Forensic 2 – Personal Identification

Forensic Science

- In its broadest definition is the application of science to law.

= Is the application of the principles of various sciences in solving problems

in connection with the administration of the criminal justice system.

= Also referred to as Criminalistics or Police Science.

The word forensic was derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means a
“market place”, a place where people gathered for “public discussion” . When it
is used in conjunction with other sciences it simply connotes the idea of
application to law or for the administration of justice. Sometimes it is also
referred to as “legal”.

Dr. Hans Gross = An Austrian magistrate who described Search for Truth as the
ultimate goal of all investigative and detective works. He is known as the Father
of Modern Criminalistics.

Edmond Locard – It was his belief that when a criminal came in contact with an
object or person, a cross-transfer of evidence occurred (Locard’s Exchange
Principle)

A. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

“Law of Multiplicity of Evidence” The greater number of similarities or

dissimilarities; the greater is the probability for the conclusion to be correct.

Alphonse Bertillion = Father of Personal Identification. The first to devise a

scientific method of identification called Anthropometry. It is a system of
identification done through the measuring of various bony structure of the
human body. It was first used in England for almost two decades before
fingerprint was used. Record shows that Anthropometry was questioned due to
the famous “West Case”, wherein two persons (Will West and William West) have
the same face and almost exactly the same height. In addition to Anthropometry,
Bertillon also developed the so called “mug shot” photography as part of the
profile of criminals

OTHER METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

1. Identification of Living Person

Characteristics that may easily be changed:

a. Growth of hair, beard, and mustache

b. Clothing
c. Frequent place of visit
d. Grade or Profession
e. Body ornamentation such as earrings, necklace, rings, bracelets, wrist
watch, etc

Characteristics that may not easily be changed:

a. Mental memory
b. Speech
c. Gait or manner of walking
d. Mannerism
e. Hands and feet
f. Complexion
g. Face
h. Eyes
i. Body built
j. Left or right handedness
k. Degree of nutrition

2. Identification applicable to both living and dead persons

a. Occupational Mark
b. Stature
c. Teeth (Forensic Odontology – identification through dental record)
d. Tattoo marks
 e. Scar marks
f. Birth marks
g. Deformities
h. Moles Injuries leaving a permanent result
i. Tribal marks
j. Sexual organs
k. Blood groupings
l. Handwriting and Signature

Determining the identity of a person

Anthropometry – (Bertillon System-1870) the first scientific method of

identification done by measuring various bony structure of the human body
devised by Alphonse Bertillon. In the late 19 th century, law enforcement believed
that each individual had a unique combination of measurements of different body
parts, and comparing there measurements could be used to distinguish between
individuals.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – It is the chain of molecule found in every nucleated

cell of the body. A system of identification which was established by Alec Jeffreys
in 1985. DNA Fingerprinting is a method of identification that compares fragments
of DNA. It is sometimes called DNA typing. With the exception of identical twins,
the complete DNA of each individual is unique. People vs Vallejo, the first case in
which the Trial Court relied on DNA evidence.

Forensic Odontology – It is a branch of science which deals with the anatomy,

development of teeth and related structures used in the administration of justice.
This system measures the teeth structure as a means of identification.

Portrait Parle – is a French term referring to a picture of a suspect in both front

and profile views. This led to what is now as the “mug shot” of a suspect. These
two French words means “speaking likeness”. It can be defined as a rigorous
system for verbal description of the physical characteristics of a subject.

Tattoo – is defined as a permanent ink design in the skin applied by needles or a

temporary dyed design on the skin.
Scarification – is the practice of purposely scarring the skin tissue to leave
permanent marks. It is a very ancient practice that dates back to the earliest
stages of the human race.

Photography – it is an art and science of producing an image by the action of light

with the aid of image forming device known as camera and chemical process
involved therein.

Personal Effects – these are privately owned items such as clothing and jewelries
normally worn or carried by a person.

Fingerprint

Fingerprint was first used in China before the birth of Christianity. They called it
Hua Chi. They used fingerprinting as ritualistic symbols rather than for actual
identification, in the early part of their history . Eventually, they managed to use
them in signing of a contract for the illiterate. Emperor Te’inShi was the first
Chinese ruler who devised a seal carved from a white jade. It had the name of the
owner on one side and the other side was the impression of the thumb. They
used the said seal in sealing documents as a sign of authenticity.

