Unit I Social Problems

1.2 SOCIAL PROBLEMS

 A social problem is any condition/behavior that adversely affects many people and is
considered in need of correction.
 Has both:
o Objective elements: measurable conditions (e.g., crime, poverty).
o Subjective elements: public perception of the condition as a "problem".

Definitions by Scholars:

 Raab & Selznick:

o “Difficulty in human relationships that poses a major threat to society.”
o Example: Juvenile delinquency = breakdown in society itself
 Nisbet & Merton:
o Social issues are linked to moral principles and social structures.
 Barbara Wootton:
o Defines social pathology as behaviors that cost public money or require penalties.
o Criticized by Bottomore for being too narrow.
 Merton’s classification:
o Distinguishes between overt (recognized) and latent (unrecognized) problems.
o Emphasizes the need for scientific and sociological criteria in identifying social issues.
 Social problems are relative and context-dependent:
o Divorce may be a concern in some societies, not in others.
o Early Indian society’s issues: rigid social structure, Aryan-Dasa conflict, ritualism
o Later: Sati, Purdah, Muslim caste systems

1.2.1 NATURE OF SOCIAL 2. Multiple causes: No single explanation

PROBLEMS (e.g., poverty, war, unemployment).
3. Interconnected: One issue often
 Hard to define—depends on culture, leads to or is linked with others.
politics, traditions, and individual 4. Many remedies: Requires
perspectives. diverse, multi-pronged
 Arise mostly from human behavior approaches.
rather than external forces. 5. Relative concept: Problem in one
place/time may not be in another.
Characteristics: 6. Functional value: Can lead to social
evolution through reform.
1. Disintegrative: Disrupts social 7. Two viewpoints: Viewed both
system and causes suffering. individually and communally.
o Example: Casteism, classism,
beggary, urbanization, group
conflict (regionalism,
communalism)

1.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL PROBLEM

1
  Social issues vary by sociocultural, economic, and legal dimensions.

Examples by Type:

 Sociocultural: Untouchability, child abuse, caste/tribal issues, alcoholism

 Economic: Unemployment, poverty, black money
 Legal: Crime, terrorism, violence
 These categories overlap (e.g., poverty is both social and economic).
 Social issues are now viewed as forms of divergent behavior needing both medical and
social treatment.
 Media plays a vital role in public awareness.
 Must be understood in the context of values and institutions.

Key Features:

1. Adversely affects society

2. Deviation from ideal
3. Caused by multiple factors
4. Rooted in social structures
5. Interconnected
6. Affects everyone
7. Impact varies by individual
 Bhuj cyclone (2000)
1.2.3 CAUSES OF SOCIAL PROBLEM  2004 tsunami: over 2.5
million deaths
1. Social Change:  Uttarakhand (2013),
Jammu floods (2014)
 Not all change leads to problems—only
when it creates adjustment difficulties. 4. Political & Social Causes:
o Example: Poorly implemented
education policy → student  Man-made crises disrupt order.
unrest o Examples:
 Gujarat's Godhra train
2. Cultural Lag (William F. Ogburn): burning (2002),
 Riots, terrorism,
 Material culture evolves faster than revolutions
non-material culture, causing conflict.
o Example: Rapid deforestation vs. 5. Biological Causes:
slow forest conservation →
environmental issues  Population explosions, disease, poor
nutrition create imbalance.
3. Natural Disasters:
6. Psychological Causes:
 Floods, earthquakes, tsunamis,
epidemics disturb social life.  Temperament, instincts, emotions
o Examples: affect response to problems.

2
 o Traits: imitation,  Tech growth leads to social imbalance
jealousy, aggression, fear, (Ogburn’s idea again).
hate, etc. o Examples:
 Urban slums, crime,
7. Technological Inventions: prostitution,
environmental harm,
addiction

1.3 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO SOCIAL PROBLEMS

 Earlier views blamed social problems on individual flaws (e.g., hereditary constitution).
 Modern view focuses on social, economic, political, and structural factors.
 Shift from social harmony to identifying structural inconsistencies as root causes.

1.3.1 Functional Approach

 Rooted in Emile Durkheim's ideas; society functions like a body where institutions have
specific roles.
 Stability and shared values maintain social order.
 Robert Merton introduced:
o Manifest functions (intended)
o Latent functions (unintended)
 Social structures can have different effects on different groups.
o Example: Dams benefit some, displace others.
 Auguste Comte advocated positivism and scientific observation for societal understanding.
o Introduced three stages of human thought:
 Theological: Supernatural explanations
 Metaphysical: Rational, nature-based systems
 Positive: Empirical, scientific analysis
 Herbert Spencer applied biological evolution to society.
 Social dysfunctions arise when parts of society fail their roles.
o Example: Shift from joint family to nuclear family caused elder neglect.

1.3.2 Marxist Approach

 Society divided into:

o Ruling class (e.g., kings, capitalists)
o Ruled class (e.g., workers, serfs)
 Root cause of social problems: systemic inequalities
o Exploitation, alienation, inequality, poverty
 Capitalists seek profit, underpay workers, causing estrangement from their labor.
 Solution: Revolutionary change to socialism.
 Criticism: Overfocus on material conflict, underestimates the middle class and new
professions.

Conflict Perspective
3
  Views society as conflictual rather than harmonious.
 Power dynamics dictate who benefits from social structures.
o Example: Feminism critiques patriarchy and demands systemic reform.
 Origin in Karl Marx’s work:
o Bourgeoisie control production/resources.
o Proletariat work for wages with little benefit.
 Institutions (e.g., religion) maintain control.
o Marx: Religion is the “opiate of the masses”.

1.3.3 Gandhian Approach

 Based on truth, peace, Sarvodaya (welfare of all), and Swaraj (self-rule).

 Rejects Marxist conflict model; promotes cooperation over class struggle.
 Social change should be:
o Non-violent
o Gradual and voluntary
o Driven by mass awakening, not imposed regulation
 Emphasizes social, political, and moral reform, not just economic change.
 Criticism:
o Seen as idealistic and detached from social realities.
o Yet influential in anti-colonial and civil rights movements (e.g., U.S., South Africa).

1.3.4 Social Interactionist Approach

 Focuses on micro-level interactions, not broad societal structures.

 Key theorists: George Herbert Mead, Max Weber, Herbert Blumer, Erving Goffman.
 Society is shaped by:
o Daily human interaction
o Symbolic communication (language, gestures, roles)
 Example: Gender norms arise from interpreted social signals.
 Symbolic Interactionism:
o Behaviour shaped by symbols and shared meanings.
o Example: Loan applicants appeal to traits associated with gender stereotypes (logic
vs empathy).

1.3.5 Social Problems and Social Change in India

1. Family Structure Changes

o Joint families declining; rise of nuclear families, weakening family bonds.
2. Caste System Transformation
o Modernization eroding caste rigidity; mobility and secular career choices increasing.
3. Social Stratification
o Shift from birth-based to achievement-based status; rise of class segregation.
4. Mobility
o Legal changes (e.g., anti-untouchability laws) enabling social mobility.
5. Marriage

4
 o Decline in endogamy; inter-caste marriages increasing among educated groups.
6. Politics
o Traditional caste power waning; political casteism and new leadership patterns
emerging.
7. Economy
o Collapse of village economies, growth of national and industrial economy.
8. Religion
o Secularism rising, traditional religious authority declining.
9. Values
o Democratic and egalitarian norms replacing authoritarian religious codes.
10. Culture

 Influence of technology and western education has shifted focus to individual liberty and
competitive values.

1.4 SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION

1.4.1 Concept of Social Disorganization

 Social disorganization is a relative concept; perfect organization doesn't exist.

 It threatens social stability as forces of social change generate social problems.
 Defined by Elliott and Merrill (1940):
“a breakdown in the equilibrium of forces, deterioration in the social order...”
 Mowrer (1943): Disorganization happens when cultural shifts impede traditional coordination
patterns.
 Social disorganization is the opposite of social organization, which relies on systematic
relationships.
 Imbalance arises when parts of the social system function improperly or ineffectively.

1.4.2 Definition of Social Disorganization

 Durkheim: “a state of disequilibrium and a lack of social solidarity...”

 Mowrer: “process by which links between group members are shattered.”
 Queen, Bodenhafer & Harper: Defined as polar opposite of social organization.
 Results in chaotic, fragmented relationships, failing to meet social needs.
 Queen & Harper:
“confusion implies...relations which bring disillusionment, obstructed wishes, aggravation and
misery.”
 Individual disruption follows social disruption.
 Subjective judgment determines whether a situation is seen as organized or disorganized.
o E.g., Divorce might indicate disorganization but may reflect legal awareness
and changing views on marriage.

