distance power transitions.
❖ Strong and flexible ropes.
❖ Smooth and noise resistant.
❖ Runs in any direction.
❖ Low-cost and economical.
❖ Precise alignment of the shaft is not needed.
Disadvantage of Rope Drive
❖ Failure of rope does not have any sign, so it often gets unnoticed.
❖ Wire rope gets corroded.
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Chain Drives
The toothed wheels are known as sprocket wheels or simply sprocket. The
chain are mostly used to transmit motion and power from one shaft to
another, when the distance between the centers of the shafts is short such
as bicycles, motor cycle etc.
Advantages of chain drive over belt & rope drive:
❖ As on slip takes place during chain drive, so perfect
velocity ratio is obtained
❖ Since the chains are made of metal, therefore they
occurs less space in width than a belt or rope
❖ The chain drive is used when the distance between
the shafts is less chain drive gives high
transmission efficiency.
❖ The chain drive gives less load on shaft
Disadvantages of chain drive over belts & rope
drive:
❖ The production cost of chains relatively high
❖ The chain drive require exact mounting and proper
maintenance
❖ The chain drive have velocity fluctuation especially
when unduly stretched
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Belt Drive Vs Chain Drive
Parameters Belt Drive Chain Drive
Belt drive uses a flexible belt
Design uses a chain made of metal links
made of rubber
higher efficiency compared to
lower efficiency due to the higher
Efficiency chain drive, due to the lower
friction
friction.
Noise less noise more noise
less maintenance as the belt more maintenance as the chain
Maintenance
does not require lubrication requires regular lubrication
load more prone to slipping and less prone to slipping and
stretching. stretching.
Cost less expensive higher cost of the chain and the
sprockets, and the more complex
design.
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Gear Drives
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Definition for Robot:
The Robot Institute of America (1969) defines robot as a re-programmable,
multi- functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools or
specialized devices through various programmed motions for the
performance of a variety of tasks‖.
Components of a Robot:
❑ Mechanical platforms or hardware base is a mechanical device, such as a
wheeled platform, arm, fixed frame or other construction, capable of interacting
with its environment and any other mechanism involve with his capabilities and
uses.
❑ Sensors systems is a special feature that rest on or around the robot. This device
would be able to provide judgment to the controller with relevant information
about the environment and give useful feedback to the robot.
❑ Joints provide more versatility to the robot itself and are not just a point that
connects two links or parts that can flex, rotate, revolve and translate. Joints play
a very crucial role in the ability of the robot to move in different directions
providing more degree of freedom.
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Components of a Robot:
❑ Controller functions as the "brain" of the robot. Robots today have controllers that
are run by programs - sets of instructions written in code. In other words, it is a
computer used to command the robot memory and logic. So it, be able to work
independently and automatically.
❑ Power Source is the main source of energy to fulfill all the robots needs. It could
be a source of direct current as a battery, or alternate current from a power plant,
solar energy, hydraulics or gas.
❑ Artificial intelligence represents the ability of computers to "think" in ways similar
to human beings. Present day "AI" does allow machines to mimic certain simple
human thought
❑ Actuators are the muscles of robot. An actuator is a mechanism for
activating process control equipment by the use of pneumatic, hydraulic
or electronic signals. There are several types of actuators in robotic arms
namely synchronous actuator – brush and brushless DC servo, stepper
motor and asynchronous actuator – AC servo motor, traction motor,
pneumatic, hydraulic.
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ROBOT ANATOMY
Joints and Links: The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a
series of joints and links. Robot anatomy deals with the study of different
joints and links and other aspects of the manipulator's physical
construction. A robotic joint provides relative motion between two links of
the robot. Each joint, or axis, provides a certain degree-of-freedom (dof) of
motion. In most of the cases, only one degree-of- freedom is associated
with each joint. Therefore the robot's complexity can be classified
according to the total number of degrees-of-freedom they possess.
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Joints and Links:
Each joint is connected to two links, an input link and an output link. Joint
provides controlled relative movement between the input link and output
link. A robotic link is the rigid component of the robot manipulator. Most of
the robots are mounted upon a stationary base, such as the floor. From
this base, a joint-link numbering scheme may be recognized as shown in
Figure 1.1. The robotic base and its connection to the first joint are termed
as link-0. The first joint in the sequence is joint-1. Link-0 is the input link
for joint-1, while the output link from joint-1 is link-1 which leads to joint-2.
