Type of sentence structures

All sentences are made up of one or more clauses. Remember that a clause is a group of words that
has a subject and a verb. Some clauses are complete sentences and can stand on their own. Other
clauses cannot stand on their own; they are not complete thoughts, and they must be added to an
independent clause, which is a complete thought. By combining independent and subordinate
clauses, we are able to create the four sentence structures. Therefore, by being familiar with the
different types of clauses, you can form more interesting and varying sentences.
Simple sentence
A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause. That doesn’t mean that the sentence
looks short or simple. There might be several phrases in that one clause. Here are some samples
of simple sentences:
• Picking blueberries, Jack and Jill decided to climb to the top and to pick some flowers, pink roses.
Compound sentence
A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses mostly joined by a FANBOYS
conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so) or a semicolon. From the point of view of the
relationship between coordinate clauses, we distinguish four kinds of coordinate connection:
copulative, adversative, disjunctive and causative-consecutive. The type of connection is
expressed not only by means of coordinating connectives, but also by the general meaning of
clauses conveyed by their lexical and grammatical content.

Copulative coordination implies that two events or ideas conveyed by coordinate clauses are
merely joined in time and place. The copulative connectors are: the conjunctions and, nor,
neither... nor, not only but (also), as well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover.

Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast

Adversative connectors are: the conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs yet, still,
nevertheless, and the conjunctive particle only Adversative coordination may also be realized
asyndetically. The main adversative conjunction is but. The clause introduced by but conveys some
event that is opposite to what is expected from the contents of the first clause.

Disjunctive connection denotes choice between two alternatives. The disjunctive conjunctions
are or, either... or, the conjunctive adverbs else (or else), otherwise.

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 Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them
contains a reason and the other — a consequence. The only causative-consecutive conjunction is
for.

Punctuation of Compound Sentences

1. The first is to use a comma before the coordinate conjunction.
Sam wrote the lyrics, and I wrote the music.
I will accept your offer, or I will decline it.
2. When the same coordinate conjunction connects three or more main clauses, we can
replace all but the last occurrence of that conjunction with commas.
The sky is clear, the sun is bright, and I’m in the mood for a game of soccer.
3. In other cases, main clauses already contain commas. To avoid the confusion we might
create by adding more commas between the main clauses, we separate the clauses with
semicolons.
Having said his piece, Sam departed; but his anger lingered in the room.
Coordinating Sentence Parts
As mentioned, sometimes you want to show that two or more ideas are equally important in a
sentence. In such cases, you’re looking to coordinate. Sentence coordination links ideas of equal
importance. Coordination can link words, phrases, or clauses. There are four different ways to
coordinate sentence parts:
1. Use a coordinating conjunction.
2. Use a pair of correlative conjunctions.
3. Use a semicolon.
4. Use a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb.
1. Coordinating conjunction
Each of the coordinating conjunctions has a different meaning, as the following chart shows:
Coordinating Conjunction Meaning Function
And in addition to to link ideas
But however to contrast ideas
For as a result to show cause
Nor negative to reinforce negative
Or choice to show possibilities
So therefore to show result
yet however to show contrast or difference

2. Correlative conjunctions
Link sentences with a correlative conjunction if you want to show a balance between two
independent clauses.

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 either . . . or neither . . . nor
not only . . . but also both . . . and

3. Semicolon

Link independent clauses with a semicolon to show that the ideas are of equal importance. like:

A cause is what happens; the effect is the result.

4. Use a conjunctive adverb (transition words)

There are many different conjunctive adverbs. Some are single words; others are phrases like:

accordingly, afterward, again, also, anyhow, as a result, at last, at the same time, besides,
consequently, earlier, eventually, finally, for example, for instance, furthermore, hence, however,
in addition, in any case, indeed, in fact, in like manner, in short, instead, in the meantime, later,
likewise, meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless, next, on the contrary, on the other hand,
otherwise, perhaps, so, still, subsequently, that is, then, therefore, thus.

