 Units in Geography:

1. Physical Geography 2. Physical 3. Economic & Human

World: Geography - Geography - World &
India: India:
o Earth, Solar o Physiography o Oceanic and water
System, and o Drainage resources
Universe Pattern o Natural vegetation
o Geomorphology o Climate o Agriculture
o Climatology o Soil. o Mineral & energy
o Oceanography resources
o Biogeography o Industries
o Population and
settlements.

Map Locations

 Refer to the Previous Year's Analysis (2014 and 2022)

 A brief about the question asked in Prelims and Mains.
 Basic Sources:
 11th and 12th NCERTs
 GC Leong.
 Class 10 ICSE Total Geography.
 Orient Blackswan School Atlas.
 A brief about how to approach geography.

EARTH, SOLAR SYSTEM, AND UNIVERSE:

 Topics:
 1. Shape of Earth
 2. Latitude and Longitudes.
 3. Rotation and Revolution.
 4. Seasons.
 5. Time Zones and IDL.
 6. Universe and Origin of Universe.
 7. Life Cycle of a star.
 8. Galaxies and Stars
 9. Origin of Solar System.
 10. Sun
 11. Planets, satellites, and other bodies
 12. Eclispses.

 Geography:

 Geography is the description of the earth.

 The term is coined by Eratosthenes, a Greek philosopher, who is called
the father of Geography.
 Geography is the study of places and the relationship between people
and their environment.
 The shape of the Earth:
 Evidence to support the spherical shape of Earth:
 1. Circumnavigation - First done by Magellan in 1519.
 2. Circular horizon: The horizon appears circular and the horizon widens
with an increase in altitude.
 3. Ships visibility in the ocean where it appears to be rising from the
water.
 4. Bedford Level of experiment.
 5. Different timing of sunrise and sunset at different locations.
 6. Different lengths of shadow at different locations.
 7. Lunar eclipse during which the circular shadow of the earth is visible.
 8. Shape of other planetary bodies in the solar system.

SHAPE OF EARTH (09:16 AM)

 Geoid
 1) Earth is flattened near to the poles and Bulged at the equator. This
was first proposed by Newton. It is due to the continuous rotation of the
earth. This shape of the earth is called a Geoid or Oblate spheroid.
 It is applicable to all other planets
LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES :

 Latitudes :
 It is the angular distance of a point on a surface measured in degrees
from the center of the earth towards the north and south of the equator.
 Parallels are imaginary lines connecting places with the same latitude.
 Parallels of latitude are always parallel to the equator and to one
another.
 Length of parallels decreases from the equator to the poles.
 Parallels of latitudes vary from zero to 90 towards the north and south


 The distance between two parallels separated by 1 degree is equal to
111 km

 Longitudes :
 The angular distance of a place east or west of the Prime meridian is
called a Longitudes
 Meridians are semi-circles running from pole to pole connecting places
with same longitude


 The meridians of Longitude are not parallel to each other and the
distance between them decreases from Equator to Poles.
 The distance between two meridians separated by 1 degree at the
equator is equal to 111 Km.
GREAT CIRCLE :

 It is the circle with the largest possible circumference that can be drawn
on the Earth.
 Great circles can divide the Earth into two equal halves.


 An infinite number of Great circles can be drawn on Earth.
 Great circles can be used to find out the shortest distance between any
two locations.
 Among the parallels equator is the only Great circle, all the Meridians
form part of a Great circle.

ROTATION & REVOLUTION :

 Rotation
 The spinning movement of the earth on its own axis is called Rotation.
The earth rotates around its axis of rotation.
 The Axis of rotation is an imaginary line passing through poles and the
centre of the earth around which the earth rotates
 The orbital plane is the plane in which the earth orbits around the sun
 The angle of tilt of Earth's axis of rotation from its normal position is 23
and 1/2 degrees.
 The angle between the axis of rotation and the orbital plane is 66 and
1/2 degrees.
 Earth rotates in its orbit in a counter-clockwise direction or from west to
east
PERIOD OF ROTATION :

 SOLAR DAY & SIDEREAL DAY

 The time taken by the earth to rotate on its own axis so that a distant
star appears in the same position after completing 360 degrees of
rotation is called a Sidereal day.
 Sidereal day equals- 23 hours 56 minutes.
 The time taken by the earth to rotate on its own axis so that the sun
appears in the same position in the sky is called as Solar day.
 Solar day equals 24 hours.

 Linear speed of Rotation :

 The linear speed of Earth's rotation is maximum at the equator and is
equal to 1650 KM/ hour and it decreases from the Equator to the poles.
Therefore rockets are launched closer to the equator in order to utilize
the greater initial thrust.
 
 Easternmost and southernmost points are preferred for launching the
rockets [* Closer to the Equator gives more push as the linear speed is
more at the equator also fuel consumption is less]
 Kourou of French Guyana and John F. Kennedy Space Center is also
located on the Eastern coast

REVOLUTION :

 The movement of the earth around the sun is called a Revolution

 Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit (It is oval in shape).
 The period of revolution of Earth is 365 days 5 hours and 48 minutes
 Direction of revolution is counter-clockwise or west to east
 Speed of revolution is approximately 1 lakh km/ hour and is not uniform
  Latitude at any place is the angular distance between the place and
center of the earth.
 This is measured in degrees from the center of the earth towards the
north & south of the equator.
 Longitudes are angular distances from the Prime Meridian that
passes near London from Greenwich.
 They can be either east or west from the prime meridian.
 A Great Circle is the largest circle that can be drawn over the Earth to
divide the Earth into two hemispheres.
 Earth undergoes both the gravitational force and the force of the
revolutionary motion.
 The reason for the elliptical orbit is that these two forces are not
balanced.
 If these forces were balanced, we would have had a circular orbit of
revolution.

SEASONS :

 They are the cyclical changes happening in the atmosphere over a time
period.
 Geographically, there are four seasons- Summer, Spring, Winter, and
Autumn.
 The intensity of sunlight is the sunlight per unit area.


 The angle of incidence of sunlight is the major factor behind seasons or
changes in seasons.
  The angle of incidence of sunlight is 90 degrees at the equator.
 The angle of incidence of sunlight is 0 degrees at the poles.
 The angle of incidence of sunlight decreases from the equator to the
poles.
 The Circle of illumination can be understood as the circle that
separates the regions that experience day and night at any given time.

Conditions Intensity of Sunlight Length of the day

 No Rotation  Highest at the equator 24hours/0 hour
 No Tilt in  Decreases uniformly in
Axis both hemispheres
 No
Revolution
of the Earth

 Rotation  Highest at the equator 12 hours a day.

 No Tilt in  Decreases uniformly in
Axis both hemispheres.
 No
Revolution
of the Earth

 Rotation  Highest on the tropic of  12 hours at the

 Tilt in Axis cancer. equator.
 No  More than the earlier  It increases toward the
Revolution case in the northern north pole and
of the Earth hemisphere. decreases to the south
 Lower in the southern pole
hemisphere from the
previous case.
What if the Earth revolved around the sun without rotating on its axis,
and having no tilt ?:

 Any place on the earth would see 6 months of day and 6 months of
night.
 There will be no seasons.