1.4.3 Causes of Social Disorganization

G.R. Madan's factors: 1. Psychological Factors

5
 o Poor communication or failure to 9. Political Subservience
adapt to changing times. o A subordinate nation cannot
2. Cultural Lag (W.E. Ogburn) develop freely, fostering
o Material culture changes faster disorganization.
than non-material culture, 10. Conflict of Goals and Means
creating a gap.
3. Physical/Geographic Factors  Lack of legitimate means to achieve
o Natural disasters like floods, goals may lead to crime and vice.
plagues, famines disrupt social
equilibrium. 11. Decline of Social Control (Thomas &
4. Biological Factors Znaniecki)
o Illness, injury, or mental
health issues affect individual  Reduced influence of religion, ethics,
social function. and norms increases crime, divorce,
5. Ecological Factors mental illness.
o Disorganized environments and
neighborhoods contribute to 12. Extreme Division of Labour
instability. (Durkheim)
6. Social Problems
o Events like wars, revolutions,
 Excessive specialization may harm
class struggles, and political
social solidarity.
corruption affect societal
welfare.
13. Disruptive Social Change
7. Degeneration of Values
o Old and new values clash,
 Sudden changes from tech, biology, or
leading to unrest.
social forces destabilize society.
8. Role Confusion
o Social changes alter expectations,
leaving individuals confused
about their roles.

Other specific causes in India:

 Untouchability and Casteism

o Fragment society, foster parochialism, selfishness, and class hatred.
 Regional Loyalty
o Threatens national unity; e.g., South Indian separatist sentiments.
 Lack of Integral Education
o Poor schooling, underpaid teachers, and sectarian education weaken societal values.
 Religious Discrimination
o Priests, maulavies, and pujaris exploit religion, causing violence and division.
 Marital Malpractices
o Issues like child marriage, dowry, widow stigma, and prostitution due to social
injustice.
 Urbanization
o Rural migrants face value shock, live in slums, and may turn to crime and vice.

6
  Industrialization
o Creates slums, displacement, and moral breakdown; linked to gambling, alcoholism,
etc.
 Crime and Juvenile Delinquency
o Both a symptom and cause of disorganization.
 Poverty and Unemployment
o Lead to immorality, crime, and family disintegration.
 Outbreaks
o Epidemics (e.g., smallpox, cholera) devastate families and communities.
 Wars with China and Pakistan
o Cause migration, destruction, crime, and economic stagnation.

1.4.4 Characteristics of Disorganization

Just as disease is identified by symptoms, social disorganization is recognized through these traits:

1. Conflict of Mores and Institutions

 Societies have norms and institutions to regulate behavior.

 With time, old customs may clash with emerging norms, causing disruption.
 Example (India): Inter-caste marriage, dowry, untouchability, family planning, widow
remarriage, joint families, female education—all show tensions between tradition and modernity.

2. Transfer of Functions Between Groups

 Functions of social groups may shift due to changing structures.

 Example: The Indian joint family lost some roles to external agencies, weakening its structure.
 Religious and caste functions too have been redistributed, leading to crises in traditional roles.

3. Individuation

 Rise of individualism—personal choices dominate areas like education, marriage, jobs, ethics.
 This undermines group coherence and may weaken the social bond, causing confusion.

4. Gap Between Expectations and Achievements

 Disparity between societal goals and access leads to disorganization.

 Example: Frequent student strikes, violence, and exam misconduct reflect disorder in
higher education.

5. Inconsistency Between Status and Role

 Ideally, roles and statuses are aligned.

 Changes in society may cause mismatches, leading to conflicts and confusion.

Alternative Ways of Understanding Social Problems

7
(i) Social Disorganization Approach

 Origin: Early functionalist theory.

 Society functions via shared norms; disruption occurs when these norms are broken.
 Three manifestations:
o Normlessness: Absence of behavior guidelines.
o Culture conflict: Clashing norms (e.g., immigrant children vs. parents).
o Breakdown: Social rules are unrewarded or punished (e.g., black students facing bias).
 Durkheim: Change (e.g., agrarian to industrial) disrupts group roles, causing instability.
 Ettio Elliott and Merrill: Disorganization breaks bonds; traditional controls collapse.
 Whyte: Cites disorganization in slums and deviant group structures.
 Victims may turn to drugs or crime; system may adapt or break down.

(ii) Cultural Lag Approach

 Cultural lag: Material culture evolves faster than non-material aspects.

 Institutions like family, education, religion lag behind tech progress.
 Example: In early industrial India, caste-based biases delayed factory work adaptation.
 Resulted in a generation-long adjustment to technological change.
 Limitations: Not all social problems stem from cultural lag.

(iii) Value Conflict Approach

 Based on Marxist and pluralist ideas—conflict isn’t just about class, but also values.
 Examples:
o Family disputes (TV, drinking).
o Educational disagreements (sex ed, athlete rights).
o Abortion: feminists vs. religious groups.
 Key theorists: Waller, Fuller, Cuber, Harper.
 Two value types:
o Organizational (property, individualism).
o Humanitarian (supporting the unfortunate).
 Conflicts arise when some groups impose their values on others.
 Solutions: conflict resolution, policy change, compromise (e.g., citizen review boards).

(iv) Personal Deviation Approach

 Deviation: Failure to conform to norms; not always due to mental illness.

 Focuses on why individuals deviate:
o Inability (emotional, social, biological weakness).
o Refusal (lack of internalizing values).
 Three types (Horton & Leslie):
1. Multiple reference groups: Conflicting roles (e.g., caste vs. workplace).
2. Deviant subcultures: Criminal norms in slums.
3. Total disregard for norms: Tax evasion as an example.

8
(v) Anomie Approach

 Term by Durkheim, expanded by Robert K. Merton.

 Anomie = normlessness, breakdown of values due to mismatch between goals and means.
 Results in:
o Rejection of cultural goals or accepted means.
o Four types of deviant responses (not listed here due to truncation).
 Cause: Structural dysfunctions, not personal failure.
 Social issues arise when societal structure fails to integrate roles and expectations cohesively.

1.5 TYPES OF SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION

1.5.1 Personal Disorganization

 Definition: When an individual's behavior deviates from societal norms, causing social
opposition.
 Forms of reaction:
o Mild dissatisfaction → Positive adaptation.
o Intense opposition → Strong reaction.
o Abstract withdrawal → Internal isolation, loss of social identity, potential psychosis or
self-destruction.
 Elliott and Merrill’s 4 disruptive circumstances:
1. Biological factors: Illness, injury, mental or personal inadequacies → maladjustment.
2. Environmental factors: Family conflict, economic and religious confusion.
3. Insecurity of status/role: Lack of belonging or attention from others →
psychological disarray.
4. Social crises: Loss (e.g., death, job loss) disrupts life structure.

1.5.2 Family Disorganization

 Definition: Non-amicable functioning in family, including spousal and child-parent conflicts.

 Marriage strains: Result from role changes, legal constraints, and fast-paced modern life.
 Breakdown symptoms: Abandonment, separation, violence, verbal abuse.

Key Causes of Family Disorganization

1. Personal Characteristics

 Romantic fallacy: Unrealistic expectations from romantic love → dissatisfaction.

 Clashing temperament: Early impressions hide incompatible personalities.
 Philosophy of life: Differing values/goals → social and intellectual mismatch.
 Personal behavior patterns: Minor habits (e.g., loud speech, eating habits) can escalate into
major issues.
 Psychopathic personalities: Mental illness → brutality, neglect, abuse.

2. Social and Cultural (Impersonal) Factors

9
  Economic tensions:
o (i) Poverty: Long-term hardship leads to family stress.
o (ii) Business losses: Adjustment issues, especially for status-conscious partners.
o (iii) Wife’s independence: Superior professional status or past financial freedom
may cause conflict.
 Occupational tensions: Frequent job changes or misaligned aspirations → instability.
 Cultural background differences: Diverse upbringings → poor adjustment (Burgess &
Cottrell).
 Age disparity: Wide age gaps → differing maturity, interests, goals.
 Illness: Chronic disease → emotional, financial burden.
 Parent-child relations: Disputes over discipline, education, attention distribution.
 In-law interference: Parental control or judgments can destabilize young marriages.
 Conclusion: Rising trends of divorce, separation, and domestic strife reflect modern family
instability.