I. Personalities in Fingerprints:

1. Nehemiah Grew (1684) – describes the ridges and pores of the hands and feet
(Philosophical Transaction) presented in Royal Society of London, England.
2. Govard Bibloo – works on the sweat pores and ridges.
3. Marcelo Malpighi (1628-1694) – Professor at the University of Bolognia, Italy,
known for his discovery of the Epidermis and Dermis layer. Written the book
entitled “De Externo Tactus Organo” .
4. J.C.A. Mayer (1788) – the first to state that fingerprints are never duplicated
in two persons ( Anatomiche Kuphertafeln).
5. Johannes Purkenjie (1823) – Professor at the University of Breslau, Germany.
Established a certain rules for classification and be able to identify nine (9)
types of pattern although never associated to identification
6. Herman Welcker – took his own fingerprints twice with a lapse of forty-one
years and show the ridges formation remains the same.
7. William Herschel – the first to advocate the use of fingerprints as substitute
for signature from among Indian native to avoid impersonation.
 Rajadhar Konai = the first person Herschel printed the palm.

8. Henry Faulds – A surgeon at Tsukuji Hospital, Tokyo, Japan, who claimed that
latent prints would provide positive identification of offenders once
apprehended. He wrote a “A Manual of Practical Dactyloscopy” based on the
skin ridges of the fingers and toes.
9. Francis Galton – Developed the Arch, Loop and Whorl Patterns as general
classification and identified nine (9) types of pattern. He discovered the three
families of fingerprint patterns – Arches, Loops and Whorls. First to establish a
Civil Bureau of Personal Identification in London, England. He said that the
possibility of two prints being alike was 1:65,000,000,000.
10.Sir Edward Richard Henry – Developed the Henry System of Classification at
Scotland Yard which was accepted by almost all English-speaking country.
Known as Father of Fingerprint.

Khan Bahadur Azizul Haque and Rai Hem Chandra Bose – the two
Hindu police officers who have help Henry in attaining his goal.

11.Juan Vucetich – A Spanish counterpart of Henry who developed his own

system of classification in Argentina and was accepted in almost all Spanish
Speaking country. He devised his own system of fingerprint classification
which he called ‘icnofalagometrico”

IN THE UNITED STATES

Gilbert Thompson = a geologist in New Mexico, adopted the first individual use of
fingerprint in August 8, 1882 as a protection to prevent tampering with the pay
order.

Isaiah West Tabor = Photographer in San Francisco who advocated the use of the
system of fingerprint for the registration of the immigrant Chinese.

Samuel Langhorne Clemens = An Englishman who informally introduced

Dactyloscopy in the United States in his book “ Life in the Mississippi” and “ Pupp
n Head Wilson”.

Dr. Henry P De Forest = Utilized the first Municipal Civil use of fingerprint for
Criminal Registration on December 1902 (Mun. Civil Service Comm., New York).
Capt. James L. Parke = Advocate the first state and penal use of fingerprint
adopted in SingSing prison on June 5, 1903 later used at the Auburn Napanoch
and Clinton Penitentiaries.

Sgt. John Kenneth Ferrier = First fingerprint instructor at St. Louis Police Dept.
Missouri.

Maj. R. Mc Cloughry = warden of the Federal Penitentiaries of Leaven Worth.

Established the first official National Government use of fingerprint.

Mary K. Holand = first American instructress in Dactyloscopy.

FBI = identification unit herein was officially established by an Act of Congress in

1924.

Institute of Applied Science = First private school to install laboratories for

instruction purposes in Dactyloscopy.

People vs. Jennings, Dec. 21, 1911 = United States leading case wherein the first
conviction based on fingerprint was recognized by the judicial authorities (14
points).

IN THE PHILIPPINES

Mr. Jones = was the one who first taught Fingerprints in the Philippines (PC).
(1900)

Bureau of Prison = (1968) CARPETAS (Commitment and Conviction Records)

includes the fingerprints of prisoners.

Generoso Reyes – First Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by

Phil.Constabulary (PC).

