UNIT-3

3-1 Introduction to Power Plant Engineering

Power Plant Engineering
Basic Definitions
1.​ Energy and Power:
The historical as well as present-day civilization of mankind are closely interwoven with
energy and there is little reason to doubt but in the future, our existence will be more
dependent on this thing called energy. Energy appears in many forms, but has one thing
in common- “energy is possessed of the ability to produce a dynamic, vital effect”.
Energy is associated with physical substances, but it is not a substance itself.
Energy exists in various forms e.g. mechanical, thermal, electrical etc.one form of energy
can be converted into other by the use of suitable arrangements.
Power is primarily associated with mechanical work and electrical energy. Therefore,
Power can be defined as the rate of flow of energy and can state that a power plant is a
unit built for production and delivery of a flow of mechanical work and electrical energy.
In common usage, a machine or assemblage of equipment that produces and delivers a
flow of mechanical or electrical energy is a power plant.
2.​ Fuel:
A fuel (Or sometimes chemical fuel) is a chemical substance which releases heat energy
on combustion. The principal combustible elements of each fuel are carbon and
hydrogen. Though sulphur is a combustible element too but its presence in the fuel is
considered undesirable.
Fuels can be classified into three types
●​ Solid : Wood, Charcoal, Uranium etc.
●​ Liquid: Diesel, Petrol, Kerosene, alcohol etc.
●​ Gaseous : Natural Gas
3.​ Calorific Value (or) Heating Value of Fuel:
The calorific value of the fuel is defined as the “energy liberated by the complete
​ oxidation or combustion of a unit mass or volume of a fuel”.
It is expressed in KJ/Kg for solid and liquid fuels and KJ/m3 for gaseous fuels
Types of Power Plants:
1.​ Thermal Power Plants.( or Steam Power Plants )
2.​ Hydroelectric Power Plants ( Hydel Power Plants)
3.​ Geothermal Power Plants.
4.​ Wind Power Plants.(Wind Farm)
5.​ Tidal Power Plants.
6.​ Biomass Power Plants
7.​ Nuclear Power Plants.
 Steam Power Plant
Layout of a Steam Power Plant

In a Steam power plant the heat energy required for converting pressurized water to high
pressure and superheated steam is generated by combustion of fossil fuels like coal.
●​ Coal is delivered to the thermal power plant through road, rail or ship and deposited in a
coal yard. The coal is then gathered and deposited into hoppers.
●​ The hoppers then transfer the deposited coal to flatbed conveyors.
●​ Conveyors transport the coal from the coal yard to the boiler house by passing it through
Coal Pulverizer.
●​ Pulverization: Coal Pulverizer increases the coal’s contact surface area with the air by
grinding the coal into small pieces (Fine Powder). This is called pulverization.
●​ The Pulverizer also dries the coal in order that combustion can occur easily. (reduced
moisture content).
●​ Air Preheater: Preheated air injected with pulverized coal in the boiler. The primary air
fan draws in atmospheric air and warms it in the air preheater.
Working Principle. Steam power plant (or) thermal power plant works on Rankine Cycle.
The Integral components of a steam power plant or thermal power plant are as follows.
●​ Steam Boilers (or) Steam Generators
●​ Steam Turbine.
●​ Steam Condenser.
●​ Feed Water Pump.
Steam Boilers (or) Steam Generators:
1.​ A boiler may be defined as a “Closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by
combustion of fuel” (Pulverized coal). It takes the form of a closed vessel constructed from
steel. Within a steam boiler, water undergoes conversion to steam.
2.​ The mixture of pulverized coal and preheated air is introduced into the boiler and ignited in
the combustion zone. This ignition creates a substantial fireball at the boiler's center. This
heat energy is utilized to convert pressurized water to steam at elevated temperature and
pressure conditions. (High-Pressure & Superheated steam).
3.​ Now this high-pressure & superheated steam is directed towards the steam turbine.
Steam Turbine:
1.​ The steam turbine is a prime-mover in which the potential energy (high pressure energy) of
the steam is transformed into mechanical energy (rotation of the turbine shaft).
2.​ Through a gear box mechanism, the rotating steam turbine shaft (mechanical energy) is
coupled to an electrical generator which generates electricity and transmits it to where it is
needed.
3.​ The expanded steam is then directed towards the steam condenser.
Steam Condenser:
1.​ A steam condenser is a device or an appliance in which steam is condensed and heat
released by the steam is absorbed by water.
2.​ The exhaust steam is condensed in the condenser using a continuous circulation of cold
water.
3.​ During this process (Condensation of Steam), the steam loses both pressure and
temperature and is converted to liquid state.
Feed Water Pump:
1.​ A boiler feed pump is a pump designed to generate high pressurized water to a steam
boiler.
2.​ High flow is the primary requirement for a feed water pump, because boilers require
continuous feed water for producing steam.
3.​ Centrifugal pumps are the preferred choice for boiler feed applications.
Efficiency of a Steam Power Plant:
The thermal efficiency of modern thermal power plants is typically around 30% .This means that
out of one hundred kilojoules (KJ)of heat produced by the combustion of coal, only thirty
kilojoules (KJ) are converted into mechanical energy , which is available at the turbine shaft.