Punctuation of conjunctive adverbs:

Grammar grants us two methods to accomplish the task. Using the first method, we place a
semicolon between the main clauses, and use a comma to set off the conjunctive adverb from the
clause of which it is a part.

The castle is in ruins; nevertheless, the king has ordered us to hold our ground.

Using the second method, we place a period between the main clauses. Technically, the two clauses
are separate simple sentences, but the conjunctive adverb creates a connection between them, and
we may view them as parts of a compound. Again, the conjunctive adverb is set off by commas.

The bridge has collapsed. Therefore, we must swim for our lives.

Please note that conjunctive adverbs may be placed in any one of several different spots in the
clauses of which they are parts. Though the conjunctive adverbs may roam, we still punctuate the
main clauses with periods or semicolons and set off the conjunctive adverbs with commas.

The duke was beheaded for the crime; another man, however, soon confessed.

Follow these steps when you coordinate independent clauses:

 Decide which ideas can and should be combined.

 Select the method of coordination that shows the appropriate relationship between
ideas.

With practice, you’ll discover that some sentences are smoother and more logical than others.

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 The dog’s fur was tangled. We took her in for grooming.
Uncoordinated:
The dog’s fur was tangled, so we took her in for grooming.
Coordinated:
The dog’s fur was tangled; therefore, we took her in for grooming.

Parallel Structure
Parallel structure means putting ideas of the same rank in the same grammatical structure.
Parallel structure gives your
writing many admirable strengths, including tempo, stress, balance, and conciseness.
1. Parallel words share the same part of speech (such as nouns, adjectives, or verbs) and tense (if
the words are verbs).
To some people, traveling by air is safe, inexpensive, and convenient.
To others, it’s dangerous, expensive, and inconvenient.
You should eat foods that are nourishing as well as tasty.
2. Parallel phrases contain modifiers.
Polyester shirts wash easily, drip-dry quickly, and wear durably.
Nick took the new job to learn more about finance, make important connections, and get a health
plan.

3. Parallel clauses can be complete sentences or dependent clauses.

I came, I saw, I conquered.
Complex sentence
A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate (adverb,
adjective, or noun) clauses. Remember that when you begin the sentence with the subordinate
clause, you generally follow the clause with a comma. When you end the sentence with the
subordinate clause, there is usually no comma before it.
 Because I missed the bus, I had to walk three miles.
 This is the book that I read last week.
 The book that I read last week is the one that I bought when we were at the airport.
Signals of subordination
Subordination can be signalled by an overt link, in the form of a subordinator or wh-word
a non-finite verb phrase, that is, by a verb phrase introduced by an infinitive, -ing participle or -ed
participle.
Finite clauses are marked for tense or modality. Finite dependent clauses usually have an overt
link, starting with a subordinator or a wh-word:
You can drink your orange [if you like].

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Non-finite clauses have no tense and they cannot include a modal verb. Nonfinite dependent
clauses usually have no overt link, but the non-finite verb form itself signals that the clause is
subordinate:
[Leaving the road], they went into the deep darkness of the trees.
Subordinating Sentence Parts

Subordination is connecting two unequal but related clauses with a subordinating conjunction to
form a complex sentence. When you subordinate one part of a sentence to another, you make the
dependent clause develop the main clause. Follow these four steps to subordinate sentence ideas:

1. First choose the idea or clause that you think is the most important.
2. Then make this your main clause by adding a subject or verb, if necessary. Make sure the
main clause expresses a complete idea, too.
3. Choose the subordinating conjunction that best expresses the relationship between the
main clause and the dependent clause.
4. Decide whether to place the main clause or the dependent clause first. See which order
helps you achieve your purpose and appeal to your audience.

The following chart shows some of the most common subordinating conjunctions and the
relationships between ideas that they show.