Isabela Bernales – first Filipina Fingerprint Technician

Capt. Thomas Dugan, of the New York Police Dept. and Flaviano Guerrero, FBI
Washington – gave the first examination in Fingerprints in 1927 and Agustin
Patricio of the Philippines top the Examination
People of the Phil. Vs. Medina- First conviction based on Fingerprint and leading
case decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence (10 points of identity)

Plaridel Education Institute (PEI) - now known as Philippine College of

Criminology, is the first government recognized school to teach the Science of
Fingerprint and other Police Sciences.

OTHER PERSONALITIES:

John Dillinger – known U.S. public enemy number one who attempt to destroy
his own prints using corrosive acids.

Robert James Pitts – works on Surgery to forged his own fingerprints and was
named “Man without fingerprint”

Lucila Lalu – the first Filipina Chop-chop lady who was identified through
fingerprint.

Alphonse Bertillion – known as the Father of the first scientific method of

Identification (Anthropometry).

DACTYLOSCOPY

Dactyloscopy – refers to the science of identification by means of fingerprints (the

making of identification by fingerprints comparison and classification of
fingerprints)

– (derived from the Latin word Dactyl which means finger or toe, and Skopien
meaning– to study or examine)

Dactylography – is the scientific study of fingerprint for the purpose of

identification.

Dactylomancy – is an attempt at character reading (personality interpretation)

through the pattern of fingerprints. It is not an accepted method.

Dermatoglyphics - is the science which deals with the study of skin pattern. It is
derived from two Greek words, Derma which means Skin and Glype which
means Carve. They are the lines, tracings, designs, etc, on the skin of fingers,
palms and soles.
Fingerprints - is an impression design by the ridges on the inside of the last joint
of the fingers or thumb on any smooth surface through the media of an ink,
sweat or any reagents capable of producing visibility. In most cases, it appears to
be semi-visible, having been made from sweat which requires further
development in order to make more legible. They are the distinctive ridge-
outlines which appears on the bulb on the inside of the end joints of the fingers
and thumbs.

Principles of Fingerprint Identification

1. Principle of Individuality

No two persons have the same fingerprint (based on Statistic Probability).

That it would be impossible for any two persons to have a similar
fingerprints

2. Principle of Infallibility

That fingerprint is a positive and reliable means of identification. It cannot

be easily be forged.

3. Principle of Constancy or permanency or immutability

That the friction ridge once fully developed, its arrangement will remains
the same throughout man’s life.

Related Sciences to the Study of Fingerprint:

1. Chiroscopy – ( Greek word “ Cheir” – a hand/palm, “Skopien” –to examine) is

the science which deals with the study of the prints of the palms of the hand.
2. Podoscopy – ( Greek word “Podo” – the foot, and Skopien – to examine) is the
science which deals with the study of the soles of the feet
3. Poroscopy – (Greek word “poros” – which means pores, and “Skopien” – to
examine) is the scientific study of the arrangement of the sweat pores/glands.
(Edmond Locard- Father of Poroscopy)

Phalange - is the skeletal finger covered with friction skin. It is made up of three
bones.
 a. Basal or proximal phalange – it is located at the base of the finger
nearest the palm.
b. Middle phalange = the next and above the basal bone.
c. Terminal phalange = the particular bone covered with friction skin,
having all the different types of fingerprint patterns and it is located
near the tip of the finger.

Friction Skin – is an epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower surface
of the hands and feet covered with ridges and furrows.(Also called as Papillary or
epidermal ridges). It is the skin covering the bulb of the fingers and thumbs, the
palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet. It is so called because it is
completely ridged, thus reducing slippage.

Ridge surface – is that component of the friction skin that actually forms the
fingerprint impression.

The friction skin is composed of ridges and furrows (also called depressions)

a. Ridge – the elevated or hill like structure found on the epidermis layer
of the skin or the raised strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of
fingers and thumbs. It appears as the black lines with tiny white dots
called pores in an inked impression.

b. Furrows – the depressed or canal like impression or a depression found

between the ridges. They appear as white line or space in an inked
impression.