SEASONS :

 Seasons are distinct periods of the year characterized by specific

weather patterns.
 There are four seasons – spring, summer, autumn, and winter.
 Seasons are observed on the earth because the earth revolves around
the sun in a tilted.
 The action of rotation whose angle of inclination with respect to the
orbital plane is always constant.
 The changing seasons are mainly due to variations in the length of day
and night and the intensity of sunlight.
 The regions receiving higher intensity of sunlight for longer duration
experience summer.
 And those receiving lower intensity of sunlight for shorter duration
experience winters.
SUMMER SOLSTICE (21st of June) :

 Sun’s rays fall vertically at the tropic of cancer.

 The northern hemisphere receives a higher intensity of sunlight due to a
higher angle of incidence.
 The length of the day increases from the equator towards the north
pole.
 The conditions are reversed in the southern hemisphere.

Winter Solstice (22nd December):

 The sun’s rays fall vertically at the tropic of Capricorn which is 23.5
degrees south.
 The northern hemisphere receives a lower intensity of sunlight due to a
lower angle of incidence.
 The length of the day decreases from the equator to the north pole.

Equinox (21st march Spring, 23rd September Autumn):

 The sun's rays fall vertically around the equator.

 Both the northern and southern hemispheres receive moderate intensity
of sunlight.
 The length of the day is the same across all latitudes.
 The position of the overhead sun always moves between the tropics.

OVERHEAD SUN :

 Overhead sun refers to 90 degrees of sunlight at noon (12 pm).

 During this time, no shadow day is observed.
 The position of the overhead sun is always between 23.5 degrees north
and south.
 Every location between the Tropic of Capricorn to the Tropic of Cancer
observes two days of overhead sun in a year.
 The locations in the tropics of cancer and Capricorn observe one day of
overhead sun.
 And those beyond the tropics never observe the overhead sun.

Polar Day and Polar Night:

 It refers to 24 hours of day or night.

  The regions receiving 24 hours of daylight extend from 90 degrees north
or south to a maximum of 66.5 degrees north or south.
 These regions experience midnight sun when they are tilted towards the
sun.

TIME ZONES :

 With every change in longitude, time changes (i.e. with every 1 -1-
degree change, the time changes by 4 minutes).
 The entire earth is divided into 24 time zones with the Greenwich
meridian as the standard reference (i.e. 1 2 time zones towards the
east and 1 2 time zones towards the west).
 Time along a particular longitude always remains the same.
 A time zone is a region of the globe that observes uniform standard
time.
 From the Greenwich meridian, time increases towards the east (EGA-
east gain addition), and it decreases towards the west (WLS- west loose
subtraction).
 Within a change of every 1 5 degrees, time changes by 60 minutes, and
with a change of every one degree, time changes by four minutes.
 India follows 82.5 degrees east meridian as a standard reference for its
time zone.

Multiple time zones:

 France follows the highest number of time zones due to a large number
of overseas territories- (12 time zones).
 India follows a single time zone.
  There is a difference of 30 degrees of longitude between the
easternmost and the western parts of India.
 The major problem with having a single timezone for such a large
longitudinal expanse is that the electricity/energy consumption
increases.
 Thus, there is demand for a second time zone.
 There were three time zones till 1906(Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras
times) along with the Chaibagan time which was practised by the tea
gardens of Assam.

 France follows 12 time zones.

 USA and Russia follow 11 time zones.
 Before independence, India followed 3 time zones based on Calcutta,
Madras, and Bombay along with a local Chai Bagan time in Assam.
 In 1906, India adopted 82 & 1/2* East longitude as Indian Standard
Time (IST), and local time zones of Calcutta and Bombay continued till
1955.
 The longitudinal extent of nearly 30* between East and West has
resulted in a mismatch of the Sun Cycle and Human activities causing a
demand for 2nd time zone for North East.
 Issues in adopting Multiple Time Zone:
 Economic integration - Banking, stock exchange, industrial activity,
trade, etc.
 Issues in synchronization of transportation such as railways.
 Administrative convenience for govt offices, schools, and colleges.
 Communication gap and security issues.

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE (IDL):

 IDL is an imaginary line of demarcation on earth running from the North

to the South Pole and demarcates the change of calendar day.
 It was agreed in 1884.
 The IDL roughly follows 180* East or West longitude.
 However, it is not a straight line and follows a zig-zag path to
accommodate the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
 If a person crosses IDL, from West to East, he or she gains a day.
 Crossing from East to West of IDL, he or she loses a day.
DAYLIGHT SAVING TIME (DST):

 It is the practice of shifting time by 1 hour through forwarding time in the

clock during summer.
 It allows for better use of natural light and conserve energy, particularly
during evenings.
 It is mainly practiced in temperate countries with sufficient variation of
day length

MILANKOVITCH CYCLES:

 It refers to cyclical changes in the earth's circumnavigation around the

sun.
 It involves variations in Earth's eccentricity, obliquity, and axial
precession.
 Eccentricity:
 It is the shape of the Earth's orbit around the sun.
 It varies over a period of 1 lakh years.
 Obliquity:
 The angle of tilt of the Earth's axis changes between 22.1 to 24.5* over
a period of 41,000 years
 Axial precession:
 It involves the slow wobbling of the Earth as it spins on its axis.
 It changes over a period of 26,000 years.
 Effects of Milankovitch Cycles:
 Changes in the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface.
 Variation in seasonality on the surface of the earth.
 Long-term climatic changes
 Advance and retreat of glaciers.
UNIVERSE AND ITS ORIGIN:

 The limitless expanse of space surrounding Earth consists of the Solar

System, stars, Galaxies, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, etc.
 The universe has 100-400 billion galaxies with each galaxy containing
100-400 billion stars.
 Origin of Universe:
 1. Steady State Theory: It was proposed by Fred Hoyle.
 The universe has no beginning and no end but is always expanding.
 New stars and galaxies are created at the rate old ones become
unobservable.
 The overall size and mass of the universe remain constant at any point
in time.
 2. Pulsating Theory: It was proposed by Arthur Edington.
 The universe expands and contracts alternatively.
 It expands due to explosion and contracts due to gravitational pull.
 The universe is currently in a phase of expansion.
 3. Big Bank Theory:
 The Big Bang Theory was proposed by Georges Lemaitre in 1927.
 The universe was once an extremely compact dense and hot singularity.
 There was no other matter or space or time that existed.
 13.7 BYA, a cosmic explosion happened called as Big Bang, from that
time universe started to expand and is still continuing today.
 The expansion subsequently led to the formation of forces of physics,
elementary particles, atoms, molecules, gaseous clouds, stars and
galaxies.
 Hubble in 1929, proposed that all observable stars and galaxies are
moving away from the Earth which he observed through the redshift in
the light coming from stars.
 The rate of expansion of the universe is called Hubble's Constant.

COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND:

 It is the evidence supporting the big bang theory.