1.5.3 Community Disorganization

 Causes:
o Poverty, begging, unemployment, crime, corruption, overpopulation.
 Examples:
1. Rural institutional disorganization: Caused by socio-political changes, lack of
adequate services.
2. Corruption: Seen in politics, administration, business.
3. Unemployment: Leads to slums, crime, prostitution.

Scholarly Insights

 Elliot & Merrill: Disorganization occurs on personal, family, and societal levels.
o Symptoms: Delinquency, crime, insanity, alcoholism, suicide, prostitution.
 Calvin F. Schmid: Indicators include:
o High rates of divorce, desertion, illegitimacy, dependency, suicide, and low
homeownership.
 Herbert A. Bloch:
o Categories: Sociological (individual, family, community) and Literary-Ideological.
o Literary signs: Nostalgia, emotional dissatisfaction, revolt.
 Queen, Bodenhafer & Harper:
o Disorders: Insanity, dementia, homelessness, poverty, sickness, unemployment.
Unit II Population Explosion
2.2 POPULATION EXPLOSION

 Definition: Occurs when a country’s carrying capacity is exceeded; relates to

ecological imbalance.
 India's case:
o World's 2nd most populous country after China; projected to surpass China by 2024.
o Population growth in India outpaces most nations.

10
 o Expected to slow and decline later this century.
 Consequences:
o Causes serious challenges, particularly in developing nations.
o Has prompted India to implement Population Policies and include population control in
Five Year Plans, though with limited success.
o Education is viewed as a key long-term solution.
 Impact on environment:
o Increased demand for food and industry → deforestation, soil erosion, climate change,
and resource depletion.
o Leads to global warming, pollution, and ecological threats.

2.2.1 Characteristics of Population Growth

 Key factors: Birth rate, mortality rate, migration, population density, and growth rate.
 Trends:
o Developing nations have higher and faster growth.
o Growth contributes to illiteracy, poverty, and health risks.
o Worsens socio-economic divides and stresses natural resources.

2.2.2 Causing Factors of India’s Population Explosion

 High fertility rate: Women (15–45 age group) marrying young, often between 20–24 years.
 Widow remarriage: Increasingly common → contributes to more births.
 Son preference: Cultural and religious reasons encourage larger families.
 Low female education: Especially in rural areas, limits awareness and control over childbirth.
 Cultural factors: Traditions and beliefs favor large families.
 Child labor: Seen as economic support, especially in poor families.
 Family planning attitudes:
o Women support it more than men but have limited agency due to low social status.
 Death-birth gap:
o Technological advances, better healthcare → lower death rate, but birth rate remains
high.
 Migration:
o Internal and international migration (e.g., Bangladesh, Nepal to Assam) strains
resources, creates social and cultural conflicts.

2.3 EFFECTS OF POPULATION EXPLOSION IN INDIA

 Population growth undermines GDP per capita despite industrial and agricultural progress.
 Creates sectoral pressure in education, employment, health, housing, water, etc.

2.3.1 Effects of Population on Education

 Low-quality education:
o High student-teacher ratio (>50:1), reduced attention, poor facilities.
o Underpaid, underqualified teachers; limited materials and infrastructure.

11
  Discipline issues:
o Overcrowding in higher education → student unrest.
 Commercialization:
o Education turned into a profit-making business with questionable standards.

2.3.2 Consequence of Population Explosion on Environment

 Environmental degradation:
o Since 1950: 10,000+ species extinct, 400% rise in greenhouse gases, 80% rainforest
loss.
 Food quality:
o Use of chemical fertilizers/pesticides degrades food.
 Urbanization:
o Leads to pollution in air, water, noise, and poor sanitation.
 Industrialization:
o Necessary but causes air, water, and land pollution.
 Water crisis:
o Future water scarcity expected due to rising demand and misuse.

2.3.3 Impact of Population Explosion on the Socio-economic Life of the People

 Overcrowding:
o India houses 1 in 6 people globally with only 1/45th of Earth's land → rise of slums,
poor sanitation, social problems.
 Unemployment:
o Increases joblessness, lowers national income and life quality.
 Housing:
o Shortage due to unplanned urban growth and industrial expansion → proliferation of
slums.
 Poor living standards:
o Low per capita income leads to poor healthcare, food, education.
 Decline in quality of life:
o Rise in corruption, loss of values, and mental/social degradation.
 Medical and healthcare gaps:
o Despite improvements, rural areas still lack proper services.
o Maternal and infant mortality remains high; nutrition deficiency common.

2.4 POPULATION POLICIES OF INDIA

 Objectives of development: Enhance quality of life, wellbeing, and individual potential.

 Population policy: More than just reducing birth rate; a holistic plan to improve
social, economic, and demographic structures.

Two approaches to Family Welfare/Planning:

 Long-term strategies:

12
 o Population education
o Raising marriage age
o Avoiding child labour
o Compulsory schooling and adult literacy
o Economic measures: Old-age security, limited maternity benefits, incentives for
small families
o Employment generation (especially for SC/STs), health, education,
women’s empowerment
 Short-term strategies:
o Immediate reduction in births
 India’s major concern: Overpopulation – both quantitative and qualitative.
o Qualitative focus: Improve standards of living, health, education, and eugenics/ethnic
quality.
 Effective population policy should:
o Identify goals
o Use legislative and administrative tools
o Specify demographic factors (size, sex, age structure, etc.)
o Avoid sacrificing other welfare goals
 Definition (Prof. B. Berelson):
o All government efforts (laws, acts, ordinances) to affect demographic trends
o Focuses on causes/effects across classes, groups, ethics

2.4.1 Objectives of a Population Policy

1. Economic:
o Raise per capita income, food, housing
o Enhance education, employment, productivity
o Control fertility/mortality rates and migration
2. Political:
o Promote equality, justice, freedom via democratic governance
3. Environmental:
o Ensure ecological balance, prevent health/genetic issues
4. Sociological:
o Improve education, health, cultural development
o Focus on quality over quantity, generational improvement

2.4.2 Methods of Population Control

1. Information & Education: Public awareness of policy

2. Voluntary programmes: Access to family planning methods
3. Reform social institutions: Change attitudes (e.g., large families), empower women
4. Incentives/Disincentives: Monetary rewards, services, promotions, reservations
5. Coercion (with caution): Laws or mandates—can backfire

Obstacles:

13
  Biased against poor
 Violates reproductive rights
 High infant/child mortality leads to more births
 Two-child rule → increase in female infanticide
 NHRC and international criticism: Coercive approaches ineffective and distort gender ratios
o Example: China’s one-child policy → gender imbalance

2.4.3 The Population Policy of India

 Demographic Context: High birth/death rates, low quality of life, high dependency ratio
 Goal: Reduce mortality/fertility, align population growth with economic development

Pre-Independence Developments

 1925: R.D. Karve – 1st birth control center (Bombay)

 1931: Madras University starts birth control courses
 1936: Mysore – world’s first government birth control clinic
 1940: Family Planning Society formed
 M.K. Gandhi supported self-control (Brahmacharya), opposed artificial methods
 Elites pushed for greater birth control awareness

Post-Independence Population Policy

(i) Pre-Emergency (1951–1975):

 First Five-Year Plan (1951–56):

o Recognized population pressure
o ₹65 lakhs allocated
 Second Plan (1956–61):
o Expanded family planning advice/education
o Budget: ₹5 crores
 Third Plan (1961–66):
o Budgeted up to ₹50 crores
o Integrated family planning with health services
 Fourth Plan (1969–74):
o Challenges: Indo-Pak war, Bangladesh independence
o Target growth: 5.6%, achieved: 3.3%
 Fifth Plan (1974–79):
o Focus: Poverty reduction, employment, self-sufficiency
o Growth target: 4.4%, achieved: 5.0%

(ii) Emergency Period (1975–77):

 1976 National Population Policy Declaration:

o Brutal enforcement of family planning
o Key measures:

14
  1971 Census used till 2001 for funding allocation
 Legal marriage age raised (girls: 18, boys: 21)
 States allowed to draft sterilisation laws
 Coordination among all ministries
 Emphasis on population education
o Criticisms: Press restrictions, coercion, administrative excess

(iii) Post-Emergency Period (After 1977):

 Janata Government reforms:

o Abandoned coercion
o Promoted voluntary family welfare
o “Voluntary sterilization” and “expectations” replaced the term “targets”
o Continued support for:
 Raising marriage age
 Family aid programmes
 Rural participation
 Tier-based sterilisation compensation

Welfare of Families

 India’s family welfare programme provides family planning services as part of broader
maternal and child healthcare.
 Focuses on informing couples to make free, informed decisions about family size
and spacing.