Fundamental Layers of the Friction Skin

1. Epidermis – the outermost layer, also identified as the surface skin. It consists
of;

a. Stratum Corneum – covers the surface on which the ridges are visible
b. Stratum Mucosum – is the layer beneath the stratum corneum
(covering layer) and forms the ridges that run lengthwise and
correspond to the surface ridges.

2. Dermis – Is the scientific term for the deeper inner, or true skin. It is within
the structure that the individual characteristics of ridges and patterns are
 formed. The main components of the dermis are the sweat pores, the sweat
glands, and the dermal papillae. The dermal papillae are the nerve endings
located between the dermis and epidermis.

Ridge Formation – (Ridges starts to form in the fingers and thumb during the 3rd
to 4th months of the fetus life.)

Ridge Destruction – destruction of the friction skin can either be temporary

or permanent. Generally temporary destruction occur when only the epidermis
layer of the friction skin has been damage, while permanent damage can be
injected to the friction skin due to damage to the dermis layer.

General Rules on Ridge Destruction

a. Destruction of the Epidermis – temporary; Dermis – permanent

damage.
b. Cut - a depth of more than 1 mm will constitute permanent scar.

Importance of Fingerprints:

1. It is used for identifying suspects for investigation purposes

2. Used to provide identity for unidentified dead person
3. Used for the identification of missing person
4. Detecting a criminal (suspect) identity through fingerprints collected
at the crime scene
5. Used as a means of verification or confirmation of public documents
6. Used as a records in the police department and other law
enforcement agency for the purpose of issuing clearances
7. Modern technology utilizes fingerprints in the opening of vaults or
doors leading to confidential matters
8. Used as a means in checking or verifying entry of authorized
personnel on certain business establishment

The Fingerprint Patterns

1. The Arch (5%)

 a. Plain Arch (A) – is a fingerprint pattern in which the ridges flows from one
side to the other side with a slight raise at the center. It has no core and no
delta
b. Tented Arch (T) – is a type of pattern where the majority of the ridges
forms enters on one side of the impression and flow, or tend to flow, out
upon the other side, but in which the ridges at the center of the formation
thrust themselves upward, or form an angle, or form any two of the three
basic characteristics of the loop. There are three types of tented arches; an
angle type in which the ridges at the center form a definite angle of at least
90 degrees, an uptrust type, in which one or more ridges at the center
form an upthrust; or an incomplete loop form, possessing two of the basic
or essential characteristics of the loop but lacking the third.

2. The Loop (60%)

Loop is a type of pattern in which one or more ridges enters on either side of
the impression, then turn or makes a recurve, passing or touching an
imaginary line drawn between the delta and the core, then flow toward the
same side of the impression from where the ridges entered.

The two division of a loop were based on the fact that every human being has
in their forearm two large bones extending from the elbow to the wrist. One is
the radius bone or the inner bone of the forearm that runs to the wrist on the
side where the thumb is located. The other one also running to the wrist is
located on the little finger and this is the ulna bone

Elements of loop

1. It must have a core

2. It must have a delta
3. It must have a recurving ridge that passes between the delta and the core
4. It must have a ridge count of at least one

a. Radial Loop (RH=/. LH=\) is a type of loop pattern in which the slanting or
looping ridge flows towards the thumb finger.
b. Ulnar Loop (RH=\, LH=/) is a type of loop pattern in which the slanting or
looping ridge flows towards the little finger.
3. The Whorl (35%)

Basic Elements of Whorl

1. A complete circuit
2. Two or more Deltas

a. Plain Whorl (W)

At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by the imaginary

line traversing between the two deltas.

Elements of Plain Whorl

1. A complete circuit
2. Two deltas
3. At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by an imaginary
line traversing between the two deltas.

b. Central Pocket Loop Whorl (C)

A pattern which possess two (2) deltas, with one or more ridges forming a
complete circuit which may be oval, spiral, circular or any variant of a circle; or it
is a pattern consisting of two deltas with one or more recurving ridges with an
obstruction at right angle to the inner line of flow, between which an imaginary
line would touch or cross no recurving ridge within the inner pattern area.