Advantages Disadvantages

●​ Fuel used is cheaper. ●​ Operation and maintenance cost is high.

●​ Space required is less compared to hydro ●​ Large quantity of water is needed.
power plants. ●​ Coal and ash handling poses a serious
●​ They can be overloaded up to some extent problem.
without difficulty. ●​ Pollution causes health problems to workers
●​ Steam power plants can utilize a variety of and habitants near the thermal power plant.
fuels, including coal, natural gas, oil, ●​ Steam power plants, particularly those that
biomass, and waste materials. rely on fossil fuels like coal contribute to air
pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
 Hydel Power Plant
Layout of a Hydro Power Plant

Principle of Working: The principle behind hydroelectric power generation involves converting
the potential energy of the stored water in the reservoir into kinetic energy, which is then utilized
to spin a turbine, ultimately generating electricity through a generator.
Integral Components of a Hydel Power Plant:
1.​ Dam: The dam is a structure built across the river to raise the water level in the reservoir
to provide the necessary potential energy to the water.
2.​ Reservoir: This is the storage area behind the dam where the water is held. The greater
the water height in the reservoir, the more power can be generated. Reservoirs store water
during rainy periods for use in dry conditions.
3.​ Intake Gate (or) Sluice Gate (or) Control Gate: This gate regulates the flow rate of
water (volume of water per sec) strikes the turbine blades. It controls the release of water
from the reservoir to the power generation unit.
4.​ Penstock: The penstock is a pipe that carries water from the reservoir to the turbine. The
intake gate controls the flow of water in the penstock.
 5.​ Trash Rack: Positioned between the reservoir and the turbine along the penstock length,
the trash rack prevents debris and impurities from entering the turbine, in winter, it is
often electrically heated to prevent ice related blockages.
6.​ Surge Tank: The surge tank is a crucial safety feature mounted on the penstock. It
prevents the water hammering effect in the penstock pipe.
7.​ Water Turbine:
●​ This machine converts the energy of flowing water into the rotational motion of
the shaft, which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity.
●​ Hydroelectric power plants use different types of turbines and the choice of
turbine type depends on factors such as reservoir height, water quantity and
desired power output.
8.​ Generators: Generators convert the rotational motion of the turbine shaft to electrical
energy. This electricity is further transformed into high voltage through a step up
transformer and then transmitted to various power stations.
9.​ Spillway: In a hydropower plant, the spillway is a safety feature of the dam designed to
prevent damage in situations of heavy rain or flooding. It must discharge the required
volume of water while maintaining the reservoir’s water level at a safe maximum.
Working of Hydel Power Plant:
●​ The dam is built across a flowing river; it serves as a barrier for raising the water level in
the reservoir to increase its potential energy. The water level in the reservoir is a key
factor behind the pressure that drives the turbine, which converts the energy of flowing
water into rotational energy.
●​ When the control gates are opened, water flows through the penstock towards the turbine.
Along the penstock’s length, surge tanks and trash racks are strategically placed.
●​ The turbine rotates as the water flowing with high velocity strikes the turbine blades. The
rotational energy of the turbine is converted to electrical energy using a D.C generator.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydel Power Plant
Advantages Disadvantages