Programmes for Maternal and Child Health

 In line with "Health for all by 2000 AD", the Family Health Policy 1983 set targets:
o Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): below 60/1000 live births.
o Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR): below 200 per lakh live births.
o Child Mortality Rate (0-4): below 10/1000 population.
 100% centrally funded programmes:
o Universal Immunization Program (since 1985-86)
o Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) (since 1986-87)
o Prophylaxis Plans (post-Fourth Plan)

Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980–85)

 Goals: poverty reduction, population control, technical progress.

 Actual growth: 5.66% (target 5.2%).
 Minimal progress in child/maternal health → Need to improve mother and infant survival.

Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985–90)

 Focus: Foodgrain production, employment, productivity.

15
  Growth rate: 6% (target 5%).
 Emphasis on sterilization, late marriage, education.
 IMR goal: reduced to 80/1000 by 1990.

Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992–97)

 Delayed due to political unrest.

 Key goals:
o Reduce IMR from 80 to 70.
o Reduce CBR from 29.9 to 26.
 Key strategies:
o Community volunteer involvement
o Upgrade service quality
o New contraceptives
o Address mortality impact
 Linked to 1981 National Health Program (Alma-Ata WHO/UNICEF declaration).

Ninth Five-Year Plan

 Goals: Quality of life, employment, regional equity, self-sufficiency.

 Actual growth: 5.35% (target 6.5%).
 Population growth contributors:
o 60% from age group 15–45.
o 20% from lack of contraception.
o 20% from high infant mortality.

Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002–2007)

 Goals:
o 8% GDP growth, reduce poverty, universal elementary education.
o Reduce gender disparity, increase literacy to 72%, reduce IMR to 45.
o Improve forest cover, clean rivers, energy efficiency.

Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2007–2012)

 Goals:
o 10% GDP, 4% agricultural growth, 70 million jobs.
o Reduce school dropout (52.2% → 20%), maternal/infant mortality, malnutrition,
anaemia.
o Improve sex ratio (935 → 950), telecom and broadband access, air and water quality.

Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012–2017)

 Goal: 8.2% growth (approved: 8%).

 Aim: Reduce poverty by 10% over the plan period.

16
The Experimentation Period (1951–1961)

 First 10 years of planned growth → family planning as population control.

 1952: Launch of National Family Planning Program (reduce birth rate for
economic compatibility).
 Funding:
o 1st Plan: ₹65 lakhs
o 2nd Plan: ₹5 crores
 Used Clinical Approach through government FP centers.

The Population Control Policy (1961–2000)

 Extension Approach in the Third Plan due to 21.5% population rise in 1961.
 Educational campaigns through local bodies.
 By 1973, target birth rate: 25/1000.
 1966: Department of Family Welfare established.
o Integration with maternal, child
Fourth Plan care, and nutrition.

 Funding: ₹330 crores; aim: birth rate Fifth Plan

to 25/1000 by 1980-81.
 Strategies:  Goal: birth rate to 30/1000 (1978-79),
o Promote small families. 25/1000 (1983-84).
o Increase contraceptive  Target: 33% couple protection rate.
awareness.  Financial incentives for sterilization.

1976 National Population Policy

 Goals:
o Raise marriage age (men: 21, women: 18).
o Promote female education.
o Higher incentives for sterilization, especially for government employees.
 Sterilization targets → Increase from 9.4 lakhs (1973–74) to 82.6 lakhs (1976–77).
 Issue: Forced sterilization in some states.

1977 Janata Government Policy

 Renamed to Family Planning Programme.

 Made sterilization voluntary.
 Promoted:
o Population education
o Incentives, tax relief, media outreach
 Result: Sterilizations dropped to 9 lakhs in 1977–78.
 By 2000, targets:
o CBR: 21, CDR: 9, IMR: <60, CPR: 60%
 NRR of 1 moved to 2006–2011 (Seventh Plan).

17
  Eighth Plan shifted NRR goal to 2011–16:
o TFR: 2.6, CBR: 26, CPR: 56%

1997: Shift to Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) Approach

 Focus: Decentralised, local planning

 Services for women, children, adolescents (e.g., RTIs, immunisation, safe motherhood)
 NRR replaced by TFR goal of 2.1 by 2026
 End of Ninth Plan:
o IMR: 50, CBR: 23, TFR: 2.6, CPR: 60%
 2001: National Policy for Women’s Empowerment
o Women as socioeconomic agents

National Population Policy (2000)

 Emphasizes equitable development that promotes well-being and active societal participation.
 Challenges:
o Large reproductive-age population
o Unmet contraceptive needs
o High infant mortality, early

marriage Short-term Goals:

 Address contraception, health infrastructure, reproductive/childcare.

Long-term Goal:

 Population stabilisation by 2045

14 National Socio-demographic Goals (by 2010) include:

1. Universal school attendance, lower dropout.

2. IMR < 30/1000
3. MMR < 100/100,000
4. Encourage later marriage for girls
5. 80% institutional deliveries
6. Achieve TFR replacement level (2.1)

 Advocates for:
o Education, literacy
o Accessible RCH services
o Village-level service convergence
o Women's paid workforce participation
o National-level collaboration for success

Dimensions of India’s Population Policy: Psycho-social Consequences

18
  Designed by health ministry and planners, affecting:
o Fertility, mortality, migration, distribution
 Despite birth/death rate reduction, growth rate remains high.
 Cultural taboos, illiteracy, and poor promotion hinder birth control.
 Low internal/external migration due to:
o Illiteracy, agricultural dependence, economic underdevelopment
 Marriage postponement efforts failed:
o Many young women lack education and paid work
 Law passed to allow daughters inheritance, but rural social norms limit impact
 For success, real-world implementation of policy must be prioritized.
Unit III Violence against Women
3.2 NATURE OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

 Violence implies intentional harm to people/property; often negative, but sometimes socially
accepted (e.g., sports).
 Structural violence: Societal systems that oppress certain groups (e.g., women).
 In many cultures, women are viewed as male property, contributing to economic and social
inequality.
 This results in physical and emotional violence and dependency, making women vulnerable
to abuse.
 Gender inequality = a human rights violation; solving it is essential to ending violence.
 Types of violence:
o Physical, sexual, and mental—often interconnected.
o Mental abuse includes neglect, deprivation, and emotional manipulation.
o Coker et al. found women facing both physical and sexual abuse have worse
chronic illness outcomes.
 Physical violence: e.g., slapping, choking, beating, often disguised as "accidents".
 Sexual violence:
o Includes forced sex, denial of contraception, STI risk.
o Can happen via partners, family members, or coworkers.
o Terms like rape and assault differ legally and culturally.

3.3 TYPES OF VIOLENCE  Controlling all financial resources,

AGAINST WOMEN denying economic independence.

3.3.1 Abusive Behaviour at Home 3.3.3 Mental Viciousness

 Control over a close partner using  Threats, isolation, manipulation,

physical, sexual, financial, or destruction of property or pets.
psychological means.
3.3.4 Passionate Savagery
3.3.2 Financial Brutality
 Degrading self-worth, mockery,
interference with social bonds.

19
3.3.5 Actual Viciousness  Assault aimed at "correcting" a
person's sexual orientation or
 Physical harm: hitting, biting, gender identity.
burning, hair-pulling, denial of
medical care, forced substance use. 3.3.12 Assault Culture
3.3.6 Femicide  A societal environment that
normalizes and justifies sexual
 Murder of women because they are violence, rooted in patriarchy.
women, often by partners or ex-
partners. 3.3.13 Illegal Exploitation
3.3.7 Honour Killing  Trafficking of women and girls
using coercion or deceit, often for
 Killing a woman for bringing sexual exploitation.
"shame" on the family, often tied
to perceived sexual misconduct. 3.3.14 Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
3.3.8 Sexual Savagery  Non-medical alteration of female
genitals, often for cultural or
 Any non-consensual sexual act, marital reasons; condemned by
especially involving power WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA (1997).
imbalances, intoxication, or mental
incapacity. 3.3.15 Child Marriage
3.3.9 Lewd Behaviour  Marriage of individuals under 18,
mostly girls, causing school
 Includes groping, sexual comments, dropout and abuse.
stalking, exposing genitals.
3.3.16 Online/Digital Violence
3.3.10 Assault
 Technology-based violence such as:
 Non-consensual penetration o Cyberbullying: threats or
(vaginal, anal, or oral), by known or harassment.
unknown individuals. o Doxing: publishing private
information online.
3.3.11 Remedial Assault

3.4 THEORETICAL EXPLANATION OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

 Defined as physical or emotional coercion used against a woman without her consent.
 Types:
o Criminal (e.g., rape, murder),
o Domestic (e.g., dowry death, sexual abuse),
o Social (e.g., forced female foeticide, property denial).