 Refers to a faint uniform radiation that permeates the entire universe
and originated after a big bang.
 As the inverse expands, these radiations have undergone a red shift
towards the microwave range.
LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR:

 A stellar nebula is a huge cloud of gas and dust mainly made up of

Hydrogen.
 The gaseous particle collides due to gravity and the entire Nebula starts
to spin.
 Protostar is a spinning gaseous mass with a hot core due to the heat
released during the collision of gaseous particles.
 The temperature of the protostar core crosses 15 million degrees
Celsius, and a nuclear fusion reaction began at the core resulting in the
birth of a star.
 When the supply of Hydrogen runs out the core starts to contract and
simultaneously the outer shall expand resulting in the formation of the
Red Giant.
 When a low-mass star with less than 10 times the mass of the sun
becomes a Red giant. Its core collapses and leads to the formation of
the Planetary Nebula which is a spherical shell of gases.
 A planetary Nebula will gradually be left with the core inside the shell
which is called a White Dwarf.
 White Dwarf is theorized to become Black Dwarf.
 When a mass of a star is more than 10 times the mass of the sun it
results in Red Supergiant.
 All Red super Giants led to supernovas due to the explosion of the iron
core.
 A supernova releases a huge amount of energy.
 After a supernova explosion, the mass of the remnant core is between
1.4 to 3 times the mass of the sun. It results in Neutron Star.
 A Neutron Star is a very high-density body composed of closely packed
neutrons.
 The Remnant core after the explosion is more than 3 times the mass of
the sun. The core collapses under gravity resulting in the formation of a
Black hole.
 The black hole is a body with a core called Singularity with infinite
gravity and density.

GALAXY:

 Galaxies are sprawling systems of dust, gas, dark matter, dark energy,
and trillion stars that are held together by gravity.
 All galaxies contain a supermassive black hole at their center.
 Type of Galaxy:
  Spiral galaxy- It is relatively a flat disk with a central bulge and spiral
arms
 Elliptical Galaxy: Spherical or overshaped with stars distributed fairly,
uniformly throughout.
 Irregular Galaxy- With No definite shape or structure.
 Milky Way Galaxy is a Spiral galaxy with a supermassive black hole in
the center called as Sagittarius A.
 The nearest galaxy to the milky way galaxy is the Andromeda galaxy.
 The sun is located in Orion's arm.
 The Nearest star is Proxima centauri.
 The brightest star in the sky is Sirius.

TWINKLING STAR:

 It is due to turbulence in the atmosphere that light from a distant star

gets deflected more as it comes from a point source. However, the light
coming from a nearby planet or a satellite does not twinkle as it is not a
point source. Twinkling is not observed beyond the atmosphere.There is
no twinkling in space.
 Light is the distant travel by light in 1 year at a speed of 3*10^8m/s.
 Constellation:
 A constellation is a group of stars forming a recognizable pattern in the
sky. E.g. big dipper or saptarishi.
 Polestar is a star that is aligned with an axis of rotation of Earth.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, it is Polaris and in the Southern
Hemisphere, it is Sigma Octantis.
 The Polestar is always fixed in the sky.
 However, the angle at which the polestar is visible varies with latitude.
 It is Visible at 90 degrees from the North Pole or the South Pole and 0
Degrees Near the Equator.
SOLAR SYSTEMS:

 Origin Of Solar System:

 Catastrophic theory:
 Sun was accompanied by a companion star in the form of the binary
star system.
 As the Companion star came near the Protostar the gravitational pull led
to the ejection of matter from the sun.
 As the companion star moved away this ejected matter gradually
condensed and revolved around the sun as planets.
 Ex-Planetesimal Theory:
 Proposed by Chamberlin–Moulton.
 Tidal Hypothesis:
 Proposed by James Jeans and Harold Jeffreys.
 Evolutionary Theory:
 According to Evolutionary theories, the material of the solar system
condensed into the sun, and planets.
 Sun and the Planets originated from a single mass of gas.
 Therefore, both are of the same age.
 Ex--Gaseous Hypothesis by Emmanuel Kant.
 Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace.
 There were supernaturally created hard and cold particles. These
particles collided with each other due to Gravitational attraction
releasing heat.
 Gradually resulted in the formation of a rotating structure from which
rings of matter were thrown off which gradually cool down to form
planets.

EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS:

 It was proposed by Laplace.

 A pre-existing Nebula was there in a rotating state.
 With gradual cooling, the Nebula shrank which led to more spinning.
 The temperature started to rise at the centre gradually resulting in the
evolution of a star at the centre.
 The nebula gradually attained the shape of a flat disc.
 The rings of matter got ejected from this disc due to centrifugal force.
 Matter within each of the rings condensed and collided with each other
to gradually form planets.
DIFFERENT LAYERS OF SUN:

 Core: It is the innermost layer of the sun.

 The temperature is above 15 million degrees Celsius
 A nuclear fusion reaction occurs in this layer.
 Radiative Zone: The heat released from the core is radiated outward
through this zone.
 Convective Zone: The heat is transferred to the surface through
convection currents.
 Photosphere: It is the first layer of the sun's atmosphere.
 The temperature is nearly 5500*C
 The visible light originates from here and this is the brightest layer of
sun.
 Chromosphere:
 It is the intermediate zone of the sun's atmosphere.
 It emits colorful lights.
 It appears like a red rim during the total solar eclipse.
 Corona:
 It is the uppermost layer of the sun which is visible only during the total
solar eclipse.
 The temperature is 2 million degrees Celsius.
 Solar Flares: It is the sudden outburst of energy with a storm of hot
atoms released into space.
 Sun Spots: These are the dark spots in the sun's atmosphere ie the
photosphere.
 The temperature of sunspots is lesser than its surroundings.
 However, the magnetic activity in these regions will be higher.
 The number of sunspots varies with time in a cyclical manner over a
period of 11 years.
 Solar Maxima is when the sunspots are highest.
 Solar minima are when the sunspots are lowest.
PLANETS AND SATELLITES: (10:03 AM)

 Difference between Jovian and terrestrial Planets:

Jovian Planets Terrestrial Planets

Jupiter Like Earth Like
Gaseous Rocky
Big in size Small in Size
Low density High Density
Weak solar winds Strong solar winds
A higher number of satellites A low number of satellites
Thick atmosphere Thin atmosphere
The speed of rotation is higher The speed of rotation is lower
Presence of rings No rings