Relationship
Subordinating Conjunctions
as, because cause, reason
whether, rather than, than choice
even if, if, unless, provided that condition
though, even though, although contrast
so, so that, in order that, that effect, result
wherever, where location
since, until, when, while, after, before, once, whenever time

Types of subordinating clause

There are three varieties of subordinating clauses: relative (attributive), adverbial, and
nominal.
Relative Clause: A relative clause functions just as a standard adjective does. It modifies nouns,
pronouns, or other nominals. Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns, relative
adverbs, or relative determiners.

On the complex sentence level an attributive clause performs the function of an attribute to some
nominal element in the main clause, which is called the antecedent. Traditionally attributive

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clauses are divided into relative and appositive. Relative clauses are in their turn classified into
restrictive (limiting, defining) and non-restrictive (descriptive, non-defining).

Restrictive (essential) clauses

Restrictive Clause limits (restricts) the meaning of the antecedent. This restriction is of two kinds:

1. Individualizing, when the thing (in the broad sense) denoted by the antecedent cannot be mixed
up with any other thing; e.g. the young man who answered the door was my friend.

2. Classifying, when the meaning of the antecedent is narrowed and the thing denoted by the
antecedent is one of the like; e.g. I don't want to read books that are written in a hurry. / I can do
anything that I am told.

A restrictive clause cannot be omitted without affecting the precise meaning of the sentence as a
whole and its structure.

Non-restrictive (Nonessential) clauses

A non-restrictive clause gives some additional information about the antecedent. It can be left out
without affecting of the whole sentence. Non-restrictive clauses are commonly set off by commas.

The difference between non-restrictive proper and continuative clauses is that the former are
generally placed immediately after the antecedent, while the latter may stand at some distance
from it.

Appositive clauses

Appositive Clauses disclose the meaning of the antecedent. To draw a line demarcation between
relative and appositive it is necessary to resort to the method of transformation: appositive clauses
can be transformed into predicative, whereas relative ones cannot.

. . . the thought that his adored daughter should learn of that old scandal hurt his pride too much
→ the thought was that his adored daughter should learn of that old scandal.

The antecedent of an appositive clause is expressed only by abstract nouns (idea, notion, fact,
question, hope suggestion and lots of others). Unlike relative clauses, appositive ones are
introduced by: the conjunctions that, if, whether and the conjunctive (not relative) pronouns what,
who (whom), whose, which and the conjunctive adverbs when, where, why, how.

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Relative Clauses with Relative Pronouns
that things, people (informal); essential clauses
which things, concepts; nonessential clauses
who people, subject position, object position (informal)
whom people, object position (formal)
whose possession, people (formal); people and things (informal)

Relative clauses may be introduced by any of the relative pronouns, including both relative
pronouns and relative adverbs, but we are limiting the immediate discussion to relative clauses
introduced by the real relative pronouns who, which, and that.
As a relative pronoun, ‘who’ may take two forms. If the real relative pronoun is a subject or a
subject complement, we use the nominative case form (who). If the real relative pronoun is an
object, we use the object case form (whom). If there is a preposition before who(m), then formal
English requires whom since the relative pronoun is the object of this preposition.
This is the man for whom the police have been looking.
Only people who know computers will succeed in the modern world.
The relative pronoun that should be used in restrictive clauses and the relative pronoun which
should be used in nonrestrictive clauses. Also note that prepositions such as in, on, from, and so
on may precede which but not that (when functioning as a relative pronoun):
The opera that we saw last night was quite dull.
The opera, which we saw last night, was quite dull.
Relative Pronouns as Subjects and Objects
Relative pronouns can function as subjects of a relative clause or they can function
as the objects of the relative clause. One way to distinguish the function of a relative pronoun is
to consider what is following the relative pronoun:
• If there is a verb phrase following the relative pronoun, it is functioning as the subject
of the relative clause.
• If there is a noun phrase or pronoun following the relative pronoun, it is functioning as
the object of the relative clause.

Cami helped the new student whom we met yesterday.

Teachers appreciate students who study hard.