●​ Clean Renewable Energy :No direct waste ●​ Huge amounts of civil work are required to
and carbon emission during power generation. build dams and power plants.
●​ Unlike the traditional fossil fuel sources of ●​ Unpredicted power output in several places
energy, using hydropower to produce due to weather and season.
electricity does not release any pollutants in ●​ Turbines are life threatening for aquatic
the air or dirty water. animals.
●​ The most efficient method of power ●​ The construction of hydropower facilities is
generation, more than 80%. expensive. Most hydropower plants are large
●​ Other than generating energy, hydroelectric projects that involve the construction of a
power facilities also offer the benefit of reservoir, power-generating turbines, and
providing a source of irrigation for crops in building a dam.
the areas they are built, especially for areas ●​ Hydropower energy relies heavily on river
where droughts are common and rain is water, and this means that droughts will
scarce. cause an impact on the overall electric
●​ Hydropower reservoirs can also be used as production.
reliable sources of fresh and clean water.
 Nuclear Power Plant
Layout of Nuclear Power Plant (Pressurized Water Reactor)
In a nuclear power plant, the heat energy required for converting water to high pressure and
superheated steam is generated by a nuclear reaction called nuclear fission.
Large amount of heat energy is generated during nuclear fission reaction.
Principle:
●​ Nuclear fission: Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into
two or more smaller nuclei by bombarding it with slow moving neutrons.
●​ As the nuclei break up, it releases large amounts of heat energy as well as more neutrons
which further cause the fission of neighboring atoms. It is a chain reaction and it must be
controlled, otherwise it may result in explosion.
●​ Nuclear Reactor: A nuclear reactor is a special apparatus used to perform nuclear
fission. Since the nuclear fission is radioactive; the reactor is covered by a protective
shield. About 10% of the total electricity of the world is generated in nuclear power
plants.

●​ In the nucleus of each atom of uranium-235 (U-235) are 92 protons and 143 neutrons, for
a total of 235. The arrangement of particles within uranium-235 is slightly unstable and
the nucleus can disintegrate if it is excited by an outside source (extra neutron).
●​ When a U-235 nucleus absorbs an extra neutron, it quickly breaks into two parts. This
process is known as fission. Each time a U-235 nucleus splits, it releases two or three
neutrons. Hence, the possibility exists for creating a chain reaction.
●​ The heat generated due to nuclear fission reaction is utilized for producing the steam.
Integral Components of Nuclear Power Plants:
1.​ Fuel Rods: Fuel rods contain fuel pellets responsible for initiating and sustaining the
fission reaction as neutrons collide with them. The reaction of neutron-induced fission
occurs when a neutron interacts with a fissile or fissionable nucleus and the nucleus
becomes unstable.
2.​ Moderator: The moderator, typically heavy water contained in a pressure vessel, slows
down highly energetic neutrons, allowing them to collide with uranium atoms effectively.
It ensures that neutrons maintain the appropriate velocity necessary for splitting uranium
atoms.
3.​ Control Rods: Control rods, often composed of Boron or Cadmium, are vital
components in a nuclear reactor. They manage and regulate the ongoing nuclear reaction
by absorbing neutrons, thereby controlling energy production based on requirements.
4.​ Heat Exchanger: Within the heat exchanger, the primary coolant transfers heat to a
secondary coolant (water), causing it to transition into steam. Both primary and
secondary systems remain closed-loop and never mix. The heat exchanger prevents the
secondary system from becoming contaminated with radioactive materials. Boiling water
reactors do not feature a heat exchanger.
5.​ Steam Turbine: The high pressure and superheated steam produced in the heat
exchanger is directed towards a steam turbine, where it expands and propels the turbine
blades due to steam pressure. As the steam passes through the turbine, its pressure
gradually decreases, expanding in volume. The steam turbine is linked to an alternator
through a rotating shaft.
6.​ Alternator: The steam turbine rotation generates electricity by driving the alternator's
shaft. The electrical output from the alternator is then elevated using a transformer for
efficient long-distance transmission.
7.​ Condenser: After completing its work, the steam exiting the turbine is converted back to
water in a condenser. The steam is then cooled by passing it through a third cold water
loop from the cooling tower.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant

Advantages Disadvantages

●​ It is found that fission of only 1 Kg of ●​ Nuclear power plants are affordable to