 Mercury:
 It is the smallest planet in the solar system.
 It is so close to the sun that it has no atmosphere at all and no
satellites.
 Venus:
 It is called Earth's twin. It is almost similar in size and density.
 It is the brightest planet.
 It is also the hottest planet in the solar system due to the high presence
of Carbon dioxide (about 95%).
 It can be seen in the sky and hence called a morning and evening star.
 Life cannot survive on Venus even though comparable to Earth.
 No satellite of Venus.
 Earth:
 It is the densest planet in the solar system as it is mainly made up of
iron ie 35%.
 It is called the blue planet due to its 70% of water.
 Earth has one natural satellite ie the moon.
 Mars:
 It is called a Red planet.
 In the entire solar system, if there is any possibility of life beyond Earth
then it is Mars.
 Satellites - Phobos and Deimos.
 Goldilocks Zone:
 It is the zone around a star where the temperature is not too hot or too
cold ie optimum condition for survival of life.
 In such conditions, water can be present in liquid for the evolution and
survival of life.
 Mars is present in the Goldilocks zone.
 Jupiter:
 It is the largest planet.
 It has a red giant spot which is a spinning storm which appeared around
400 years ago.
 Satellites - 79 in number.
 Out of these 4 are very big and were discovered by Galileo called
Galilean Satellites ie Io, Europa, Ganymede (the largest satellite of the
entire solar system) and Calisto.
 Saturn:
 The most spectacular feature is the presence of rings.
 It is the lightest planet and its density is lighter than water itself.
 Satellites - 82 in number; the highest number; the largest is Titan (2nd
largest satellite of the Solar System).
 Uranus:
 Its speciality is that it rolls in its orbit.
 The axis of rotation is tilted by 98* and appears as if it is rotating in a
clockwise direction.
 Many satellites such as Miranda, etc.
 This sort of rotation is called retrograde rotation is clockwise; eg Venus
and Uranus.
 Anticlockwise is prograde is normal rotation; all other planets except
Venus and Uranus.
 Neptune:
 It is the only planet which is not visible to the naked eye.
 Satellite - Triton rotates in the opposite direction to Neptune.
 Triton is not a natural satellite of Neptune.
 Pluto - Dwarf Planet:
 Charon is the satellite of Pluto.
 The International (IAU) in 2006 prescribed the following 3 conditions for
a planet:
 1. Independent Orbit around the sun.
 2. Having enough mass to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium ie spherical
shape.
 3. Having a clear neighborhood.
 Moon:
 It is the natural satellite of Earth.
 Phases of moon:
 The moon changes in shape during its revolution around the earth
  The proportion of the illuminated side which is visible from the Earth
varies with the change in the position of the moon around the Earth.
 The duration for which the moon is visible also varies with the position
of the moon.
 Moon takes around 28 days to complete 1 rotation as well as a
revolution.
 Due to this only one side of the moon is visible from the earth.
 The other side is called the dark side.
 Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud:
 It consists of remnants of planets with frozen gases, rocks and debris
material.
 It is a zone of galactic debris.
 Asteroid Belt:
 It is a belt of asteroids which are small rocky and metallic objects, made
up of Nickel and Iron core.
 These are remnants of planets located between Mars and Jupiter.

METEOR TERMINOLOGY:

 When an asteroid comes out of its belt and moves toward the Earth, it is
called a meteoroid.
 When a meteoroid enters the earth's atmosphere, it catches fire due to
friction, the flash of light produced by the burning of a meteoroid, is
called a meteor or shooting star.
 Meteorite: If the meteoroid, successfully passes through the atmosphere
and falls on the earth's surface, it is called a meteorite.
 Comet:
 It is a frozen body with a rocky and metallic core surrounded by frozen
gas and dust called a Coma.
 They are from the Kuiper belt and develop a very elongated orbit around
the sun with tails pointing away from the sun.
 The tail is longest when the comet is nearest to the sun.
 E.g.: Halley's comet (last observed 1986; next in 2061).
 Also, Hale Bopp (1997); Neowise in 2020; Leonad in 2021; Green
Comet 2023; etc.
ECLIPSE:

 When one heavenly body moves into the shadow of another, it results in
an eclipse.
 Umbra is the darker shadow of the blocking body which causes a total
eclipse.
 Penumbra is the lighter shadow that causes a partial eclipse.
 Solar Eclipse:
 When the moon blocks the light of the sun from reaching the earth, it
casts a shadow onto the earth, resulting in a solar eclipse.
 Types of Solar Eclipse:
 1. Total Eclipse: It is when the sun is completely blocked by the moon,
during this the photosphere is completely blocked.
 It is visible from the umbra
 2. Partial Solar EClispse: It is when the sun is partially blocked, it is
visible from the penumbra.
 3. Annual Solar Eclipse: When the moon is farthest from Earth, it is
apogee, it will not be able to block the entire photosphere creating a ring
in the sky, which is also called a ring of fire.
 Lunar Eclipse:
 When the earth comes between the sun and the moon blocking light
from the sun which was supposed to be reflected by the moon causing
the earth's shadow to fall on the moon.
 Types of Lunar Eclipse:
 Total Lunar Eclipse: It is when the moon is located within the Umbra of
the earth and is totally shadowed.
 In this position, only the light passing through the Earth's atmosphere
reaches the moon which has only red light.
 Therefore the moon is called the blood moon.
 Partial Lunar Eclipse:
 It is when the moon is located between the umbra and penumbra, and a
partial shadow of the earth covers the moon causing a partial lunar
eclipse.
 Penumbral Lunar Eclipse: It is when the moon is completely located
inside Penumbra.
 In this position, the moon appears darker in comparison to the full
moon.
 Super Moon: It is the full moon at Perigee.
 Blue Moon: The second full moon in a month is a blue moon.
 Difference between Solar and Lunar Eclipse:

Solar Eclipse Lunar Eclipse

Sun-Moon-Earth Sun-Earth-Moon
New Moon Full Moon
Day Night
Smaller Shadow Larger
Not safe Safe
 GEOMORPHOLOGY
 Topics:
 Origin and Evolution of the Earth
 Geological Time Scale
 Interior of the Earth
 Types of Rocks
 Earth Movements.
 Continental Drift Theory.
 Sea Floor Spreading.
 Plate Tectonics Theory.
 Vulcanism
 Geomagnetism
 Earthquakes
 Tsunamis
 Exogenic Movements
 Landforms.
 Geomorphology: It is the study of physical features on the surface of the
earth and the processes through which those features are formed

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH:

 Origin:
 Origin of the Universe: Big Bang Theory
 Origin of Solar System: Nebular Hypothesis.
 Evolution:
 The planet Earth was initially barren, rocky, and totally volatile.
 There was a thin atmosphere of Hydrogen and Helium.
 This primordial earth gradually evolved into the present stable one over
a period of time.
 Formation of Inner Layers:
 With the gradual increase in density, the interior temperature increased
and the outer temperature started to decrease.
 This led to density separation causing heavy elements to sink toward
the center and the lighter ones to move toward the surface.
 With time, the earth cooled further and gradually condensed into smaller
sizes.
 The further process of differentiation led to the formation of different
layers in the earth's interior.
 Evolution of Atmosphere and Hydrosphere:

 The early thin atmosphere with hydrogen and helium was removed due
to solar winds.
 During the cooling of the earth, gases and water vapor were released
from the earth's interior.
 This process through which these gases were outpoured in the
atmosphere is called degassing.
 The volcanic eruptions released more water vapor and gases.
 The important gases at this stage were nitrogen, carbon-di-oxide,
methane, water vapor, and very little oxygen.
 As the earth cooled further, water vapor started to condense; carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere got dissolved in the rainwater and was
brought down to the surface which further decreased the temperature of
the atmosphere.
 This led to more condensation and more precipitation.
 The rainfall from the atmosphere got collected in the depressions on the
surface forming oceans which were completed around 4000 million
years ago (MYA).
 Life began to evolve in the oceans by 3800 MYA in the form of non-
photosynthetic unicellular organisms.
 Between 3000-2500 MYA, blue-green algae emerged in ocean waters
which released oxygen through photosynthesis.
 By 2000 MYA, the Oceans were saturated with oxygen and the oxygen
then started to flood the atmosphere increasing the amount of oxygen in
the atmosphere.

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE:

 It is said that now we are going through 6th Mass extinction.

 Earlier mass extinction was due to natural factors but the 6th one is due
to human factors.
 The Holocene is further divided into 3 ages i.e. Greenlandian
Age(11700-8200), North Gripper Age(8200 -4200 ), and Meghalayan
Age( 4200 - present).
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH :

 Earth comprises three layers, Crust, Mantle, and Core.