20
Victims of Violence

1. Emotionally weak, self-degrading women.

2. Women in unstable or immoral families.
3. Women lacking social skills or with behavioral issues.
4. Women with alcoholic or psychologically disturbed spouses.

The Hindu: Rape cases in Delhi rose from 580 (2020) to 833 (2021).
Crimes against women rose by 63.3% in first half of 2021.

Perpetrators

 Mostly known men: 60% by family, 40% by strangers (University of Warwick).

 Patriarchal norms blame women for "not conforming".

Specific Forms of Violence:

1. Assault:

 Affects all women: poor, middle class, prisoners, laborers.

 Reporting results in shame, guilt, and psychological trauma.

2. Kidnapping:

 Aimed at marriage or sex.

 Victims often unmarried, know the offender, and assent isn't valid.
 Rape occurs in 80% of cases.
 Root causes: family discord, weak authority.

3. Murder:

 94% cases: offender is a family member.

 Mostly men aged 25–40.
 Victims often mothers in long-term relationships.
 66% murders are spontaneous, often due to family quarrels or jealousy.

4. Dowry Deaths:

 Young working-class women (ages 21–24) most affected.

 70% victims from this age group.
 Law (Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961) is ineffective due to lack of enforcement and
evidence.
 Deaths preceded by emotional and physical harassment.

5. Spouse Battering:

21
  Women under 24 and with lower income more vulnerable.
 Triggers: jealousy, sexual maladjustment, childhood exposure to violence.
 Most husbands abuse while sober, not drunk.
 Cultural factors discourage reporting due to fear of social rejection.

6. Widow Violence:

 Young widows face most abuse—property fraud, neglect, sexual abuse.

 Widows lack knowledge of husbands’ finances, making them easy targets.
 Abuse often linked to property (middle class), sex (lower class), and power.
 Main abusers: husband's family members.

3.5 CONTROLLING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

3.5.1 Psychological Sickness

 Mental illness should be identified and treated quickly.

 Patients with active symptoms need secure environments; some require lifelong care.
 Women with severe mental disorders need extra care and protection.
 Negative societal attitudes toward mental illness are a bigger problem than the illness
itself.
 Marital issues mostly stem from medical illnesses, not dysfunctional behavior.
 Dual standards should apply: just as women with mental illness are accepted in
marriage, so should men.
 Good family support improves prognosis significantly.
 Violence is not a solution; treat mental illness in both victim and perpetrator
(e.g., depression, alcoholism, schizophrenia).

3.5.2 Limitation on Utilization of Liquor

 Alcohol use should be banned at large public/social events (e.g., trains).

 Reduce number of liquor shops.
 Raise legal drinking age to 30.
 Use breath analyzers at events.
 Mandatory treatment for alcohol dependence.

3.5.3 Control on Media

 Sexual content should be censored.

 Promote media that condemns violence and supports victim recovery.
 Pornography should be fully banned and websites blocked.

3.5.4 Relationships

 Marriage ideally between mid-20s to meet sexual needs socially appropriately.

22
3.5.5 Fortifying the Organization of Marriage

 Promote strong marital bonds (e.g., “Shiv-Parvati” model for Hindus).

 Law enforcement: Competent, responsible agencies needed at all levels.
 Legal mindset: Courts must discard male-centric biases (quote by Indira Jaising).
 Legal revisions:
o Hindu Marriage Act (1955): Mental illness should not annul marriage.
o PWDVA (2005), Dowry Prohibition Act (1961): Include
psychological maladjustment evaluation.
 1980s women’s movement highlighted domestic violence laws.
 IPC sections 498A (cruelty to wife) and 304B (dowry death) introduced strong legal
measures.
 Section 498A:
o Recognizes cruelty beyond dowry demands to mental and physical abuse.
o Non-bailable offense with up to 5 years imprisonment.
o Criticized for excluding economic, sexual violence, and violence in natal homes.
o Poor enforcement: very few convictions (CSR 2005 study).
 Family Courts Act (1984) shifted violence cases to family courts, emphasizing family
preservation over strict discipline.
 Women's groups pushed for broader domestic violence laws including verbal,
economic, emotional, sexual abuse beyond the marital home.
 The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA), 2005:
o Covers violence in all domestic relationships including natal home.
o Includes older women and child abuse.
o Allows women to live in shared families regardless of ownership.
o Introduces time-bound resolution processes.
o Recognizes NGOs as key actors in justice provision.
 Debate on whether law should be gender-neutral rejected—focus remains on women’s
protection.

3.5.6 New Regulations

 Proposals for “Interval Relief” payments to survivors of severe rape for rehabilitation.
 State responsibility for survivor rehabilitation.
 Harsher punishment for violence against women with mental illness.
 Legal cases involving mental illness require professionals with both legal and psychiatric
qualifications.

3.5.7 Governing Set of Rules

 Set rules for gender interaction at workplace, school, and home:

1. Gender sensitization by parents and teachers.
2. Improve quality of education and employment opportunities.
3. Promote sports and skill development.
4. Foster moral and religious values as good examples.
5. Promote population control.

23
  Global progress seen but violence persists due to cultural attitudes and fear.
 Local, case-specific campaigns more effective than global ones.
 Law enforcement often reluctant to act due to biases.
 Violence against women damages India’s social image and culture.
 Need strict measures to reduce violence.

Steps You Can Take to Forestall Violence against Women

1. Identify violence: Recognize harmful behavior, discuss with trusted people.

2. Reject normalization: Do not accept abuse as normal.
3. Seek help: Find supportive, non-judgmental people.
4. Be resilient: Find strength to break free from abuse.
5. Get mental help: Therapy can rebuild confidence.
6. Educate yourself: Understand violence to protect self and others.
7. Report violence: Speaking out is key to prevention.
8. Teach children: Promote respect and dignity in relationships.
Unit IV Child Abuse and Child Labour
4.2 CHILD POPULATION AND WORKING CHILDREN

 Child labor has increased by 8.4 million globally over the last 4 years; millions more
at risk due to COVID-19.
 ILO and UNICEF report Child Labour: Global Estimates 2020 warns progress on ending
child labor has slowed, reversing gains since 2000.
 Dangerous child labor (ages 5-17) increased by 6.5 million since 2016.
 ILO Director-General Guy Ryder highlights urgent need for social protection, rural
development, and decent work to reverse trends.
 Sub-Saharan Africa: 16.6 million more children forced into child labor due to
population growth, poverty, emergencies, weak social safety nets.
 COVID-19 threatens to push 9 million more children into child labor by end of 2022,
possibly up to 46 million without social protection.
 UNICEF Executive Director Henrietta Fore warns families face harsh choices
amid economic and educational disruptions.

Other report findings:

 30% of child laborers work in services (31.4 million), 20% in agriculture (112
million), 10% in industry (16.5 million).
 28% of children aged 5-11 and 35% aged 12-14 are out of school due to child labor.
 Boys more likely than girls to work, but family duties (21+ hours/week) affect girls more.
 Child labor is more common in rural areas (14%) vs cities (5%).
 Child labor damages education, limits rights, perpetuates poverty cycles.

Proposed actions by ILO and UNICEF:

 Establish strong, affordable social safety nets and child benefits.

24
  Increase investment in quality education and re-enrollment.
 Promote decent adult employment to reduce child labor dependency.
 Eliminate gender norms that induce child labor.
 Strengthen child protection, rural programs, and livelihoods.
 UNICEF and ILO are collaborating with Alliance 8.7 to mobilize global efforts
against child labor.