Elements of CPL

1. At least one recurving ridge or obstruction at right angle

2. Two deltas
3. No circuiting ridge within the pattern area is touched or cross by an
imaginary line drawn between the two deltas.

c. Double Loop Whorl (D)– this is a pattern consisting of two separate and
distinct loop formations, with sets of shoulders and two deltas
Elements of Double Loop Whorl

1. Two separate loop formation

2. Two Separate and distinct shoulder
3. Two deltas

d. Accidental Whorl (X)

1. A combination of two different patterns with the exception of the plain

arch.
2. Two deltas

Ridge Characteristics also known as minutiae (Galton Details)

The ridges characteristics are the details of ridge structure, formation, and
elements which differentiate one fingerprint from another and which impart
individuality to each fingerprint.

1. Ridge Dot – is exactly what the word implies – a dot/period

2. Island - – refers to a ridge formation in a form of a circle, or a dot, or at times
an oval. An island is always much smaller than an enclosure.
3. Bifurcation – a ridge formation in which a single ridge splits or divides into two
or more ridges or branches. It resembles a fork shape.
4. Converging Ridge – is a ridge formation characterized by a closed angular end
and serves as a point of convergence. (Meeting of two ridges that were
previously running side by side)
5. Diverging Ridge – two ridges that are flowing side by side and suddenly
separate or spread apart
6. Enclosure or Lake ridge or eyelet – a single ridge that divides into two
branches but does not remain open and meet at a certain point to form the
original single ridge.
7. Ending ridge – it refers to an abrupt end of a ridge or an end point of a ridge
8. Type lines – is a diverging ridge that tends to surround the pattern area and
serves as a basic boundary of fingerprint impression.
9. Pattern Area – is a part of a loop or whorl pattern surrounded by the type lines
and consisting of the delta, the core and other ridges.
10.Recurving or looping ridge – a single ridges that curves back to the direction
from where it started. It look like a hairpin
11.Crossover or Bridge – a short ridge that runs between two parallel ridges
12.Bridges – A connecting friction ridge between parallel running ridges, generally
at right angle.
13.Sufficient Recurve – a recurving ridge which is complete with its shoulder and
free from any appendage
14.Appendage – is a short ridge found at the top or summit of a recurving ridge
15.Rod or Bar – is a short or long ridge found inside the recurving ridge and
directed towards the core
16.Obstruction ridge – is a short ridge found inside the innermost recurving ridge
which blocks the inner line of flow towards the center of the pattern.

The Two Fingerprint Terminus (Focal Points)

1. The Delta (also called the outer terminus) is a point along a ridge formation
found at the center or near the center of the diverging type lines.

The term “delta” is an old Greek word. The original English meaning of the word
delta refers to a deposit of earth at the mouth of a river.

Six Delta Formation:

a. Delta as a bifurcating ridge

b. Delta as a dot
c. Delta as an ending ridge
d. Delta as a short ridge
e. Delta as a converging ridge
f. Delta as a point on a long ridge

Rules Governing the Choice between two or more Possible Deltas:

a. The delta may not be located at a point of a bifurcation which does not
open toward the core. To be a delta, a bifurcation must be the first ridge
formation in front of the divergence of the type lines and the bifurcation
must open up toward the pattern area
 b. A bifurcation is always selected as a delta if there is another type of delta
formation just equally closed to the point of divergence of the type lines
c. When a pattern shows a series of bifurcation opening toward the core at
the point of divergence of the type lines, the bifurcation nearest the core is
chosen as the delta
d. The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between the
type lines toward the core, but at the end nearest to the core

2. The Core (also known as the heart or the inner terminus) usually found at the
center or innermost recurving ride or looping ridge.

Rules in Core Location:

a. Core in a loop pattern are formed in a variety of ways, but are always found
on or within the innermost looping or recurving ridge
b. When the innermost recurving ridge contains no ending ridge or rod rising
as high as the shoulders of the loop, the core is placed on the shoulder
farthest from the delta
c. When the innermost recurving ridge contains an uneven number of rods
rising as high as the shoulders of the said recurving ridge, the core is placed
upon the end of the center rod, whether it touches the looping ridge or not
d. When the innermost recurving ridge contains an even number of rods
rising as high as the shoulders of said recurving ridge, the core is placed
upon the end of the farthest one of the two center rods, the two center
rods being treated as though they were connected by a recurving ridge.