Relative Clauses with Relative Adverbs

The relative adverbs when, where, and why join relative clauses to main clauses in the same
way that the relative pronouns do, but they also function as adverbials in those relative clauses.
Within the clause, the relative adverbs describe only verbs. Why is restricted and must be preceded
by a noun phrase with the word reason. At times the noun phrase with reason is omitted but remains
implicitly understood.
The workers chose a day when I will be vacationing on the French Riviera.

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 Uncle Mat discovered the hangar where the UFOs were hidden.
I need to know (the reason why) you were late.

Relative Pronouns Instead of Relative Adverbs

The relative pronouns that or on + which can be substituted for the relative adverb when:
Ian remembered the day when he forgot to set his alarm clock.

Ian remembered the day that he forgot to set his alarm clock.

Ian remembered the day on which he forgot to set his alarm clock.

Are there any relative pronouns we can use in place of the relative adverb where?

The relative pronouns which and that can be substituted for the relative adverb where. When
which or that is used, a preposition of place must be included, usually in or on.

Is this the house where George Washington slept?

Is this the house in which George Washington slept?
Is this the house which George Washington slept in?
Is this the house that George Washington slept in?

The preposition can come before which or at the end of the clause. Placing the preposition before
which is more formal. With that, the preposition comes at the end of the clause.

Where as Relative Adverb Versus Subordinator

Compare these two sentences:

We went where we could eat a nice lunch.

We met in the Thai restaurant where we like to eat lunch.

In the first sentence, where is functioning as a subordinator of an adverbial clause of place;

where is modifying the verb went. That is, where is telling us something about where the main
action of the verb occurred.

In the second sentence, where is functioning as a relative adverb to introduce a relative clause.
Here where is modifying the noun phrase the Thai restaurant. You may recall that a relative
clause is also called an adjective clause because it modifies a noun or noun phrase, as we see in
this sentence. Another way to examine the two sentences is to see whether or not we can
substitute a preposition of place + which for where.
Relative Clauses with Relative Determiners

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Relative clauses may also be introduced by relative determiners. The pronouns whose and
which are two common examples of this type. We call them relative determiners because they
modify the nouns that follow them in the relative clauses in the same way that articles, another
type of determiner, would modify the nouns that follow them. Please note that the relative
determiner which is always preceded by a preposition.
That is the family whose dog saved our little girl.
Your reports are due by midnight at which time I am going to bed.
In traditional prescriptive English, whose is considered appropriate only for use with persons and
animate objects. The construction noun phrase + of which is used to refer to possession with
inanimate objects:
The tsunami, the effects of which are still felt, was devastating.
Zero Relative Pronouns
On occasion, we can correctly omit a relative pronoun from a relative clause. The gap left by
the omitted pronoun is called a zero relative pronoun. If the omission does not bring a verb
to the head of the relative clause, it is perfectly correct to remove the relative pronoun. The
sentence will make complete sense without it.
The car (that) we saw yesterday was too expensive.
The people (whom) we know are not very responsible
Relative Pronouns in Prepositional Phrases
When you replace the object of a preposition with a relative pronoun, you may move the whole
prepositional phrase to the front of the clause, or you may move just the relative pronoun, stranding
the preposition at the end of the clause.
The park in which the neighborhood kids play baseball is scheduled to become a parking lot.
The park which the neighborhood kids play baseball in is scheduled to become a parking lot.
Prepositional Phrases Headed by With
Embedded prepositional phrases headed by with are difficult to derive. They seem to come from
underlying phrases with have rather than is.
A house with a computer and a flat-screen TV announces the sophistication of its occupants.
which has a computer and a flat-screen TV or which is with a computer and a flat-screen TV
− In addition to modifying a noun or noun phrase, what else can a relative clause modify?
A relative clause can also modify a main clause, in which case it will immediately follow
that clause: Linda studied every weekend, which would drive Barney crazy.

Can both essential and nonessential relative clauses modify an entire clause?