India-specific data (2011 Census):

 259.6 million children aged 5-14; over 10 million (4%) engaged in child labor.
 Child labor declined by 2.6 million from 2001 to 2011, mostly in rural areas.
 Urban migration is increasing demand for child labor in cities.
 COVID-19 pandemic likely increased child labor risk due to school closures
and economic hardship.
 Five states account for 55% of child labor in India: Uttar Pradesh (21.5%, 2.18M), Bihar
(10.7%, 1.09M), Rajasthan (8.4%, 0.85M), Maharashtra (7.2%, 0.73M), Madhya Pradesh
(6.9%, 0.7M).
 UNICEF India calls for urgent action to prevent long-term COVID-19 impact on
vulnerable children.

4.3 TYPES OF CHILD ABUSE

 Child abuse: physical, mental, sexual abuse or neglect by parents or caregivers

causing harm.
 Most at risk: children under 5; abuse often hidden due to shame, fear, or threats.

4.3.1 Physical Abuse

 Intentional physical harm causing injury; includes excessive punishment,

beating, neglect.
 Signs: unexplained bruises, fearful or withdrawn behavior.

4.3.2 Emotional Abuse

 Actions that harm emotional development; harder to prove.

 Includes confinement, verbal abuse, neglect, ignoring child’s feelings.
 Signs: extreme shyness, social withdrawal, introversion, problem behaviors.

4.3.3 Sexual Abuse

 Child forced into sexual acts they cannot understand or consent to.
 Types:
o Contact: sexual touching, penetration, exploitation.
o Non-contact: explicit remarks, online solicitation, exposure to pornography.
 Signs:
o Social: inappropriate sexual knowledge/behavior, aggression or withdrawal.

25
 o Physical: genital injuries, difficulty sitting.
o Caregiver: overprotectiveness, isolating child.

4.3.4 Neglect

 Failure to provide basic needs: food, shelter, medical care, education.

 Passive form of abuse; causes harm through omission.
 Signs: poor hygiene, malnourishment, unattended medical issues, problematic behavior.

4.4 CAUSES OF CHILD ABUSE

 Complex phenomenon: Multiple interacting factors at individual, relational,

community, and societal levels (WHO & ISPCAN).
 Individual factors: Age, sex, personal history.
 Societal factors: Social norms allowing harsh discipline, financial inequality, lack
of social safety nets.

Specific causes:

1. Non-compliance: Child’s defiance leads to harsh punishment to preserve

parental respect.
2. Fights: Conflicts cause physical and mental abuse.
3. Aversion to studies: Poor interest or performance in school results in abuse
and sometimes child leaving home.
4. Negative traits: Lying, bullying, stealing provoke excessive punishment.
5. Complaints: Teachers’ complaints provoke parental abuse.
6. Loss of items: Frequent losing of belongings leads to corporal punishment.
7. Poverty: Financial hardship forces child labor; refusal leads to abuse.
8. Frustrated parents: Economic or social stress leads to parents venting on children.
9. Neglected parents: Parents who were neglected as children may abuse their own.
10. Dependent parents: Substance-abusing parents cause unintentional abuse.
11. Unseasoned parents: Stepparents new to child may mistreat due to adjustment issues.
12. Working parents: Lack of supervision leads to more abuse.
13. Social isolation: Isolated parents vent frustrations on children.
14. Social practices: Harmful traditions (child marriage, devadasi system) cause abuse.

4.5 EFFECTS OF ABUSE ON CHILDREN

4.5.1 Long-term Consequences

 Physical health issues: Chronic diseases like hypertension, diabetes, cancer, lung
problems.
 Brain impact: Damage to amygdala and hippocampus affecting emotion and
memory; therapy can help recovery.
 Substance use disorders: Higher risk if parents abuse substances; abused children more
likely to develop addictions.

26
  Adolescent delinquency: Abuse linked to social withdrawal (girls) or aggression
(boys), continuing into adulthood.
 Mental health problems: Depression, anxiety, PTSD, eating disorders.
 Social disorders: Poor response to medication, increased obesity risk.
 Cognitive and executive function impairment: Learning disabilities, poor academic
performance, higher dropout rates.

4.5.2 Short-term Potential Consequences

 Depression and anxiety: Common in abused children of all ages and genders.
 Altered sleep patterns: Nightmares, insomnia, hypervigilance, especially
in preschoolers.
 Regressive behavior: Returning to earlier developmental stages (e.g., use of pacifier).
 Fear of abandonment: Preschoolers cling to caregivers, show stomach aches, dizziness.
 Low self-esteem: Feelings of shame, guilt, and self-blame often persist into adulthood.

4.6 THE PROBLEMS OF CHILD LABOUR

 Child labour denies children education, youth, and opportunities for success.
 Estimated 10.1 million child labourers in India aged 5 to 14 (Wikipedia).
 Defined as deprivation of children’s fundamental rights (education, childhood, mental
peace).
 Employers use children to reduce labor costs due to cheap wages.
 Child labour often involves hazardous, unethical work, and illegal employment.

4.6.1 Causes of Child Labour

1. Neediness (Poverty):
o Major driver forcing children to work to support family.
o Lack of adult employment opportunities pushes children into labor.
o Some children are abandoned or homeless due to poverty.
2. Low Aspiration:
o Parents and children accept child labour as normal.
o Lack of ambition for higher success perpetuates the cycle.
3. High Demand for Unskilled Workers:
o Businesses prefer children for cheap, unskilled labor.
o Some employers force children to work in dangerous conditions.
4. Ignorance:
o Lack of awareness about education's importance among some parents.
o Education seen as privilege for the rich, not a right.
5. Early Marriages:
o Increased family size without sufficient support leads to child labour.
6. High Cost of Education:
o Many poor families prioritize survival over schooling.
o Children work because schooling is unaffordable.
7. Gender Role Segregation:

27
 o Girls often pulled out of school to work or help families.
8. Family Tradition:
o Children expected to continue family businesses or crafts.

4.6.2 Results/Effects of Child Labour

1. Loss of Quality Youth:

o Children miss out on play, learning, and normal development.
2. Medical Problems:
o Poor working conditions cause malnutrition, injury, long-term health issues.
3. Mental Injury:
o Harassment, trauma, and isolation impact psychological well-being.
4. Lack of Education:
o Working children miss schooling, limiting future opportunities and skills.

4.6.3 Arrangements to Reduce Child Labour

1. Free Education:
o Makes schooling accessible; reduces child labour rates.
o Mid-day meal programs encourage attendance.
2. Moral Polishing:
o Raise awareness of child labour's immorality and legal consequences.
o Discourage businesses from employing children.
3. Promote Skilled Labor:
o Increase demand for skilled adult workers.
o Government to create job opportunities and vocational training.
4. Awareness Campaigns:
o Inform parents about child labour’s harms and legal risks.
5. Empower Poor Families:
o Provide income-generating opportunities and parental education.

Legal Framework & Government Initiatives

 Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986: Defines child as under 14;
prohibits hazardous child work.
 2016 Amendment: Bans all child labour and hazardous work for adolescents; increases
penalties.
 2017 Rules: Provide detailed mechanisms for prevention, rescue, rehabilitation.
 Government programs like Operation Smile and Operation Muskaan work to rescue
and rehabilitate child labourers.
 Numerous acts protect children’s welfare, e.g., Factories Act (1948), Juvenile Justice
Act (2000), Right to Education Act (2009).

International and NGO Efforts

28
  UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989): Childhood as protected phase;
children have unique rights.
 UNICEF targets child labour hotspots in India (cotton, metalwork, tea plantations).
 NGOs like Bachpan Bachao Andolan, CRY, Pratham actively work for child welfare.
 World Day Against Child Labour observed annually on June 12th.
Unit V Suicide: Meaning, Types, Causes; Durkheim’s Views on
5.4 CAUSES OF SUICIDE

 Suicide has no single cause—it’s usually a combination of risk factors and life
stressors.
 Common triggers: sadness, emotional pain, hopelessness, overwhelming personal
struggles.
 Often, suicidal thoughts arise when someone feels unable to cope with issues like:
o Financial crisis, death of a loved one, chronic illness, or loss of relationships.

I. Illness of the Mind

 Depression is the leading mental health condition linked to suicide (involved in ~50%
of cases).
 Other conditions increasing suicide risk:
o Bipolar disorder
o Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)
o Eating disorders
o Schizophrenia

II. Traumatic Stress

 Past trauma (e.g., abuse, rape, violence, war) raises long-term suicide risk.
 PTSD significantly increases risk due to associated hopelessness.
 Statistics:
o 23% of those physically assaulted and
o 22% of those sexually assaulted attempt suicide (US study).

III. Impulsivity and Substance Abuse

 Alcohol and drug use heighten impulsiveness and lower self-restraint.