Ridge Counting and Ridge Tracing

Ridge Counting – is the process of counting the ridges that touch or cross an
imaginary line drawn between the delta and core of a loop. A white space
(furrows) must always intervene between the delta and the first ridge to be
counted.

Rules in ridge counting:

a. Locate the exact points of the core and the delta

b. Count all ridges which touch or cross an imaginary line drawn between the
core and the delta. Never include the core and delta in the count.
 c. Incipient ridges are never counted no matter where they appear. The
general rule is that in order to be counted, the width of the ridge must be
equal to the width of the other ridges in the pattern under consideration.

Ridges subjected to Ridge Counting

a. A ridge island or dot is given one ridge count

b. A short ridge is given one ridge count
c. A long ridge is given one ridge count
d. An abrupt ending ridge is given one ridge count
e. A bifurcating ridge – if a ridge bifurcates or branches into two across the
imaginary line, then the count given is two. Should the imaginary line cross
the bifurcation directly at the point of forking, it is counted as two.
f. Ridge enclosures are counted as two ridges
g. Criss-crossing or meeting of two ridges is counted as two ridges

Ridge Tracing – is the process of counting the ridges intervening between the
tracing ridge (flows from the left delta to the right delta) and the right delta

Types of whorl tracing

a. Inner Whorl (I) – is a whorl pattern whereby a tracing ridge runs or goes
inside or above the right delta and there are three or more intervening
ridges
b. Outer whorl (O) – is a whorl pattern whereby a tracing ridge runs or goes
below or outside the right delta and there are three or more intervening
ridges
c. Meeting whorl (M) – is a whorl pattern having two or less intervening
ridge(s) regardless of whether the tracing ridge flows below or above the
right delta

Types of fingerprint impression

1. Rolled Impression – are fingerprint impression taken individually by rolling

each finger from one side to the other side and from the tip to the end of the
first joint.
2. Plain Impression – are impression made by simultaneously pressing the fingers
to the card, use as a reference impression.
Purposes of the Plain impression:

1. To serve as a guide in checking the rolled impression whether or not

the rolled impression were properly place on their respective boxes.
2. To check on the ridge characteristics of the plain impression, if the
rolled impression is somewhat faint, or indistinct due to bad
condition of the friction skin or in case of a doubtful or questionable
prints.
3. To check the minute details of the ridge characteristics for purposes
of classification and identification.

Basic Instruments in taking fingerprints:

1. Ink Slab – is a metallic or glass plate where the ink is spread or

distributed for fingerprinting
2. Ink Roller – is a rubber made roller designed to spread the fingerprint
ink to the slab.
3. Fingerprint Ink – is a special form of ink designed for taking fingerprint
impression. A printer’s ink is sometimes used as a substitute.
4. Fingerprint card – is an 8” x 8” card designed for recording fingerprint
impression
5. Card holder – usually a fixed card holder placed in a flat table designed
to prevent the movement of the card in the course of the taking of the
fingerprint.

Other Fingerprint Laboratory Equipments:

6. Magnifying glass – refers to an instrument used for examination of

develop fingerprints. Two common types of magnifying lenses; Linen
tester – with fixed and can be folded. Bausch & lomb magnifier – also
known as horse shoe magnifier, a magnifying lens with a built in stand
and an adjustable lens to suit the visual sight of the examiner
7. Fingerprint powder – the powder used in developing latent prints found
at the crime scene
8. Fingerprint brushes – refers to an instrument used for powdering and
developing latent prints
 9. Fingerprint lifting tapes – tapes used for lifting of developed latent
prints.
10.Latent prints transfer cards – refers to a card used in preserving latent
prints which is either white or black in background
11.Scissors – refers to a simple instrument for cutting latent print tapes and
for other purposes
12.Rubber gloves – to protect the Technician’s finger from leaving his own
prints on the object or on the crime scene
13.Fingerprint pointers – use for the conduct of ridge counting
14.Fingerprint camera – use in photographing the developed latent prints
15.Forensic optical comparator – an equipment use to compare two
fingerprints at the same time

Basic Rules in taking Fingerprints:

1. Subject should be instructed to stand straight but relax facing the slab.
2. The subject hand should be completely dry
3. Thumb fingers are rolled towards the body while other fingers are rolled
away from the body.