Thus link 1 is, simultaneously, the output link for joint-1 and the input link
for joint-2. This joint-link-numbering scheme is further followed for all joints
and links in the robotic systems.
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Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified into
following five types as shown in Figure 1.2.
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a) Linear joint (type L joint) The relative movement between
the input link and the output link is a translational sliding
motion, with the axes of the two links being parallel.
b) Orthogonal joint (type U joint) This is also a translational
sliding motion, but the input and output links are
perpendicular to each other during the movement.
c) Rotational joint (type R joint) This type provides rotational
relative motion, with the axis of rotation perpendicular to
the axes of the input and output links.
d) Twisting joint (type T joint) This joint also involves rotary
motion, but the axis or rotation is parallel to the axes of the
two links.
e) Revolving joint (type V-joint, V from the “v” in revolving) In
this type, axis of input link is parallel to the axis of rotation
of the joint. However the axis of the output link is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
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Robotic arm configurations: For body-and-arm configurations, there are
many different combinations possible for a three-degree-of-freedom robot
manipulator, comprising any of the five joint types.
Common body-and-arm configurations are as follows.
1) Polar coordinate arm configuration
2) Cylindrical coordinate arm configuration
3) Cartesian coordinate arm configuration
4) Jointed arm configuration
1) Polar coordinate arm configuration(RRP):
The polar arm configuration is shown in the fig 1.3. It
consists of a prismatic joint that can be raised or
lowered about a horizontal revolute joint. The two
links are mounted on a rotating base. These various
joints provide the capability of moving the arm
endpoint within a partial spherical space. Therefore it
is called as Spherical coordinated configuration. This
configuration allows manipulation of objects on the
floor. Example: Unimate 2000 series, MAKER 110
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2) Cylindrical coordinate arm configuration (RPP):
The cylindrical configuration uses two perpendicular
prismatic joints and a revolute joint as shown in fig 1.
4. This configuration uses a vertical column and a
slide that can be moved up or down along the
column. The robot arm is attached to the slide, so
that it can be moved radially with respect to column.
By rotating the column, the robot is capable of
achieving a workspace that approximates a cylinder.
The cylindrical configuration offers good mechanical
stiffness.
3) Cartesian coordinate arm configuration (PPP):
From fig 1.5.Cartesian coordinate or rectangular
coordinate configuration is constructed by three
perpendicular slides, giving only linear motions
along the three principal axes. It consists of
three prismatic joints. The endpoints of the arm
are capable of operating in a cuboidal space.
Cartesian arm gives high precision and is easy
to program.
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4) Jointed arm configuration (RRR) or articulated configuration:
From fig 1.6. jointed arm configurations are similar to that of human arm. It
consists of two straight links, corresponding to human fore arm and upper
arm with two rotary joint corresponding to the elbow and shoulder joints.
These two are mounted on a vertical rotary table corresponding to human
waist joint. The work volume is spherical. This structure is the most
dexterous one. This configuration is very widely used. Applications: Arc
welding, Spray coating.
Example: SCARA robot (Selective compliance Assembly Robot Arm)
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Robot Wrist:
Wrist assembly is attached to end-of-arm. End effectors are attached to
wrist assembly Function of wrist assembly is to orient end effectors. Body-
and-arm determines global position of end effector
It has three degrees of freedom:
❑ Roll (R) axis – involves rotation of the wrist mechanism about the arm
axis.
❑ Pitch (P) axis – involves up or down rotation of the wrist.
❑ Yaw (Y)axis - involves right or left rotation of the wrist.
Robot wrist assembly consists of either two
or three degrees of freedom. A typical three-
degree-of-freedom wrist joint is depicted in
Figure 1.7, the roll joint is accomplished by
use of a T joint; the pitch joint is achieved by
recourse to an R joint; and the yaw joint, a
right-and-left motion, is gained by deploying
a second R joint. Care should be taken to
avoid confusing pitch and yaw motions, as
both utilize R joints.
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