 Substance misuse can worsen life problems (e.g., breakups, job loss), pushing people
toward suicide.
 Often coexists with mental health disorders, multiplying the risk.

IV. Fear of Loss or Loss

 Triggered by:
o Academic failure, imprisonment, bullying, relationship breakups
o Job loss, rejection due to sexual orientation, loss of social standing

29
V. Hopelessness

 Feeling there’s no way out of suffering or hardship leads to suicidal thinking.

 People may overlook the good in their lives due to overwhelming despair.
 Even if outsiders believe things will improve, pessimistic thinking blocks that view.

VI. Illness and Chronic Pain

 Long-term conditions linked with higher suicide risk:

o Asthma, cancer, diabetes, heart disease, migraines, HIV/AIDS, back pain,
Parkinson’s
 Chronic pain often leads to anxiety, depression, and a desire for dignified control over
one’s life.
 People with chronic pain are 4x more likely to experience mental health challenges.

VII. Perceived Burdensomeness

 Feeling like a burden (e.g., needing help, medical expenses) leads some to believe
others would be better off without them.
 This is often a key warning sign of impending suicide.

VIII. Isolation from Others

 Causes: divorce, illness, social anxiety, retirement, relocation

 Loneliness leads to depression, substance abuse, and increased suicide risk.
 Low self-esteem can worsen isolation.

IX. Cries for Assistance

 Many suicide attempts are desperate pleas for help, not actual wishes to die.
 Often, people underestimate the lethality of their actions.
 If not helped, people may attempt again, with greater lethality.

X. Accidental Suicide

 Unintentional deaths misclassified as suicides:

o Autoerotic asphyxiation, “choking game”
o Accidental overdose, gun mishandling, poisonings

5.4.1 Factors That Increase Risk of Suicidal Thoughts

 Family history of suicide, trauma, or mental illness

 Feelings of helplessness, impulsiveness, loneliness
 Inability to access mental health care
 Chronic physical illness
 Exposure to suicide (media, friends, or community)

30
  Legal or financial troubles
 Discrimination, stigma, or historical trauma
 Access to weapons
 Previous suicide attempts

5.4.2 Conditions Linked to Higher Suicide Risk

 Mental health conditions:

o Depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, personality disorders
 Brain trauma, chronic pain
 Substance use disorders
 Relationship problems

5.4.3 How to Help

1. Talk openly about suicide:

o Ask, listen, and avoid judgment.
o Express concern and create emotional safety.
2. Ask direct questions:
o Clarify if there’s a plan. More detail = higher risk.
3. Encourage social connections:
o Promote time with friends, religious or community engagement, volunteering.
4. Seek early mental health care:
o Watch for signs like hopelessness, sadness, avoidance, insomnia,
substance abuse.
o Talk to a doctor if symptoms are observed.

5.4.4 Suicide’s Far-reaching Impact

 90% of suicide survivors do not attempt again.

 Suicide causes:
o Emotional distress for families (grief, guilt, trauma)
o Physical health issues for survivors
o Financial burden: Over $70 billion/year in the US for healthcare
and productivity losses

5.4.5 Treatment Options

 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT):

o Helps reshape negative thoughts and manage crisis situations.
 Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT):
o Especially effective for teens and those with Borderline Personality Disorder.
o Teaches emotional regulation and coping skills.
 Brief Interventions:
o Safety plans, follow-ups, and restricted access to lethal means reduce suicide
risk.

31
  Collaborative Care:
o Involves a team (primary doctor, therapist, care manager) to deliver coordinated
mental health support.

5.5 DURKHEIM’S VIEWS ON SUICIDE

 Emile Durkheim viewed suicide not just as a personal act, but as a social phenomenon.
 His 1897 work was groundbreaking for using sociological analysis to explain suicide,
rather than psychological or material causes.
 Inspired partly by the suicide of his friend Victor Hommay, Durkheim aimed to uncover
how social structures affect suicide rates.
 Durkheim proposed four types of suicide, based on degrees of social integration and
regulation:
o Anomic, Fatalistic, Egoistic, Altruistic

Durkheim’s Four Types of Suicide

1. Anomic Suicide

 Caused by too little regulation.

 Occurs in rapidly changing societies where individuals can't keep up with new norms.
 Older individuals may be overwhelmed by technological or social change, leading to
frustration and despair.
 Example: A senior feeling lost in a fast-paced society with rapidly shifting values.

2. Fatalistic Suicide

 Caused by excessive regulation.

 Occurs in environments where individuals feel oppressed or over-controlled.
 Individuals may feel they lack identity or autonomy, believing death is the only escape.
 Examples:
o Slavery
o Persecution
o South Korean celebrity Kim Jonghyun (2017) who died due to pressure and
depression from societal expectations.
 Especially common among the elderly facing rigid institutional routines (e.g., nursing
homes).

➡️Durkheim’s Insight: Life satisfaction comes from a balance between anomie (too little
control) and fatalism (too much control).
Both extremes can lead to suicide.

3. Egoistic Suicide

 Caused by too little social integration.

 Individuals feel isolated, lacking belonging or connection to society.

32
  Common in environments where people are neglected or lack social roles.
 Example: Elderly in understaffed nursing homes, with little social contact or purpose.

4. Altruistic Suicide

 Caused by too much integration.

 Individual loses self in a group identity and feels duty-bound to die for others.
 Seen in certain cultures/subcultures, especially Asian societies.
 Example: A senior hastening their death so that heirs can inherit wealth before
medical costs consume it.

➡️Durkheim’s Insight: Life requires a balance between individualism and collectivism. Too
much isolation or social immersion can both lead to emotional distress and suicidal
behavior.

The “Sliding Phenomenon”

 People can slide along the continuum from one type to another (e.g., from egoistic
to altruistic).
 CIA research found similar patterns in terrorist suicide behavior—extremes in
ideology and social environment can drive suicide.
 Elderly people may also experience dual pressures, e.g., social change and loss of
autonomy.

Durkheim’s Legacy

 Durkheim’s theory remains relevant and statistically significant today.

 His framework provides a predictive model and can inform intervention strategies.
 Balance in social integration and regulation is key to reducing suicide risk.
Unit VI Corruption: Meaning, Forms and Causes,
6.2 MEANING OF CORRUPTION

 Definition: Use of a public office, position, or prestige for personal gain.

 Examples of corrupt behaviour:
o (a) Bribery
o (b) Extortion
o (c) Fraud
o (d) Embezzlement
o (e) Nepotism
o (f) Cronyism
o (g) Misuse of government resources/property
o (h) Influence peddling
 Types of corruption:
o Individual-based: fraud, embezzlement.

33
 o Transactional: bribery, extortion (involve two parties).
 Etymology: From Latin “com” (with) + “rumpere” (to break) → signifies breaking
trust or integrity.
 Corruption contexts:
o Government (bribes for services, nepotism)
o Politics (misuse of funds)
o Business (corporate bribery)
o Sectors like health, education, infrastructure, etc.
 Enablers:
o Professionals: lawyers, bankers, accountants.
o Systems: anonymous shell firms, secretive finance.
o Bribes are “hidden gifts”
6.2.1 Characteristics of Corruption given for favours.
o Cultural normalization of
 (a) Payers and Recipients: bribes in some societies.
o Private exploitation of  (f) Reduction of Poverty:
authority. o Common belief: underpaid
o Power misuse in all sectors. officials resort to bribes.
o Common dilemma: people o Important note: Poverty
condemn bribery but accept it doesn’t justify corruption; not
if beneficial. all poor people are corrupt.
 (b) Extortion: o Prevention: Timely wages,
o Power holders may demand transparency, and
bribes. oversight.
o Victims feel forced: “If you  (g) Small is Beautiful:
don’t pay, you’ll fall behind.” o Minor “facilitation
 (c) Society’s Lubricant: payments” to speed services
o Bribes seen as necessary to (e.g., customs for perishable
keep systems functioning goods).
(e.g., gifts during festivals o Question: Is petty corruption
or events). acceptable if it aids
 (d) An Ethical Issue: efficiency?
o Often concealed → implies  (h) ‘Kindness among Friends’:
recognition of wrongdoing. o Critical difference: intention
o Viewed as moral failure or vs. attention.
“sin”. o Gifts for friendship vs. gifts
 (e) Culture: for future return.
o Gift-giving exists in all o Ethical question: Can true
cultures. friendship be bought?

6.3 FORMS OF CORRUPTION

 General forms: Bribery, embezzlement, fraud, extortion, etc.