Reasons for Poor Impression:

1. Poor ink – resulting in the ridges being too light to count or trace
2. Dirty finger or equipment – presence of foreign materials which may
result to distorted ridges
3. Improper rolling of the fingers
4. Too much pressure
5. Over inking

Blocking-out – is the process of placing under each pattern the letter

symbols representing their pattern interpretation prior to the actual
classification formula.

Checking – verifying the sequence or proper placement of the rolled

impression using the plain impression.

Blockings - Index Fingers

Plain Arch – A

Tented Arch – T

Radial Loop – R

Ulnar Loop – U

Plain Whorl – W

Central Pocket Loop Whorl – C

Double Loop Whorl – D

Accidental Whorl – X

Others Fingers:

Plain arch – a

Tented arch – t

Radial loop – r

Ulnar loop – u

Plain Whorl – w

Central pocket loop whorl – c

Double loop whorl – d

Accidental whorl - x

THE FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION FORMULA

Classification refers to the sorting of things into division or group so that they can
at later time be quickly located.
The original Henry System, as it was adopted by Scotland Yard in 1901, converted
ridge patterns on all fingers into a series of letters and numbers arranged in the
form of fraction.

A. Primary Division. Always represented by a numerical value

assigned to whorl patterns depending on what finger they
appear.

Arches and Loops are non-numerical patterns. A, T, / \ = Zero (0)

Whorl patterns.(WCDX)

Finger 1 and 2 Right Thumb and Right Index (16)

Finger 3 and 4 Right middle and Right Ring (8)

Finger 5 and 6 Right little and Left Thumb (4)

Finger 7 and 8 Left Index and Left middle (2)

Finger 9 and 10 Left Ring and Left Little (1)

The sum of the numerical value assigned to even numbers of fingers represent
the numerator and the sum of the assigned value to odd numbers represent the
denominator plus the pre-established fraction of 1/1 to complete the primary.

B. Secondary Division – Represented by Capital and small letter

combination based on interpretation made during the blocking.

Capital letters – derived from the index fingers with the right index
as the numerator and the left index as the denominator and which
can be;

(A, T, U, R, W, C, D or X).

Small letters – derived from the thumb, middle, ring and little
fingers.
 It only includes the radial loop (r), plain arch (a) and tented arch (t).

C. Sub-secondary Division – derived by ridge counting of loop

and ridge tracing of whorl found at the index, middle and ring
fingers only.

c.1 Ridge Counting of Loop (Inner or Outer)

Index Finger 1 to 9 Ridge Count = I 10 or more =0

Middle Finger 1 to 10 Ridge Count = I 11 or more =0

Ring Finger 1 to 13 Ridge Count = I 14 or more =0

c.2 Ridge Tracing of Whorl

Inner Whorl (I) When the tracing goes above or inside the right
delta and there are three (3) or more intervening ridges.

Outer Whorl (O) when the tracing ridge goes below or outside the
right delta and there are three (3) or more intervening ridges.

Meeting Whorl (M) when there are only two or less intervening
ridge/s

c.3 Plain Arch and Tented Arch are always represented by a dash (-)

D. Major Division (Taken from Thumb fingers only) . This is similar in process as
the Sub-Secondary although it applies only to the Thumb fingers and the ridge
counting (loops) is modified. It is written on the leftmost part of the classification
line before the primary division.

d.1 Whorl Patterns = Ridge tracing = Inner, Outer, or Meeting.

d.2 Loop Patterns = Ridge Counting = Small, Medium or Large

Table 1

1 to 11 =S
12 to 16 =M

17 or more = L

Table 2

1 to 17 =S

18 to 22 =M

23 or more = L

Table 1 is used for both left thumb and right thumb if they are both loops and the
ridge count of the left thumb does not reach or exceed 17 ridge counts. If the left
thumb reach 17 or more ridge counts, it is classified as exceptional and Table 2
will now be used only for the right thumb.

d.3 Arches = represented by a dash (-)

E. Final Division - derived from the little fingers only. The result of the ridge
counting of a loop or whorl which will exhibited at the extreme right corner of the
classification line. Take note that the whorl will be ridge counted and is not to be
ridge traced.

e.1 Loop and Whorl are both subject to ridge counting.