 Sources of study
 We deploy various measures to understand the interior of the earth.
 Direct Sources
 (a) Mining and Deep ocean drillings
 Through these, we can extract the material from the inside.
 The deepest mine is just 4 km and the deepest ocean drill was 12 km.
 (b) Volcanic eruption
 During the volcanic eruption, the earth's interior material comes out as
magma.
 This can be used to analyze the earth's interior.
 Indirect Sources
 (a) Density studies
 By analyzing the average density of Earth (5.5 g/cm3), and comparing it
with that of the surface (2.73 gm/cm3), we can conclude that the crust is
lighter than the core (13 gm/cm3).
 (b) Seismic Studies
 By analyzing various types of earthquake waves' speed, direction, and
the presence of shadow zones, we can understand the nature of the
earth's interior.
 (c) Temperature and Pressure Studies
 Temperature increases by 1 degree Celsius for every 32 m near to
surface.
 However, with the increase in depth, the pressure and melting point of
rock increase.
 (d) Meteorites
 By studying the structure, mineralogy, etc of meteorites we can infer
about the earth's interior.
 This is because the meteorites are the remnants of planets.

CHEMICAL DIVISIONS OF EARTH :

 The various chemical divisions of the Earth are Crust, Mantle, and Core.
 Crust
 It is the uppermost layer of the Earth's interior.
 It is the lightest in terms of density.
 It is the thinnest layer of the Earth's interior.
  It is majorly made up of lighter elements like Silica, Aluminium, Sodium,
Potassium, etc.
 Crust is of two types, continental and oceanic crust.

Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

The average thickness is 40- The average thickness is 8-10 km.
50 km.
The density is 2.7 gm/cm3. The density is 3 gm/cm3.

The elements are Silicon, The elements are mainly, Silicon,

Aluminium, Sodium, Magnesium, Calcium, and Iron.
Potassium, etc.

It is made up of granitic This layer is made up of basaltic

rocks. rocks.

These are lighter in colour. The constituent rocks are darker in

colour.

It is older. It is younger.

 Mantle
 It is the largest layer by volume covering 83% of the Earth's interior.
 It accounts for 68% of Earth's mass.
 The average depth of the mantle is approximately 2900 km.
 It is divided into the upper mantle and the lower mantle.
 Core
 It is the innermost and densest layer of the Earth.
 It is made up of heavier elements like Nickel and Iron. It is also called
the NiFe layer.
 It is divided into the outer core and the inner core.
 The outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid.

PHYSICAL DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH :

 The various divisions based on the physical properties are the

Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, Mesosphere, and Barysphere.
 Lithosphere
 It is a solid layer made up of the crust and the upper part of the upper
mantle.
 It acts like a hard outer shell covering the Earth.
  It extends up to a depth of 100 km on average.
 Asthenosphere
 It lies between 100-400 km in depth.
 It is semi-solid, semi-liquid in the state.
 It is a low-velocity zone, as the seismic waves slow down in this zone.
 It is a source of magma to the surface.
 Mesosphere
 It includes the rest of the mantle.
 Barysphere
 It includes the outer and the inner core.

COMPOSITION OF EARTH :

 The major elements of the Earth are:

 (a) Iron- 35%.
 (b) Oxygen- 30%.
 (c) Silicon- 15%
 (d) Magnesium
 (e) Nickel
 The major elements of the crust are:
 (a) Oxygen- 46.60%
 (b) Silicon- 27.72%
 (c) Aluminium- 8.13%
 (d) Iron- 5%
 (e) Calcium- 3.63%
 (f) Sodium- 2.83%

DISCONTINUITIES IN THE EARTH'S INTERIOR:

 It is the transition zone between different layers of differing physical and

chemical characteristics.
 There are a total of five discontinuities:
 (a) Conrad's discontinuity
 This is between the upper and the lower continental crust.
 (b) Mohorovicic discontinuity
 This is between the crust and the mantle.
 (c) Repetti discontinuity
 This is between the upper and the lower mantle.
 (d) Guttenberg discontinuity
 This is between the mantle and the core.
 (e) Lehmann discontinuity
 This is between the inner and the outer core.
TYPES OF ROCKS :

 Any naturally occurring agglomeration of minerals is called a rock.

Rocks Mineral
These are aggregates of These are solid inorganic
mineral elements. substances that are occurring
naturally.
It has no fixed chemical These have definite chemical
composition. compositions.
Minerals are organized to Elements organize to form
form rocks. compounds which are known as
minerals.
Three chief types of rocks The four chief mineral groups
are Igneous, sedimentary, are silicates, carbonates,
and metamorphic. sulfides, and metallic minerals.
Basalt, granite, sandstone, Iron, Silicon, magnesium,
slate, and quartz are some nickel, calcium, potassium,
important types of rocks. sodium, etc are abundant
minerals of the earth.

 Igneous Rocks :
 These rocks are formed due to cooling, solidification, and crystallization
of molten material of the Earth.
 Igneous rocks are also called primary rocks.
 Igneous rocks are of two types: intrusive and extrusive.
 Intrusive Igneous Rocks
 These are formed from the cooling of magma below the Earth's surface.
 Slow cooling of the magma results in a crystalline structure with higher
strength.
 These are also called Plutonic rocks.
 Examples of intrusive igneous rocks are granite, gabbro, etc.
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks
 These are formed from the cooling of magma above the Earth's surface.
 Faster cooling results in a glassy texture, with lower strength.
 These are also called volcanic rocks.
 Examples of extrusive igneous rocks are Basalt, Andesite, etc.
 Igneous rocks are also classified into Acidic and Basic rocks.
 Acidic rocks contain above 66% silica. For example, granite.
 Basic rocks contain less than 52% silica. For example, basalt.
 Sedimentary Rocks

 Sedimentary rocks are formed by the solidification of sediments derived

from igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks, or other sedimentary rocks.
 Stages in the formation of sedimentary rocks:
 (a) Degradation/Weathering
 (b) Transportation
 (c) Deposition in a deep basin
 (d) Lithification
 Lithification is the process of conversion of loose sediments into hard
rocks.
 It involves compaction and cementation.
 Compaction involves the squeezing of sediments by the weight of
overlying sediments.
 Cementation involves binding together compacted sediments with
natural cementing material.
 Sedimentary rocks are formed in different layers or strata.
 They may contain fossil evidence.
 For example, sandstone, limestone, chalk, gypsum, coal, shale, etc.

Metamorphic rocks :

 Metamorphism implies transformation. If the rock's nature is changed

after it is formed, then it is called metamorphic rock.
 Temperature and pressure may bring this change.
 With the increase in temperature or pressure, some minerals may get
activated, and this would lead to a change in the arrangement of the
minerals within rocks.
 The change may be in the form of foliation (flattened) and lineation
(stretched).
 For example, Marble is a metamorphic form of limestone.
 It involves a change in the form of rocks through physical or chemical
processes.
 Changes in pressure conditions result in dynamic metamorphism;
changes in temperature result in thermal metamorphism; together it is
thermo-dynamic metamorphism.
 During the process of metamorphism, if the minerals get arranged in a
series of bands along a plane it is called foliation (banding).
  When the minerals are arranged in a linear manner it is called lineation.
 Example: Metamorphic form of Granite is Gneiss; a metamorphic form
of limestone becomes marble; a metamorphic form of sandstone is
Quartzite; shale becomes Schist; coal becomes graphite and rarely
becomes diamond.

