EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

Examples of Theories Explaining the Origin of the Universe

STEADY STATE THEORY

- The overall structure of the universe

is always the same at any point in time and space.

BIG BANG THEORY

- Primeval nucleus suddenly exploded in a big bang. The force of this

explosion caused matter to scatter in any direction forming a universe.

PULSATING THEORY

- The universe will keep expanding more and more then it slowly
stopped.

BIBLICAL BELIEF

- God created the universe.

SOLAR SYSTEM

- A part of the vast universe.

- Located somewhere in Milky Way galaxy.
- Consists of the sun being at the center, minor and major planets and
other celestial bodies like satellites, comets, asteroids, and meteoroids.
-

ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS THEORY

- This theory proposes that the solar system was formed from a giant
cloud of gas and dust, known as a solar nebula.

ACCRETION THEORY

- The accretion theory suggests that planets form through the gradual
accumulation of smaller particles.

TIDAL THEORY

- Known as the “Roche Theory”, posits that the moon was formed from
material stripped from the earth due to the gravitational interaction
with a passing celestial body.
THE UNIQUE PLANET EARTH
Six (6) Important Factors that Makes Earth a Livable Planet

> TEMPERATURE

> WATER

> ATMOSPHERE

> ENERGY FROM THE SUN

> NUTRIENTS

> OXYGEN

Liquid water covers 70% of the Earth’s surface.

LAYERS OF THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE

♥ TROPOSPHERE

♥ STRATOSPHERE

♥ MESOSPHERE

♥ THERMOSPHERE

♥ EXOSPHERE

Planet Earth has ...

> the right amount of distance from the sun

> suitable weather climate

> right chemical ingredients for life

THE EARTH’S SUBSYSTEMS

ATMOSPHERE (AIR)

- A layer of thin gases surrounding Earth. Consist of 78% nitrogen and

21% oxygen.

BIOSPHERE (LIFE)

- The subsystem of the Earth where all life forms exist. A very thin layer
of the Earth’s surface.

GEOSPHERE (LAND)

- It provides minerals and nutrients

- Has three (3) major layers
• CRUST – is the outermost layer of the Earth.
• MANTLE – layer beneath the Earth’s crust.
• CORE – innermost layer of the Earth situated beneath the mantle.

HYDROSPHERE (WATER)

- Includes all of the bodies of water in the Earth

- The 5 Major Oceans
• PACIFIC OCEAN
• ATLANTIC OCEAN
• INDIAN OCEAN
• SOUTHERN OCEAN
• ARCTIC OCEAN

MINERALS

- Building blocks of rocks.

- naturally occurring, generally inorganic, crystalline solid, and has a
definite chemical composition.

MINERALOGY

- Brand of Geology that deals with the study of Minerals.

Occurrence of Minerals

- Obtained by natural processes.

- One common natural process is the crystallization of magma.

Character of Minerals
 1. Naturally Occurring – a product of the Earth’s natural process.
2. Inorganic – product of Earth’s physical process.
3. Homogeneous Solid – should have definite volume and rigid shape.
4. Definite Chemical Composition – represented by a chemical
formula.
5. Orderly Crystalline Structure – atoms of minerals arranged in an
orderly and repeating pattern.

PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

- Used to identify minerals.

1. Color – the presence of trace elements and compounds in mineral will
determine its color.
2. Streak – color of mineral in powdered form.
3. Hardness – mineral’s resistance to scratching.
4. Cleavage – mineral's resistance to being broken and fractured.
5. Diaphaneity/amount of transparency – ability to allow light to pass
through it.
6. Luster – how light is reflected off a surface.
7. Tenacity – describes the mineral’s reaction to stress.
8. Brittleness – a mineral turn into powder.
9. Malleability – a mineral can be flattened by pounding with a hammer.
10. Ductility – a mineral can be stretched into wire.

9 Most Common Rock-Forming Minerals

> FELDSPAR > CALCITE > AMPHIBOLE

> OLIVINE > DOLOMITE > QUARTZ

> CLAY > PYROXENE > MICA

ROCKS, WEATHERING, AND EROSION

Rocks – are naturally occurring and has three types:

• Sedimentary – key words: residue, sediments, fragments.

- Fragments of other rocks that form into a new rock.

- Sediments form through the processes of weathering and erosion of
rocks exposed at the Earth’s surface.
- Example: Sandstones, Coal, Chalk
• Igneous – made from the solidification of lava or magma.

- Has two types:

• Intrusive – formed through the solidification of magma (slow
process).
• Extrusive – form from lava that cools quickly.

• Metamorphic – forms from pre-existing rocks.

- Formed by high heat and pressure. Has two types:

• Foliated – has many lines and layers.
• Non-foliated – no lines and layers.

The Rock Cycle

- Continuous process where rocks are transformed from one type to

another over geological time.
- Slowly changes rocks from one kind to another.

MAGMA

- Hot liquid rock under the Earth’s surface.

- Partially melted rock that is called “lava” when it reaches the surface.
- Silicon dioxide makes the magma’s viscosity higher. The higher the
amount of silica (Si02) in the magma, the higher its viscosity.

Viscosity – is a liquid’s resistance to flow.