Radial or Ulnar loop – to be ridge counted in its conventional way

Whorls: (Rules)

a. Plain Whorl and Central Pocket Loop whorl = will be treated as an ulnar loop
for purposes of ridge counting.

b. Double loop Whorl – get the ridge count of the top loop
c. Accidental Whorl - get the least ridge count.

e.2 Arches – represented by a dash (-)

F. Key Division – is derived by getting the ridge count of the first loop appearing
in the set of fingerprints except the little fingers and the result will be exhibited at
the left most corner or extreme left of the classification line and is always
represented as numerator, no matter where it is taken. When there is no loop,
the first whorl is ridge counted, following the rules of ridge counting a whorl
under the Final Division. When arches appear in all the prints, the symbol of the
key division is just a dash (-) on the classification line.

Key/Major/Primary/Secondary (Capital letter/small letter

group/Sub-Secondary/Final

Classification of Amputated Finger(s):

a. In the case of a missing one or more fingers on the same hand, the
fingerprint pattern of the corresponding digit of the other hand will be
taken
b. When one or more fingers of both hands are missing, the said same fingers
will be arbitrarily be interpreted as Plain whorl with Meeting as tracing
c. When all fingers of both hands are missing, they are all to be considered as
Meeting Plain Whorl.

Reference Classification Formula - is an additional formula serve as a reference

in case of doubtful prints. It is place the bottom of the classification formula.

Latent Prints – refers to all forms of fingerprints that are found at the scene of
the crime.

The word “latent” was derived from a Latin word which means “something
indistinct” or “something hidden”.

Types of latent prints

1. Visible prints - are those prints which are readily visible to the naked eye. It
can either be: Molded prints or Prints made by contamination with colored
substance.
2. Invisible prints - prints that are generally made by sweat or perspiration that
requires developing for visibility.

Factors Affecting Stability of Prints at the Crime Scene

a. Subject Factor
b. Nature of the surface
c. Climatic Condition

Methods of Developing Fingerprints:

1. Dusting Method - considered as the simplest and traditional methods

used in developing prints at the scene of the crime. (Use of Powder and
Brush)
2. Rolling Method - basically used in developing prints in paper done by
simply rolling the paper with powder spreading in its surface.
3. Chemical Fuming Methods - done by using chemical fumes such as
Iodine and Ammonium Fumes.
4. Silver Nitrate method – done by spraying a 5 percent solution of silver
nitrate to the surface of the paper.
5. Ninhydrin Method - is considered as one of the best method used in
developing prints in paper.
6. Laser Method - is a modern method of tracing and developing prints.

Post Mortem Fingerprints - are prints taken from a deceased person.

Latent Fingerprint Examination Process:

Many latent impression are worthless smudges, while many are clear, easily
identified prints.

A latent fingerprint cannot be identified unless one of known origin is available for
comparison. For this, fingerprint exemplars must be acquired. Sources providing
the exemplars needed for comparison with a latent prints are: Police/NBI
fingerprint files , a set of prints taken from a suspect who has no arrest or
fingerprint record, and a set of prints taken from each person who frequents in
the area which the latent prints was found.
To compare a latent print with a known fingerprint, the Technician should look for
the following elements;

1. Likeness of general pattern types

2. Qualitative likeness of the ridge characteristics
3. Quantitative likeness of the ridge characteristics
4. Likeness of location of the ridge characteristics

By means of these characteristics or points, a latent fingerprint is shown to be

that of a particular individual.

The conclusion of how many individual characteristics (ridge characteristics) are

needed for a conclusion of an identity has not been definitely settled. The
minimum number of points is set in France at 17, in England at 16, in the United
States at 12. People of the Philippines vs Medina (10)

Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)

The AFIS is a biometric identification methodology that uses digital imaging

technology to obtain, store, and analyze fingerprint data. The AFIS was originally
used by the US FBI in criminal cases. The AFIS is a computer system that processes
and searches latent fingerprints through a ten print database. It never makes
identification but only matches data files that are possibilities.