ROCK CYCLE:

EARTH'S MOVEMENTS:

 Geomorphic Processes:
 Various forces from the earth's interior as well as from outside the
earth's surface cause physical stress and chemical actions on the
earth's material bringing about changes in the configuration of the
surface of the earth called geomorphic processes.
 The geomorphic process results from two types of forces - Endogenic
and Exogenic
 Exogenic forces:
 These are the forces acting on the earth's surface from above the
surface.
 Sources of energy include sunlight and gravity.
 Wind, water, glacier, etc are the different agents of exogenetic
movements.
 Exogenic forces result in the formation of minor topographical features.
 Examples: Valleys, waterfalls, beaches, deltas, etc.
 Endogenic forces:
 These are the forces acting from the earth's interior.
 The source of energy includes primordial heat and radioactivity.
 These result in large-scale upliftment, subsidence, folding, faulting, etc.
 They are responsible for the formation of major structural units on the
earth's surface e.g. mountains, plateaus, continents, etc.
 Geomorphic Processes:
 Exogenetic - Aggradation and Degradation.
 Degradation (Denudation) - Weathering, erosion, and mass
movements.
 Endogenetic - Diastrophic (slow and continuous) and Catastrophic
(Earthquake and Volcanic Eruption).
 Diastrophic - 3 types of Movements - Tectonic, Isostatic, and Eustatic.
 Tectonic - Epeirogeneric and Orogenic (folding and faulting)
 Epeirogeneric is continent building and Orogenic is mountain building
 Endogenetic Movements:
 They are classified into Diastrophic and Catastrophic movements.
 Catastrophic movements:
 These are sudden and unpredictable movements of a shorter duration.
 They can be observed e.g. earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, etc.
 Diastrophic movements:
 These are the movements that move, elevate, and build up the portions
of the earth's crust.
 These movements operate very slowly and continuously, eventually
leading to the formation of primary landforms.
 There are 3 types of diastrophic movements: tectonic, Isostatic, and
Eustatic.
 Tectonic Movements:
 The word "Tekton" means to build.
 These are continent and mountain-building movements affecting the
Earth's surface.
 These are slow and continuous operating for a long period of time
covering a large area.
 There are two types of tectonic movements - Orogenic movements and
Epeirogeneric movements.
 Epeirogeneric movements:
 These are vertical movements caused by radial forces.
 They are characterized by large-scale upliftment or emergence or
subsidence or submergence of land areas.
 They are very slow and widespread covering a large area.
 These movements lead to continental building eg the gradual upliftment
of the Deccan plateau.
 Also, the slow subsidence of the Northern Coast of the Gulf of Mexico.
 Orogenic Movements:
 These are mountain-building movements caused by tangential forces.
 They involve intense folding and faulting of narrow belts.
 The tangential forces are of two types:
 1. Compressional
 2. Tensional
 Folding:
 These are the results of compressional forces causing the earth's rock
layers to push or squeeze against each other resulting in the formation
of folds.
 Folds are structures in which the layers are bent or distorted without the
loss of continuity.
 Faulting:
 These are the results of forces that pull the rock apart and result in the
formation of faults.
 Faults are the fractures by which the primary surfaces are broken and
displaced with the loss of continuity.
 Types of folds:
 The sides of the folds are called limbs.
 The up-folds are called anticlines when the strata are bent upwards.
 Downfolds are called synclines when strata are downwards.
 If both the limbs of a fold are inclined at the same angle is called a
symmetrical fold.
 If one of the limbs is inclined at an angle more than the other then it is
called an asymmetrical fold.
 When the strata in one limb are folded beyond vertical is called an
overfold.
 A fold that is literally lying down due to the continuation of pressure on
one of the limbs is called a recumbent fold.
 When the pressure exerted upon the recumbent fold is sufficiently great
to cause it to be torn from its roots and thrust forward, it results in nappe
which is well developed in the Himalayas and Alps.
 Types of Faults:
 The upthrust block in a fault is called a Horst.
 The down-dropped block is called Grabben.
  When one of the blocks moves downward with respect to another due to
tensional force, it results in the formation of a normal fault or dip-slip
fault.
 When one block moves up in relation to another due to compressional
force, it results in the formation of a reverse fault or thrust fault.
 When both blocks move across each other involving no vertical
movement, it is called a strike-slip fault or transform fault.
 Difference between the fold and block mountains:

Fold Mountains Block Mountains

Continuity Discontinuity
Compressional force. Both Compression and tension forces

Taller and steeper. Not very taller

Greater in length Greater in width

Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alps, Vindhyas, Satpura, Black Forest, Vosges, Urals,
Atlas, Aravallis. Altai Mountains.

ISOSTASY OR ISOSTATIC MOVEMENTS:

 Isostasy is the state of equilibrium or balance in the earth's crust.

 Isostatic movements involve vertical movements under the action of
flotation displacements between the rock layers of differing densities
and mobility.
 It aims to achieve balanced crustal columns of uniform mass above a
level of compensation in which the topographic elevation is inversely
related to underlying rock density.
 For example, mountains have deeper roots.
 Near the Scandinavian mountains, where ice sheets are melting is
experiencing the gradual rising of lands which is evident in a series of
raised beaches.

EUSTACY:
  They involve worldwide movement of sea level resulting from changes
in the total volume of liquid seawater or the capacity of ocean basins.
 Convection from the interior can result in the formation of oceanic ridges
and displace water from the ocean basins as the capacity of basins
decreases.
 The expansion of basins due to internal forces can cause a drop in the
water level as the capacity of the basin increases.

Continental Drift Theory (CDT):

 The CDT was proposed by Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist in

1912.
 He proposed the theory to explain major variations in the earth's climatic
conditions.
 Assumptions: Alfred Wegener proposed that:
 The earth is made up of 3 layers - other SiAl, intermediate SiMa, and
inner NiFe.
 SiAl was the continental mass; SiMa was the oceanic crust and NiFe
was the core.
 The continental masses were assumed to be floating over the Oceanic
crust without any resistance.
 Continental Drift:
 During the Carboniferous period, there was a single supercontinent,
Pangea with a single super ocean Panthalassa.
 This supercontinent was split into Northern Angara land and Southern
Gondwana Land by a rift running from east to west; in between Tethys
Sea was created.
 The northern Angara Land consisted of North America, Greenland;
Eurasia without Arabia and India.
 The southern Gondwana land consisted of Africa with Arabia, South
America, Madagascar, India, Antarctica, and Australia.
 The North-South rift, separated North America from Eurasia and South
America from Africa which started to move toward the west.
 India started to move toward the North; Australia got separated from
Antarctica and moved toward the Northeast.
 Africa moved toward the North and finally, Arabia got separated from
Africa and merged with Asia.
 Alfred Wegener proposed the following forces as causes of
continental motion:
  Equatorward motion: It is caused by pole fleeing force which is the
resultant of gravitational differential force and force of buoyancy to
adjust the center of gravity and center of buoyancy.
 The westward motion is caused by the tidal forces of the sun and
moon.
 Evidences:
 1. Juxtafix of continents: similarities in coastlines on opposite sides of
oceans. All the oceans can be merged together to form one big
continent.
 2. Structural evidence: The structure of mountain structure, age, and
other properties across different parts of the world.
 The mountain belts of Brazil terminate on the eastern coast of South
America and the same type of mountain re-appear again in western
Africa.
 3. Stratigraphic evidence: The eastern coast of Brazil has the same type
of rock formations observed along the western coast of Africa.
 4. Fossil Evidence: Mesosuaruas, a freshwater aquatic reptile whose
fossil remains are found only in the southern part of South America and
South Africa.
 Also, fossils of Glossopteris, a fern grown only in sub-polar climates are
now found in warm climatic regions separated by wide oceans.
 5. Glacial Deposits: Glacial deposits such as layers of tillites are found
in warm tropical regions such as South America, South Africa, Australia,
India, etc.
 6. Placer Deposits: Rich deposits of Gold placers near the Ghana coast
without any source of any Gold nearby but are found in Brazil, etc.
 Criticism of CDT:
 The forces envisaged for the movements of continents were considered
to be inadequate.
 The rocks of continental crust and oceanic crust are too rigid and would
not permit the easy drifting of continents over oceanic crust.
 It did not describe the conditions of pre-carboniferous kinds.