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Both essential and nonessential relative clauses can modify an entire clause. A comma precedes
essential relative clauses that modify an entire clause. These clauses should not be confused with
nonessential relative clauses that provide extra information about the noun phrase. Compare the
two sentences:
Jason kept on telling jokes, which made all of us really angry.
Jason kept on telling jokes which made all of us really angry.

Omission of Relative Pronouns

When the relative pronoun who, whom, that, or which is the object of an essential relative clause,
we can omit the relative pronoun. (The relative pronoun whose cannot be omitted.)
Example: They bought the house (that) everyone liked.
(not possible) Susan wanted the book that was a bestseller.

Reduced Relative Clauses

If the relative clause has the relative pronoun who, that, or which and the relative pronoun is
functioning as the subject of the relative clause, we can usually reduce the clause. Reduced
relative clauses are different than relative clauses with an omitted relative pronoun. You can
think of a reduced relative clause as a short form of a relative clause. Reduced relative clauses
are relative clauses that do not have a full verb phrase. To reduce a relative clause:
• If the main verb in the relative clause is in simple present or simple past, drop the relative
pronoun and change the main verb to the present participle form.
• If the main verb in the relative clause is a part of a progressive verb phrase and thereby already
a present participle, drop the relative pronoun and the be auxiliary.
• If be is functioning as a main verb in the clause and is followed by a prepositional phrase, drop
both the relative pronoun and be.

Reducing Passive Relative Clauses

Passive relative clauses can also be reduced. If the passive verb phrase is in present or past tense,
drop the relative pronoun and be auxiliary. If the passive verb phrase is in a progressive tense,
drop the first be auxiliary.

Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in the same way that standard
adverbials do, but most simply modify verbs. They are always introduced by subordinate
conjunctions
Classes of Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial clauses convey the meanings that standard adverbs and adverbials do in addition to
a few extra: place or location, time, manner, reason, degree or comparison, and possibility
or conditionality.

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Adverbial Clauses of Time
before after until while when since as

Time subordinators indicate different time references or time sequences. When we are referring to
future events, before, after, until, while, and when are followed by the simple present. We do not
use will or be going to after these time subordinators, even when the sentence is referring to future
time.
Before Bree leaves, she will call you.

When and While

When should be used with the simple past to refer to the single event or action that interrupts the
ongoing event or action. While should be used with the past progressive form and not the simple
past.

Lynn called while we were eating while + past progressive

When Lynn called, we were eating. when + simple past

Native speakers frequently do not adhere to this prescriptive rule and will use when with the
past progressive.

Whenever: The subordinator when can combine with –ever to refer to indefinite time.
Whenever Lynn called, we were eating.

Until: Until is often reduced to till in spoken and informal written English.
We can’t leave until her mother comes.

We can’t leave till her mother comes.

We can’t leave ’til her mother comes.

Different writers will use either till or ’til to reflect the reduced form; ’til is considered an incorrect
written form but can be found in advertising and in informal writing, especially dialogues.

One problematic area for ESL/EFL learners is remembering that future verb forms cannot
follow time subordinators. Errors similar to our earlier sentence are common.

Adverbial Clauses of Contrast

although even though though unexpected result
while whereas inasmuch as direct opposition
Adverbial clauses of contrast are often subcategorized into two types: unexpected result and
direct opposition.

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Unexpected Result
All three subordinators have the same meaning, but though is generally considered more
informal than the other two. Like: Although it was raining, we took a walk.
Direct Opposition
The information in the subordinate clause is the direct opposite of the information in the main
clause. Whereas is most commonly found in formal written English.

Adverbial Clauses of Place (where)

When speakers are referring to an indefinite place, –ever is attached to where. Not only adverbial
clauses are introduced by where, but also relative clauses. Relative clauses are clauses that
modify, that is, describe or expand a noun phrase in a sentence.
Older adults are more likely to stay where they live.