Uranium produces as much heat energy as that operate but are relatively expensive to
can be produced by 4,500 tons of high grade construct. Aside from the cost of
coal.This considerably reduces the constructing a power plant, nuclear reactors
transportation cost of fuel, which is a major must allocate funds for waste treatment that
advantage of nuclear power plants. is generated.
●​ Nuclear power is the lowest carbon emission ●​ While no emissions are produced in nuclear
energy source and a lower carbon footprint energy generation, a bi-product of
compared to other sources such as fossil fuels. radioactive waste is developed, and it is
●​ Nuclear power has a consistent output. It is hazardous.
not affected by weather conditions compared ●​ One of the main disadvantages of nuclear

to other sources such as wind and solar power. energy is that nuclear explosions produce
●​ The cost of generating electricity is cheaper radiation, this radiation harms the cells of

and more sustainable than other forms of the body which can make humans sick or

energy such as oil, coal, and gas. even cause them death. Illness can appear or

●​ Nuclear power plants don't require a lot of strike people years after they were exposed

space. to nuclear radiation

●​ A possible type of reactor disaster is known
as a meltdown. In a meltdown, the fission
reaction of an atom goes out of control,
which leads to a nuclear explosion releasing
great amounts of radiation.
●​ Nuclear reactors only lost for about forty
to fifty years.
 Diesel Power Plant
Layout of a Diesel Power Plant

Diesel engine power plants are installed where supply of coal and water is not available in
sufficient quantity. This is a fossil fuel plant since diesel is a fossil fuel.
●​ These plants produce the power in the range of 2 to 50 MW.
●​ They are used as standby sets for continuity of supply such as hospitals, telephone
exchanges, radio stations, cinema theaters and industries.
Integral Components of Diesel Power Plants:
●​ Air Filter
An air filter is employed to purify the air drawn into the engine, removing dust and
impurities.
●​ Engine Starting System:
Diesel engines used in power plants lack self-starting capability. The engine starting
system incorporates an air compressor and a starting air tank, which are used to initiate
engine operation, particularly in cold conditions, by providing hot compressed air.
 ●​ Fuel System:
★​ This includes components like the storage tank, fuel pump, fuel transfer pump etc.
★​ The pump draws diesel from the storage tank and conveys it to a small day tank
through a filter. The day tank supplies the engine's daily fuel requirement,
●​ Diesel Engine:
★​ Diesel engines are directly coupled to generators to generate power.
★​ After combustion, the exhaust gasses are discharged into the atmosphere.
●​ Lubrication System:
★​ This system comprises oil pumps, oil tanks, coolers and pipelines. Its purpose is
to reduce friction and wear and tear of engine components, such as cylinder walls
and pistons.
●​ Cooling System:
★​ Diesel engines generate extremely high temperatures during operation (around
1500°C to 2000°C). To mitigate this heat, a cooling system circulates water
around the engine, enveloping it in a water jacket, carrying away the heat
generated by components like the cylinder, piston and combustion chamber.
●​ Exhaust System: The exhaust gasses discharged from the engine are inherently noisy. To
reduce noise emissions, a silencer, commonly referred to as a muffler, is incorporated into
the exhaust system.

Advantages Disadvantages

●​ The construction of a diesel power plant is ●​ The running cost of diesel power plants is
simple. high because diesel fuel is more expensive.
●​ The diesel power plant can be easily installed ●​ This plant has limited power generation and
at any place where the demand for power is storage capacity than thermal and
very less. hydroelectric power plants.
●​ It requires a minimum quantity of water ●​ Diesel power plants produce a limited
which is essential for cooling purposes. amount of electricity (approximately
●​ It is widely used as a standby set in compact 50MW).
areas like hospitals, cinema houses etc. ●​ It is not very comfortable under the overload
condition and long duration.
 MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
Belts Chains Ropes Gears
A belt drive is a mechanical A Chain drive is a mechanical A Rope is a mechanical power A Gear is a mechanical
power transmission system, power transmission system with transmission system mainly component with teeth that mesh
with the belt which is tightly a series of connected links and used for pulling, lifting heavy with teeth of another gear to
Definition wrapped around the rotating uniform spacing, engaged with loads and objects. transfer motion between two
pulleys allowing them to specially designed teeth on the It is a strong, flexible material gears.
transfer motion between the sprocket to transfer motion made from twisted fibres.
two pulleys. between two rotating sprockets.

Pulleys and Belt Driver & Driven Sprockets and Ropes and Pulleys. Gears
Main Elements Endless Chain.