SEAFLOOR SPREADING THEORY:

 The mapping of the oceanic floor revealed the following information:

 1. Presence of Mid-Oceanic Ridges (MOR) along the sea floor.
 These ridges are active resulting in continuous volcanic eruptions
 2. Rocks on either side of the ridge are of the same age with similar
composition and magnetic properties.
  3. The age of rocks along the oceanic floor increases away from the
ridge.
 4. Rocks of oceanic crust are younger than the continental crust.
 5. The oceanic crust is thinner than the continental crust
 Based on the above observations, Harry Hess in the year 1961
proposed the theory of Sea Floor Spreading:
 According to it, the constant magmatic eruptions at oceanic ridges
cause the rupture of the oceanic crust and new lava rises wedging onto
the oceanic crust.
 This pushes the oceanic crust on either side and therefore, the ocean
floor spreads.
 The spreading crust sinks down along the trenches and gets consumed.

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY:

 The term plate was coined by JT Wilson in 1965.

 The theory of plate tectonics was proposed by Morgan, McKenzie, and
Parker in 1967.
 Plates are broad and rigid segments of the lithosphere which include,
the rigid upper part of the upper mantle and crust.
 The plates are in motion on underlying the asthenosphere.
 Plate tectonics is the study of deformation within plates and of the
interaction of plates around their margins.
 The plates are nearly 100Km thick and unable to deform except in
response to a very strong and prolonged force.
 There are 7 major plates on the earth's surface - Pacific, North
American, South American, African, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, and
Antarctican.
 There are many minor plates - Nazca, Arabian, Cocos, Caribbean,
Philippines, etc.
 Differences with Continental Drift Theory (CDT):
 The plates move and offer very high resistance during its motion;
whereas in CDT the continents were moving without much resistance.
 It is the lithospheric plate that moves over the asthenosphere whereas,
in CDT, the continental crust moves over the oceanic crust.
 Plate Movements:
 The plates are constantly in motion but with different speeds and
different directions.
 The plate boundary is the zone of motion between two plates.
 There are 3 types of plate boundaries:
 1. Divergent
 2. Convergent
 3. Parallel.
 Divergent Plate Boundary/Margin: (Constructive):
 Ocean-Ocean Divergent Boundary:
 A divergent plate margin is the zone of tension where the lithosphere
splits, separates, and moves apart in two opposite directions.
 Hot magma comes up through the cracks and solidifies leading to the
formation of new oceanic crusts.
 The continuous build-up of solid magma results in the formation of Mid-
Oceanic Ridges (MORs) along the plate margins.
 In this plate boundary, shallow earthquakes with a focus of up to 70 Km
are observed.
 Continental-Continental Divergence:
 The formation of divergent plate boundaries along continents involves
three stages:
 1. Intra-continental rifting - the upward movement of magma below a
continental crust causes the fragmentation of the continent through the
creation of numerous cracks and faults.
 Such a series of faults is known as the rift valleys.
 Rising magma starts to come out through this rift e.g. East African Rift
Valley.
 2. Interplate thinning - It involves partial melting of the lithosphere and
gradual thinning of continental crust.
 Rift Valley starts to widen and may gradually get filled with ocean water
resulting in the formation of a shallow sea e.g. the Red Sea and Tethys
Sea between Angara and Gondwana Land.
 3. Formation of Mid-oceanic ridge (MOR) - The continuous spreading of
continental plates away from each other and the creation of new
oceanic crusts along the rift valley by the rising magma pushes the
continental mass sufficiently apart.
 At this stage, there will be a new oceanic basin along both sides of the
ridge eg the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
 Convergent Plate Boundary (Destructive):
 Ocean-Ocean Convergence:
 When two oceanic plate margins converge, an oceanic plate of higher
density descends into the aesthenosphere.
 This process is called subduction. The region of subduction is called the
subduction zone.
 The process of subduction leads to the formation of trenches which are
the deepest regions on the surface of the earth.
 Eg the Subduction of the Pacific plate below the Eurasian Plate has
resulted in the Japan Trench, Mariana Trench, Aleutian Trench, etc.
 The subducting plate undergoes deformation, intense compression,
metamorphism, and melting as it reaches the deeper parts.
 Some of the molten materials generated due to partial melting move
upward and pile up continuously on the other oceanic crust which erupts
to form volcanic mountains on the sea floor called Sea Mounts.
 When these volcanic mountains rise above the water level, it leads to
the formation of volcanic islands.
 The continuous volcanic activity gradually increases the size and
elevation of volcanic islands.
 These islands are arranged parallel to the trenches in an arc shape
called an Island Arc Eg Japan, Aleutian, Caribbean Islands, etc.
 An archipelago is a group of islands scattered in the oceans. It is formed
around the ocean-ocean convergent plate boundary due to intense
volcanic activity; e.g. Indonesia and the Philippines.
 The subduction zones are the sites of the most widespread and intense
earthquakes.
 In the Ocean-Ocean convergent plate boundary, all 3 types of
earthquakes, shallow, intermediate, and deep-seated can be found.
 The majority of earthquakes appear to be confined to a narrow dipping
zone, along the subducting slab called as Benioff zone.
OCEAN-CONTINENT CONVERGENCE :


 When a plate with ocean margin collides with a plate of continental
margin, the continental crust being more buoyant forces the higher-
density oceanic crust into the mantle. E.g. Subduction of the Nazca
plate.
 During the subduction, the thick sequence of rocks along the continental
margin is compressed and deformed to form a chain of fold
mountains. E.g. Andes and Rockies Mountains.
 As the oceanic plate subducts, it creates trenches, earthquakes are
generated, Benioff zone is created.
 As the oceanic plate subducts deeper, it undergoes partial melting and
the molten material starts to rise.
 The rising magma accumulates on the overlying continental crust and it
may eventually rise to the surface leading to the formation of volcanoes.
Subduction of the Nazca Plate below the South American Plate has
resulted in a series of volcanoes on the Andes. E.g. Cotopaxi
 Ocean continent convergence results in all three types of earthquakes
i.e. Shallow, Intermediate and deep-seated.
 The Pacific Ocean is surrounded by trenches which are zones of
earthquakes and eruption. Therefore, it is called as the Pacific Ring of
Fire.