Adverbial Clauses of Cause

because since as inasmuch as

Adverbial clauses of cause are also referred to as reason clauses because they explain the
why of the main clause. Another commonly used structure, now that, is not a subordinator, but is
often used to introduce adverbial cause clauses. This structure is used only for present and future
events or actions, not past ones.
Because/since/as it’s snowing, we’ll stay home.
Now that it’s snowing, we’ll stay home.

Adverbial Clauses of Result

such + (adjective) + noun (+ that)
so + adjective or adverb (+ that)
so + many, few, much, little + (noun) (+ that)

Result clauses indicate the consequence or result of an action or event. Such and so are followed
by specific types of words or phrases. In a result clause with such, if the noun following is a
singular countable noun, a or an must precede this noun.

That was such a mistake that I’ll never hear the end of it. singular count noun, mistake
That was such fun that we’ll have to do it again. non-count noun, fun

So can be followed either by an adjective or an adverb:

The fish smells so bad that it must be rotten. adjective
I rode my bike so fast that now I’m out of breath. adverb

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So can also be followed by a quantifier (much, many, etc.) and a noun:
We have so many books that we need more shelves. plural count noun
We had so much fun that we didn’t want to leave. non-count noun

Can we switch the order of the result clause and the main clause?
Unlike the adverbial clauses we have discussed up to now, result clauses and main clauses cannot
change order.

Adverbial Clause of Purpose (so that)

An adverbial clause with so that indicates an intention or purpose. So that conveys the idea that
the action or event of the main clause deliberately results in the action or event in the subordinate
clause. Unlike the so… that result clause, this so that is not separated.
Peggy studied hard so that she would do well on the test.

The verb phrase in this type of clause usually has can or will for present or future meaning and
could or would for past time reference. Like the result clauses we just discussed, a purpose clause
and a main clause do not change order.

Adverbial Clauses of Condition

To review, conditional sentences consist of two parts. One clause is called the if clause because it
is introduced by the word if. The other clause is referred to as the conditional clause because this
is the part of the sentence that refers to some kind of possibility or reality. There are two types of
conditional clauses: real (true) and unreal (contrary-to-fact) clauses:

if clause conditional clause type time reference

If Marta likes the idea, I will present it to everyone else. real present/future
If Dino paid his bills, he wouldn’t be in trouble. unreal present
If Jason had called, Dad would have been happy. unreal past

Real Conditions :To form present or future real conditions as in If Marta likes the idea, I
will present it to everyone, use:
• a present tense verb in the if clause.
• will + a main verb in the main clause. You can also use a present tense verb in
the main clause.

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 Present Unreal Conditions: To form present unreal sentences as in If Dino paid his bills, he
wouldn’t be in trouble, use:
• a past tense verb in the if clause.
• would + a main verb in the main clause.
Could and might + a main verb can also occur in the main clause. Could and might change the
meaning from contrary-to-fact or unreal to possibility.

Past Unreal Conditions: To form past unreal sentences as in If Jason had called, Dad would
have been happy, use:
• a past perfect tense verb in the if clause.
• would + have + past participle in the main clause.
Could/might + have + past participle can also occur in the main clause. For 1st person and 3rd
person singular, the form were is used in present unreal clauses.
Conditional Sentences Without if
Past unreal clauses are not always introduced by if. Sometimes speakers introduce
the subordinate clause by inverting had (whether it is the main verb or the auxiliary)
with the subject:
Inverted Past Unreal Clauses

present
Had I the time and money, I would travel more.
had = main verb
Had I had the time and money, I would have past
traveled more. first had = auxiliary verb

Mixed Time

Frequently the time reference in the if clause and the time reference in the main clause are
different. When the time reference in the two parts of the sentence is not the same, we call this
mixed time.

Adverbial Clauses of Manner

as if as though
As if and as though can express comparisons to both real and unreal situations, possibilities, or
expectations. The as in as if or as though is part of these phrases.
This as is different from the as that introduces an adverbial clause of time or reason. When speakers
want to compare something to something else that is unreal, hypothetical or, fanciful, they use as

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if or as though followed by the conditional form. The two phrases are interchangeable.