 Corporate issues: Conflicts of interest, scams, deception.

6.3.1 Bribery

34
  Definition: Improper exchange of gifts/favours for personal gain.
 Also known as: Kickbacks, baksheesh.
 Examples: Money, promotions, perks, political favours.
 Risks: Leads to further corruption, extortion, blackmail.

6.3.2 Embezzlement, Theft and Fraud

 Embezzlement: Unauthorized access and control over funds/assets.

 Fraud: Deceit to transfer assets illegally.
 Examples:
o Redirecting corporate profits to shadow firms.
o Skimming foreign aid.
o Cashing a relative’s Social Security cheque.

6.3.3 Abuse of Discretion

 Definition: Misuse of legal/judicial authority.

 Examples:
o Judge arbitrarily dismissing a case.
o Customs officer allowing illicit goods.
 Implications: Bias, misinterpretation of law.

6.3.4 Favouritism, Nepotism and Clientelism

 Favouritism: Giving unfair advantages based on personal connections.

 Nepotism: Favoring family (from “nephew”).
 Cronyism: Favoring friends/associates.
 Consequences:
o Undermines meritocracy and fairness.
o Reduces service quality.
o Destroys transparency in hiring and contracts.

6.3.5 Extortion and Blackmail

 Extortion: Gaining advantage through threats (vs. bribery’s incentives).

 Examples:
o Threats of harm or public exposure.
o Public official demanding payment for deserved service.
 Coercive extortion:
o Based on fear of unfair treatment.
o Difficult to distinguish from bribery when payers act under pressure.
sports, and corporate affairs. Key causes
6.4 CAUSES OF CORRUPTION include:

Corruption occurs in sectors like 1. Inadequate Management and

employment, elections, promotions, Organization

35
 o Poor leadership o Real deterrents (e.g.,
and coordination. dismissal, imprisonment) are
o Inept appointments rare.
fuel corruption. 10. Lack of Concern About
2. Lack of Economic Stability Reputation
o Inflation and economic
crises push people toward  Corrupt individuals are still
unethical means. honoured and promoted.
o Loss of jobs increases
vulnerability. 11. Lack of Public Unity
3. Lack of Values
o Poor upbringing and
 People condemn corruption but still
education weaken moral pay bribes when needed.
standards.  Collective resistance is lacking.
o Children imitate
corrupt parents.
12. Lack of Transparency
4. Lack of Control and Vigilance
o Anti-corruption bodies exist
 Opaque processes in hiring,
but are compromised by
education, income.
corrupt officers.
o Need for honest and more
agencies. 13. No Private Detective Agencies
5. Elections
 Lack of independent bodies with full
o High election costs drive
candidates toward authority.
industrialists for  Existing agencies under
funding. political/military control.
o Votes are bought
with money/goods. 14. Multiple Political Parties
6. Lack of Decent Remuneration
o Private sector  Too many parties compete for
underpays workers. power, leading to fundraising via
o Leads to frustration corruption.
and corruption.
7. Low Government Wages 15. Weak Judicial and Independent
o Government workers with Institutions
meagre pay resort to
bribery.  Election Commission and judiciary
8. Scarcity of Job Opportunities lack full authority to act.
o Bribes paid for employment.
o Jobs secured through 16. Lack of Accountability
money, not merit.
9. Lack of Strict and Swift  Government workers delay tasks,
Punishment demand bribes for faster service.
o Guilty officials face mild  No deadlines or performance
consequences. benchmarks.

36
 17. Unhealthy Competition  Politically backed companies win
tenders.
 Merit-based competition suffers.

6.5 EFFECTS OF CORRUPTION

 Hampers development
 Increases poverty
 Reduces foreign direct investment (FDI)
 Undermines rule of law
 Causes delay in justice (DDE)
 Weakens justice delivery

6.6 THE IMPACT OF CORRUPTION ON THE ECONOMY

1. Public vs. Private Investment

o More public spending manipulated for bribes.
o Less private investment.
2. Spending Priorities Shift
o Focus on new projects (e.g., infrastructure) rather than maintenance.
3. Neglect of Health and Education
o Less investment in social sectors; more in high-commission projects.
4. Inefficiency in Infrastructure
o Corruption reduces public investment efficiency.
5. Reduced Tax Collection
o Bribes to tax officials lower revenue.
o Reliance on tax breaks and selective taxation.

Economic Impact Factors:

1. Impact on Businesses
o Small/start-ups struggle more than large firms.
o Larger companies better equipped to navigate corruption.
2. Impact on Investments
o Reduces:
 Total investment.
 Foreign direct investment (FDI).
 Efficiency and quality of government investment.
3. Talent Allocation
o Students move to law (to exploit loopholes) instead of technical fields
like engineering.
o Slows economic progress.
4. Impact on Tax System
o Corruption diverts funds and reduces taxable income.
o Results in a financial imbalance and stunted economic growth.

37
Corruption Affects:

 Job allocation: Based on bribery, not merit.

 Investment volume and quality.
 Time taken for project approval and execution.
 Investor confidence: Bribe demands deter new investments.
 Aid effectiveness: Public/international aid funds often lost or misused.
 Tax base: Shrinks due to hidden, untaxed corrupt profits.

6.7 WAYS OF STOPPING CORRUPTION

 Giving a greater compensation

o Government employees often rely on bribes due to low salaries.
o Higher pay can reduce motivation for bribery.
 Increasing the number of employees
o Overburdened departments lead to delays and bribery for faster service.
o Hiring more staff reduces workload and opportunities for corruption.
 Imposing tough law
o Strict and swift legal action is needed.
o Violators must face harsh punishment to serve as a deterrent.
 Using cameras in the workplace
o Surveillance discourages corrupt practices.
o Fear of being caught prevents misconduct.
 Maintain low rate of inflation
o Inflation lowers real income, encouraging bribery.
o Politicians often support profiteers for mutual benefits.
 Conclusion
o Corruption is a serious societal disease.
o Requires governmental and civic collaboration for eradication.

6.8 LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR ANTI-CORRUPTION IN INDIA

 Historical context
o Delhi Special Police Establishment (DSPE) created pre-independence.
o Prevention of Corruption Act (1947) and AVD (1955) introduced.
 Key institutional reforms
o Santhanam Committee recommended Central Vigilance Commission (CVC)
in 1964.
o Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) formed in 1963 to include DSPE.
 Challenges
o Institutional frameworks have been ineffective, often influenced by politics.
o Investigations often depend on those in power, undermining rule of law.
 Judicial reinforcement
o Supreme Court ruling in Vineet Narain v. Union of India gave CVC statutory
status.
o CVC empowered to monitor CBI and ED, reducing political interference.

38
  Need for stronger legal mechanisms
o Weak whistle-blower protections.
o Public Interest Disclosure and Protection of Informers Bill (2002) still
inadequate.
o CVC designated as complaint-receiving agency, but private sector is excluded.
o Protections under resolution are limited and non-statutory.

6.9 ANTI-CORRUPTION MOVEMENT IN INDIA

 Overview
o India, though a democracy, is plagued by corruption.
o Rise in high-profile scandals (2010–2012) sparked movements.
 Key Movement: Jan Lokpal Bill
o Civil society initiative demanding a strong Citizen’s Ombudsman.
o Driven by widespread dissatisfaction with public and private sector corruption.
 Leadership and participants
o Anna Hazare, anti-corruption activist.
o Team Anna included Arvind Kejriwal, Kiran Bedi, Prashant Bhushan,
Shanti Bhushan, and Kumar Vishwas.

6.9.1 Objectives of Anti-corruption Movement

 Drafting of a strong Anti-corruption Law.

 Creation of a Joint Formulation Committee including civil society.
 Highlighted government resistance and lack of intent.

6.9.2 Need for Anti-corruption Movement

 Provides a peaceful, collective platform for anti-corruption advocacy.

 Connects citizens globally and nationally for legislative reform.

6.9.3 Events and Results

 Anna Hazare’s fast at Jantar Mantar (April 5, 2011) gained momentum.

 Swami Ramdev’s black money protest also drew mass attention.
 Government’s inaction led to widespread discontent and further protests.
 The Lokpal Bill was introduced but not passed, though the movement reached
thousands of towns and villages.

6.9.4 Implications for Practitioners

 Sparked public discourse and shifted middle-class engagement with policy.

 Civil society organizations (CSOs) now reassess their strategies.

Middle class emerged as major stakeholders in governance reform.

39