TWO TYPES OF MAGMA

> Mafic Magma

- Low in silica
- Intrusive rocks
- Contains darker magnesium and iron-rich mafic materials.

> Felsic Magma

- Higher in silica
- Contains lighter-colored materials
- Quartz, granite, feldspar
 MECHANISMS OF MAGMA FORMATION
- Crust and mantle are almost entirely solid indicating that magma only forms in
special places where pre-existing solid rocks undergo melting.

Partial Melting

- Happens when only some parts of a rock melt. It happens because

rocks are not pure materials.
- Made up of several minerals and has different melting temperatures.

THREE WAYS ON HOW MAGMA MELTS

• melting due to its pressure decrease

• melting due to its element or volatile matter being added

• melting due to heat transfer

Decompression Melting – melting due to a decrease in pressure.

Flux Melting - (compounds that have low boiling point) melting as a result
of the addition of volatiles.

Heat Transfer Melting – melting resulting from heat transfer from rising
magma.

Minerals Present in Magma

Oxygen Iron Aluminum Potassium

Silicon Calcium Sodium Magnesium

Locations of Magma Formation

• Divergent Boundaries – are formed when two plates move away from
each other. Rising hot mantle rock leads to decompression melting due to its
upward movement.

• Hotspots – formed when hot minerals rise from deep within the mantles.
Undergo decompression melting due to its upward movement.

• Subduction Zone – formed when an oceanic plate is pushed under

another plate. Flux melting occurs when water mixes with hot rocks as the
lower plates move down.
METAMORPHISM

- Is the process by which existing rocks (called protoliths) are

transformed into new types of rocks, known as metamorphic rocks,
due to changes in their physical and chemical conditions.

Key Factors in Metamorphism

1. Heat - increases in temperature can cause minerals within a rock to

recrystallize or form new minerals that are stable under the new
temperature conditions.
2. Pressure - rocks buried deep within the Earth are subjected to high
pressure from the weight of overlying rocks.
3. Chemically Active Fluids – fluids, often water with dissolved ions,
can facilitate metamorphism by promoting chemical reactions.

TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

1. BURIAL METAMORPHISM
- A type of low-grade metamorphism that occurs when rocks are
buried deep within the Earth’s crust under thick accumulations of
sedimentary rocks.
2. REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
- Large-scale geological processes, such as mountain building
(orogeny), along convergent tectonic margins.
3. SEAFLOOR (HYDROTHERMAL) METAMORPHISM
- Occurs when hot, mineral-rich fluids circulate through rock fractures,
leading to changes in mineralogy and chemistry.
4. CONTACT METAMORPHISM
- Occurs when rocks are heated by the intrusion of hot magma.
5. SHOCK METAMORPHISM
- Caused by the high-pressure, high-temperature conditions generated
by meteorite impact.
6. SUBDUCTION ZONE METAMORPHISM
- Also known as high-pressure, low-temperature metamorphism,
where an oceanic plate is forced beneath a continental plate.
7. DYNAMIC METAMORPHISM
 - Results from intense pressure and mechanical deformation, such as
along fault zones.

EARTH’S CRUST

- The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth.

- The thinnest layer ranging from about 5 to 70 kilometers in thickness.
- has two types:
• Oceanic Crust - the oceanic crust is the thinner layer of the Earth’s
crust is found under the ocean basins, on average, it is about 7
kilometers thick.
• Continental Crust – is the thick layer of the Earth’s crust that is
found under the continents and is about 35 kilometers thick.

TECTONIC PLATES

- are enormous pieces of rock, some of which encompass entire continents! There
are 17 major plates that make up the crust of the Earth.
Earth’s Mantle
- is the layer beneath the Earth's crust. It is the thickest layer, extending from the
base of the crust to a depth of approximately 2,900 kilometers. The mantle can
be divided into ar upper and lower layer.

• Upper Mantle - is relatively rigid and contains the asthenosphere, a semi-fluid layer
that allows the. movement of tectonic plates.
• Lower Mantle - solid lower mantle contributes to the overall convection and heat
transfer within the Earth's interior.

Earth’s Core
- is the innermost layer of the Earth, situated beneath the mantle. It is divided into
two distinct regions: the outer core and the inner core.

• Outer Core - is a liquid layer composed mainly of molten iron and nickel. It has a
thickness of about 2,300 kilometers.
• Inner Core - is the solid, central part of the earth.
It has a radius of about 1,220 kilometers and is composed of solid iron and nickel.

HEAT ENERGY – is the result of the movement of tiny particles atom, molecules or ions
in solid, liquid, and gases.
- Can be transferred from one object to another.
PRIMORDIAL HEAT- refers to the internal heat energy that gradually gathered together
by means of dispersion during its few million years of evolution.
RADIOGENIC HEAT- thermal energy released as a result of spontaneous nuclear
disintegration. (disintegration of natural radioactive elements inside Earth)
• Uranium • Thorium • Potassium
FRICTION
- By gravity, dense iron-rich materials sink or descent to form the core
- Heat is RELEASED

THREE PROCESSES OF HEAT TRANSFER

1. CONDUCTION – governs the thermal conditions in almost
every entire solid portions of the Earth.
2. CONVECTION – heat from the core is brought near the
surface through convection in the mantle.
3. RADIATION – the process of heat exchange between the
sun and the earth.