He acts as if he knows everything. (and maybe he does) present real

He acts as if I were stupid. (but I’m not) present unreal
He acted as if he knew everything. (and maybe he did) past real
He acted as if he had known everything. (but he didn’t) past unreal

Speakers may not necessarily use the conditional in past unreal as if/as though clauses but
use simple past tense in both the main and subordinate clauses:
He acted as if he knew everything.
Only context clarifies whether a real or unreal condition is being referred.

Reduced Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses can only be reduced from clauses to phrases under certain conditions:
• These clauses must be adverbial clauses of time beginning with after, before, while, when, and
since.
• The subject of the adverbial clause and the subject of the main clause must be identical. If there
is a different subject for each clause, then the adverbial clause cannot be reduced.

Reducing Adverbial Clauses

Verb Phrase with Auxiliary Be in a Progressive Tense

When the adverbial clause includes a form of the auxiliary be + present participle, drop the
subject and the be verb:
While Matt was studying, he took notes.
While studying, he took notes.

Verb Phrase with Auxiliary Have in a Progressive Tense

If the verb is in a past perfect form, had changes to having and is followed by the main verb in
past participle form:
After we had seen the test results, we decided to take it again.
After having seen the test results, we decided to take it again.

Verb Phrases with No Auxiliary Verb

When there is no auxiliary in the main verb phrase, drop the subject and change the verb in the
adverbial clause to a present participle (–ing).

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When Leigh talks on the phone, she clears out the dishwasher.
When talking on the phone, she clears out the dishwasher.

Noun Clauses (Nominal Clauses)

The final type of subordinate clause is the nominal clause. Like the relative and adverbial
clauses, the nominal clause plays a subordinate role in the sentence and begins with some
type of connecting word. Unlike the relative and adverbial clauses, the nominal clause does
not play a modifying role. As its name suggests, the nominal clause has a nominal role, filling
almost any spot that a standard noun would.

A sentence containing a nominal clause is a complex sentence, but it is different from the
complex sentences that we encountered in the discussions of relative and adverbial clauses.
These consisted of subordinate clauses attached to main clauses by subordinate conjunctions,
real relative pronouns, relative adverbs, or relative determiners. The nominal clause, a
subordinate clause, completes the group of words that we once called a main clause.
Therefore, this “main clause” itself is grammatically incomplete without the subordinate
clause. For this reason, contemporary grammarians use the term host clause to describe the
group of words that the nominal clause completes. Here is an example of a complex sentence
containing a host clause and a nominal clause:
What I really need is three cases of cold Dr. Pepper.
Using Nominal Clauses
As was stated before, a nominal clause may play just about any role that a standard noun
would. We see nominal clauses used as subjects of sentences, subject complements, delayed
subjects, and appositives:
That they have not heard the news astounds me. (subject)
The latest news is that the workers are still on strike. (subject
complement)
It is clear that they do not enjoy lutefisk. (delayed subject)
The notion that we will never see each other again is unbearable.
(appositive)

A noun clause is a subordinate clause that is used in the same ways a noun is. Like a noun, a noun
clause can be used as a subject, an object, or a complement. Noun clauses are introduced by
subordinate conjunctions. These subordinate conjunctions are that, whether (or not), if, or wh-
question words, depending on the type of noun clause:
• That introduces noun clauses following certain verbs, adjectives, or nouns.
• Whether (or not) or if clauses introduce noun clauses derived from yes/no questions.