Usually lies between 1 to 20 Usually within the range of 0.5 A Few meters: For lighter-duty Typically ranges from a
meters. In some specialized meters to 10 meters. applications like lifting or 1)​ a few centimeters to
applications, such as conveyor In conveyors or large pulling small loads. around 5 meters.
systems belts can transmit machinery, chain systems can Up to 100 meters or more: 2)​ most effective for short to
Distance of Power power up to 30 meters or even extend up to 30 meters or more. In heavy-duty systems such as medium distances as they
Transmission more. cranes, elevators, or mining require precise alignment
hoists. to function efficiently.

Rubber, Polyurethane, Steel, Stainless Steel, Nylon, Polyester, Steel, Steel, Cast Iron, Bronze,
Leather, fabric, balata etc. Nickel-plated steel etc. Polypropylene, etc. Composite materials etc.
Material Used

Space Requirement Larger Space is required Moderate Space is required Larger Space is required Lesser Space is required
 Belts are classified in to Chains are classified in to Ropes are classified in to Gears are classified in to
following types following types following types following types
1)​ Flat Belts 1)​ Hoisting and Hauling 1)​ Fiber Ropes 1)​ Spur Gear
Classification
2)​ V-Belts chains 2)​ Wire Ropes 2)​ Helical Gear
2)​ Conveyor chains 3)​ Double Helical Gear
3)​ Power transmission 4)​ Spiral Bevel Gear
chains 5)​ Rack and Pinion etc

Slip Slip may occur. No Slip (Positive Drive) Slip may occur. No Slip

Failure of the belt does not Failure of the chain may not Failure of ropes causes serious Failure of gears may cause
cause further damage to the seriously damage the machine. damages especially in the load serious breakdown in the
Failure
machine. lifting applications like machine.
elevators.

Advantages Flexible, Cost-effective, Durable, Strong, No slippage, Flexible, Shock absorbing, Cost Compact, High torque, No
Lightweight, Quieter in High torque, Reliable effective, Easy handling Slippage, Durable etc.
operation

Disadvantages Slippage, High Wear rate, Noisy, Heavy, Requires Limited strength, Slippage, Noisy, Expensive, Heavy,
High maintenance, Limited lubrication, High maintenance, High Wear rate, High Requires lubrication, Complex
torque, Stretching High Wear rate maintenance design

Conveyors, Machine tools, Conveyor systems, Industrial Elevators, Suspension bridges, Automobiles and motorcycles,
Agricultural Machinery, flour machinery, automobiles and lifting and hoisting (Cranes) Industrial machinery, turbine
Applications
mills etc. motorcycles etc. etc. systems etc.
 Belt Drives Rope Drives
Belts are classified in to following types Ropes are classified in to following types
1)​ Flat Belts 2) V-Belts 1) Fibre rope 2) Wire rope