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• Wh-question words (e.g., who, when, what) introduce noun clauses derived from information
questions.
We generally find noun clauses placed after the main clause where they function as objects. They
can also be placed in initial position, particularly if the writer or speaker wishes to emphasize the
noun clause. Depending on the sentence, a noun clause in initial position can be function as either
the subject or, less commonly, the object.
That Noun Clauses
That noun clauses are the most common type of noun clause. The function of that is to subordinate
the noun clause to the main clause. In other words, that serves to introduce a noun clause. Some
grammar books refer to the that of noun clauses as “complementizer that.”
That Noun Clause Patterns After Verbs
Different verbs may:
• be immediately followed by a that noun clause.
• require an indirect object before a that noun clause.
• allow an optional indirect object before the noun clause (which is functioning as
the direct object).
• allow an optional to + indirect object before the noun clause (which is functioning as the
direct object).
Certain verbs, especially those expressing mental activities or feelings, can be followed
immediately by noun clauses. These noun clauses function as objects of the verb.

Common Verbs Followed by Noun Clauses

admit claim doubt guess pretend remember
assume complain dream hear promise say
(dis)agree conclude know imagine prove show
allege decide expect learn realize tell
announce declare explain notice recognize think
assert deny feel observe regret understand
believe discover find out predict

Other That Noun Clause Patterns

• main verb be followed by certain adjectives
• certain nouns
I am happy that we finished on time.
Be + Common Adjectives Followed by Noun Clauses
afraid concerned obvious
amazed disappointed pleased
annoyed glad sorry
angry grateful sure
aware happy surprised

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 certain nervous worried
clear

I have a feeling that the airfare is going to increase.

Common Nouns Followed by Noun Clauses

advice claim hope opinion
agreement conclusion idea prediction
assumption decision impression promise
belief fact message threat
feeling notion warning

The Use of the Simple or Base Verb in That Noun Clauses

After certain verbs and after certain it + be + adjective constructions, English requires the use of
the simple or base form of the verb in that noun clauses. Many grammar books refer to this noun
clause structure as the subjunctive.
Omission of That
The that introducing noun clauses can also be also omitted when the noun clause:
• is in object position.
• comes after be + adjective, complement position.
That cannot be omitted when the noun clause is in subject position.
Summary of the Different Uses of That
function
I want that book. demonstrative adjective
I want that. demonstrative pronoun
He was so excited that he dropped his cell phone.
adverbial clauses of result
It was such a good book that I couldn’t stop reading it.
I wanted to borrow that book so that I could read it. adverbial clause of purpose
I want to read the book that you recommended. relative pronoun
I knew that he didn’t want the book. noun clause subordinator
They were sure that they couldn’t come earlier. (complementizer)

Distinguishing Relative Clauses and Noun Clauses with That

In a relative clause, that always modifies a preceding noun phrase. Because in a relative clause that
is a type of a pronoun, it must refer back to something else. A relative pronoun also serves as the
subject or object of the relative clause.

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In a noun clause, that does not modify anything. It does not function as a pronoun but as a
subordinator (complementizer) that serves to introduce a noun clause. It is not the subject or object
of the noun clause. It is the noun clause that functions as a subject, object, or complement.
Noun Clauses Derived from Questions
There are two types of noun clauses derived from questions, wh-question word noun clauses and
yes/no noun clauses. The wh-question words introduce noun clauses derived from information
questions. Noun clauses derived from yes/no questions are introduced by whether, whether (or
not), or if. Unlike that noun clauses, we cannot omit the wh-question words or whether (or not) /if.
Wh-Question Word Noun Clauses
When the wh-question words introduce a noun clause, the noun clause follows normal affirmative
sentence word order.
I don’t know where Ali is right now.
What is the sentence position of noun clauses introduced by wh-question words?
Noun clauses introduced by wh-question words usually follow a main clause. They can also appear
in initial position, with the main clause following. Regardless of the position of the wh-noun
clause, normal affirmative word order follows the wh-question word.

Wh + ever Question Word Noun Clauses

Yes/No Question Noun Clauses
Yes/no question noun clauses are introduced by whether or if. The word whether is often followed
by or not. Like wh-question noun clauses, normal affirmative sentence word order is used in the
noun clause. The use of whether, both with and without or not, is considered somewhat more
formal than if.

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