Flat Belts V-Belts Fibre rope Wire rope

Suitable for applications where Wire ropes are suitable for

1) Flat belts have a rectangular 1) V-Belts have a trapezoidal cross
pulleys are spaced approximately applications where pulleys are
cross section. section.
60 meters apart. spaced approximately 150 meters
2) Suitable for low-power 2) Suitable for moderate speed and
● Fiber ropes are less flexible and apart.
applications with high speed. high power applications.
possess inferior mechanical ● Wire ropes find extensive use in
3) Typically used when the shaft 3) Ideal for applications with a shaft
properties, used in lighter load elevators, mine hoists, cranes,
distance is between 5 to 10 distance of less than 2 meters.
applications. conveyors, hauling equipment and
meters. 4) Not suitable for larger distances.
suspension bridges
4) Flat belts are known for their 5) Often used in variable-speed drives.
quiet operation.
 Robotics
Robot: The Robot Institute of America defines a robot as “A robot is a reprogrammable,
multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices,
through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks."
Components of a Robot:
●​ Mechanical Platform or Hardware Base: This is the foundational mechanical structure
of the robot, which can take various forms such as a wheeled platform, articulated arm,
fixed frame, or any other structure that enables interaction with the environment and the
execution of its tasks.
●​ Sensor System: Positioned on or around the robot, the sensor system provides crucial
environmental information and feedback to the robot's controller. Sensors enable the
robot to perceive its surroundings and make informed decisions.
●​ Joints: Joints are pivotal components that grant versatility to the robot. They are not
mere connectors but enable flexing, rotating, revolving and translating motions. Joints are
fundamental in granting the robot a range of motion and degrees of freedom.
●​ Controller: Functioning as the robot's "brain," the controller is responsible for executing
programmed instructions and governing the robot's movements and actions. It effectively
manages the robot's memory, logic and decision-making capabilities.
●​ Power Source: The power source supplies the energy required for the robot's operations.
It can be a battery for direct current, electricity from a power plant, solar energy,
hydraulic power, or gas, depending on the robot's specific needs.
●​ Artificial Intelligence (AI): Al endows robots with the ability to simulate certain human
thought processes. While modern AI allows robots to mimic some simple aspects of
human thinking, achieving an elevated level of AI sophistication requires advanced
programming, sophisticated controllers and enhanced sensory capabilities.
●​ Actuators: Actuators serve as the "muscles" of the robot, converting control signals into
mechanical motion. They can be pneumatic, hydraulic, or electronic devices that activate
and control various robotic functions; common types include synchronous actuators like
brush and brushless DC servo motors, stepper motors and asynchronous actuators like
AC servo motors, traction motors, pneumatic and hydraulic systems.
Robot Anatomy: The manipulator or physical structure of an industrial robot is composed of
a series of joints and links. Robot anatomy concerns itself with the types, sizes and configuration
of these joints and links, as well as other aspects of the robot’s physical construction. It plays a
crucial role in determining the robot’s range of motion and its ability to perform specific tasks
effectively.
Links: In robotics, a link refers to a physical component that connects two or more joints in a
robot's body. Typically, links are used to create a robot's arm, leg, or other body parts that need to
move in multiple directions. Two links, an input link and an output link are connected to each
joint. By moving (e.g., rotating) the joints, the links can be moved and the whole robot can be
articulated. The joints typically contain some kind of motor.
Robot links are like "bones" of the robot's body. They connect and function as a foundation for
the whole system, forming its skeleton. Typically, these links work with joints - the "knuckles" -
to create the robot's range of motion.
Links play a key role in determining the robot's overall stability, precision and mobility. They are
made of varied materials based on the requirements of the specific robotic application. They can
be made of various materials from lightweight aluminum or heavy-duty steel and have different
shapes, such as cylinders or boxes, depending on the robot's design and the movement it needs to
perform.
Joints: A joint in an industrial robot bears a resemblance to a joint in the human body, as it
facilitates relative motion between two body parts. Its primary function is to govern controlled
relative movement between the input link and the output link.
In most cases, industrial robots are affixed to a stationary base on the floor. This base, along with
its connection to the initial joint, is designated as "link 0." This serves as the input link for the
first joint, denoted as "joint 1," which is the inaugural component in the series of joints that
comprise the robot's structure. The outcome of this joint, "link 1," then becomes the input link
for the subsequent joint, "joint 2," whose output link is "link 2," and so on. This systematic
joint-link numbering scheme is visually depicted in the figure below.
Robot joints are pivotal components in a robot, facilitating a diverse range of movements for its
links. Like human body joints, industrial robot joints enable relative motion between two parts.
Most industrial robot joints fall into one of five distinct types.
 Types of Joints
Translational Motion
1.​ Linear Joint (L-Joint): Linear joints can execute both translational and sliding
movements. These motions can be achieved through various mechanisms, such as
telescoping mechanisms and pistons. To achieve linear motion, the two links must be
aligned with parallel axes.
2.​ Orthogonal Joint (O-Joint): The orthogonal joint shares similarities with the linear joint
as it also enables linear motion. However, what sets it apart is that the input and output
links are positioned at right angles to each other. In this configuration, the output and
input links move at right angles, creating a distinct motion pattern.
Rotary Motion
1.​ Rotational Joint (R-Joint): The rotational joint permits motion in a rotary fashion along
an axis that is typically vertical to the arm's axes or perpendicular to the axes of the input
and output links. This joint enables rotational movement, which is crucial for various
robotic applications.
2.​ Twisting Joint (T-Joint): The twisting joint facilitates a twisting or torsional motion
between the output and input links. In this type of joint, the output link's axis is typically
oriented vertically to the rotational axis. This results in the output link rotating relative to
the input link, allowing for twisting movements.
3.​ Revolving Joint (V-Joint): The revolving joint, like the twisting joint, enables rotational
motion. In this configuration, the output link's axis is positioned perpendicular to the
rotational axis, while the input link aligns parallel to the rotational axes. Consequently,
the output link revolves around the input link, allowing for rotational movements
 Configurations of Robot
A robot manipulator can be divided into two main sections: the body-and-arm assembly and the
wrist assembly. Typically, the body-and-arm assembly possesses three degrees of freedom, while
the wrist assembly can have either two or three degrees of freedom. At the tip of the
manipulator's wrist, there is a specialized device, known as an end effector, which is intricately
linked to the specific task the robot is designed to perform. This end effector is typically
designed to serve as either a gripper for securely holding a work-part or as a tool for executing
various processes.
Robot Configurations:
A robot's configuration plays a crucial role in determining its capabilities and applications. There
are five fundamental configurations commonly utilized in industrial robots. Considering the five
joint types mentioned earlier, there are a total of 125 different joint combinations possible for
constructing a three-degree-of-freedom robot manipulator. Furthermore, variations exist within
each joint type, such as differences in joint size and range of motion. Here are the five primary
robot configurations:

Cartesian Coordinate Robot (XYZ Robot): This configuration, as illustrated in the figure,
comprises three sliding joints, two of which are orthogonal to each other. It is adept at tasks such
as carrying heavy payloads, pick-and-place operations, and material handling, and 3D printing,
CNC machining and sealing applications.
Cylindrical Configuration Robot: In this configuration, as depicted in the figure, a vertical
column forms the basis upon which an arm assembly moves vertically. The arm can also move in
and out relative to the column's axis. It is suitable for tasks like material handling, small
assembly operations and machine loading and unloading.
Polar or Spherical Configuration Robot: This configuration incorporates a sliding arm
actuated relative to the robot's body, allowing for rotation about both vertical and horizontal axes.
It finds utility in heavy-duty applications, such as spot welding, heat- resistant environments,
metal casting and cutting steel.
Articulated or Jointed-Arm Robot: Also referred to as an angular or anthropomorphic robot,
this manipulator resembles the structure of a human arm. It consists of a vertical column that
swivels at the base, making it well-suited for various manufacturing tasks like assembly,
welding, painting, packaging and material handling.
SCARA Robot: SCARA robots are commonly employed in tasks requiring high-speed and
high-precision, such as pick-and-place and assembly operations. They can achieve tolerances of
less than 10 microns, making them ideal for applications in assembly, packaging, machine
loading and more.
Fig: SCARA Robot
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots

Advantages Disadvantages

Precision and Efficiency: Robots execute Initial Costs: Implementing and maintaining
tasks with exceptional precision and robotic systems can be expensive.
efficiency, reducing errors and enhancing
productivity.

Automation: Most robots are fully automatic, Limited Versatility: Robots operate based on
reducing the need for human intervention and programmed instructions and may lack
enhancing efficiency. adaptability beyond their programming.

Safety: Robots can be deployed in dangerous Dependence on Power: Robots require a

environments, ensuring the safety of human continuous power supply.
workers.

Continuous Operation: Robots work Job Displacement: In some cases, the

tirelessly without fatigue, leading to increased introduction of robots can lead to job
productivity. displacement for human workers.

Cost Savings: Robots can reduce labor costs Security Concerns: If improperly accessed,
and operational expenses. the programming of robots can pose security
risks and potentially cause harm.
Applications of Robots: Robots have found applications across various industries, including:
●​ Manufacturing: Robots are utilized in tasks such as pick-and-place, assembly, welding,
painting and machining to improve efficiency and save time.
●​ Healthcare: Robots are used for tasks like robotic surgery, patient remote monitoring and
medicine transport.
●​ Hospitality: Humanoid robots are employed for welcoming guests, providing
information and voice assistance in hotels and other hospitality settings.
●​ Military: Robots serve in various military capacities, including transportation of
weapons, bomb detection and surveillance in hazardous environments.
●​ Entertainment: Humanoid robots are used for entertainment purposes, performing tasks
like singing, dancing and playing sports.
●​ Delivery: Robots are employed for food delivery in restaurants and for streamlining
warehouse operations in e-commerce.
●​ Education: Robots are used in educational settings for teaching and learning purposes,
such as line-following robots and robot wars competitions.
●​ Remote Operations: Robots are deployed in remote or hazardous environments,
including undersea, nuclear facilities and outer space.
●​ Service: Service robots assist in hospitals, households, retail and more, performing tasks
such as cleaning, assistance for people with disabilities and information provision.
●​ Agriculture: Robots are used for harvesting and other agricultural tasks, including weed
control, planting and soil analysis.