CONTINENT-CONTINENT CONVERGENCE :

 Before the convergence of continental plate margins, the land masses

are usually separated by oceanic plate.
  As the two plates converge, the intertwining ocean contracts and the
sea floor starts to subduct below one of the plates.
 The continued convergence causes the ocean plate to completely
subduct below the continental plate.
 It breaks from the other continental block and gets completely
assimilated in the mantle. At this point in time, the volcanic activities
stopped.
 As the continental margins continue to collide, the continental crust
partially subducts under the other one creating an unusually thick layer
of intense folding.
 The two continental plates get stitched together at a zone called
the Suture zone.
 The sediments deposited in the basin between the continental margins
undergo continuous and intense compression resulting in very high fold
mountains.
 Shallow and intermediate earthquakes are observed along this margin.
E.g. The convergence of the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate has
resulted in the Himalayas.
 The convergence of the African Plate with the Eurasian Plate resulted in
the Atlas Mountains and Alps Mountains.

TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARY :

 Also called a conservative plate boundary.

 Along a conservative plate margin, the plates slide past each other
without any formation of new plates or without destroying the old ones.
 There is no volcanic activity in this plate margin.
 Shallow earthquakes happen but with higher intensity and higher
frequency.
 Along this margin, the transform faults roughly move parallel to the
direction of plate movement. E.g. San Andreas fault
 Such a series of transform faults are also found on the oceanic crust
where they offset the oceanic ridges along their length.
DIFFERENT PLATE INTERACTION AND ASSOCIATED FEATURES :

Divergence Convergence Parallel

O-O O-C O-O O-C C-C
Features - Mid- - Rift -Trench -Trench -Partial - Transform
oceanic Valley Subduction Faults
ridge -Subduction - Subduction
-Shallow zone zone - Suture
-Transform Sea Zone
Faults -Benioff -Benioff zone
- Mid- zone -Nappes
Oceanic - Fold
region - Sea Mounts Mountains

-Volcanic - Volcanoes
Islands

- Island Arcs

-Archipelago
Earthquake 1 1 1,2,3 1,2,3 1,2 1

1- Shallow

2-
Intermediat
e

3-Deep
Volcanis Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
m
Example MAR East Japan -Andes - Himalayan -San
s Carlsberg African Andreas
Ridge Aleu-- - Rockies -Alps
- Red Sea
-East Pacific Indonesia - Atlas
-MAR
REASONS BEHIND THE MOTION OF PLATES :

 Convection currents -

 The theory of convention currents was proposed by Arthur Holmes.

 Convection currents are generated in the earth's interior due to
radioactivity and primordial heat.
 These currents are of two types-
 One, involving the whole of Mantle
 Second, it involves only the Asthenosphere.
 As the convection currents rise from below, they diverge and spread
laterally.
 The convection causes the lithosphere to split resulting in the formation
of cracks.
 As the plates move laterally, currents carry the slab of lithosphere along
with them,
 When these currents encounter similar currents from opposite
directions, they descend into deeper parts of the mantle and drag the
lithosphere down into the mantle along trenches.
 Mantle Plumes
  It is a type of Mantle convection that involves jet-like plumes of low-
density material from the core-mantle boundary.
 As the plumes reach the lithosphere, they spread laterally, doming the
surface zones of the earth and moving them along the direction of
Mantle plumes.
 Mantle plumes also cause differential plate movements by supplying
magma continuously.
 Mantle plumes cause of formation of volcanic hotspots. E.g. Hawaii
hotspots, Reunion hotspots.
 Ridge Push-
 Magma rising along mid-oceanic ridges forms wedges of the new
lithosphere, on either side of plates causing plates to be pushed apart.
 Gravity sliding -
 The spreading centres of ridges stand high on the oceanic floor. This
results in the gravitational sliding of the lithospheric slab away from the
oceanic ridge.
 Slab Pull-
 They are considered to be along the subduction zones where the
subducting plate pulls the rest of the slab along.

LIMITATIONS OF PLATE TECTONICS :

 Plate tectonics in the past- formation of earlier mountains and

movement of different plates and how they are different from the present
ones.
 Plate tectonics in the future- future plate boundaries and their changes
for example Africa and Antarctica plates being surrounded by ridges
completely.
VULCANISM:

 Volcanism includes all the phenomena associated with the movement of

molten material from the interior of the earth to the surface.
 It involves 3 main processes:
 1. Generation of Magma - in the earth's interior at asthenosphere or
mantle due to an increase in temperature; decrease in pressure or
increase in water content.
 2. Intrusion of Magma - from lower layers into lithospheric layers.
 3. Extrusion of Magma - when sufficient pressure builds up in
lithospheric chambers, the magma erupts onto the surface.
 Magma:
 It is a hot, mobile, and molten silicate material.
 It is made up of a combination of solids, liquids, and gases.
 When magma reaches the surface, it erupts out as lava
 Types of magma:


Granitic Basaltic

Silica > 66% Silica < 52%

Desnity - low High

Fluidity - low High

Temperature - low High

Cools below the surface Cools above the surface

Si, Al, Na Mg, Fe, Ca

Magma Generation and Plate Tectonics Theory:

Divergence Convergence Hotspots

O-O C-C O-O O-C

Location MOR Rift Valley Sea mounts, along On Fold Intraplate

of trenches, Volcanic Mountains
eruption Islands.

Reason Convection Convection Subduction and Partial Mantle

of Currents Currents Partial melting. Melting Plumes
magma

Type of Basaltic Basaltic Andesitic Andesitic Basaltic

magma

Type of Smooth Slightly Very violent Very Smooth

Eruption along Violent violent along shield
fissures. Volcanoes

 Distribution:
 1. Ridge Volcanism - Along the Oceanic floor through MOR e.g.
Volcanoes of Iceland.
 2. Along the C-C Divergent Plate Boundary as volcanic clusters e.g.
Volcanoes of East African Rift Valley. E.g. Ol Doinyo Lengal in Tanzania.
 3. Along Ocean-Ocean Convergent Boundaries in the form of Volcanic
Arcs e.g. Volcanoes of Japan, Indonesia, Philippines.
 Also, the active volcano of India - Barren Island, and the Dormant
Volcano of India - Narcondam.
 Also, Krakatoa Volcano and Mt Tambora in Indonesia.
 Taal Volcano in the Philippines and Mt Fuji Volcano in Japan.
 Tonga Volcano - Recent Eruption ie 2022; underwater Volcano
 4. Along O-C convergence in the form of a straight chain of volcanoes
on the fold mountains e.g. Volcanoes on Andes and Rockies.
  Highest Active Volcano in the World - Ojos Del Salado in the Andes.
 Ecuador - Cotopaxi-Acive Volcano and Chimborazo.
 US - Mount Saint Helens in the Rockies; erupted in 1980 with gross
miscalculation.
 5. Along Hot Spots in the lines of Volcanoes; Active volcanoes of Hawaii
Islands ie Mauna Loa, Mouna Kea; Reunion Hotspots.

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS:

 Extrusive features:
 1. Volcanic cone:
 Shield volcanoes: They are formed by very fluid, basaltic magma.
 They are formed along hot spots due to mantle plumes.
 They are non-violent in nature causing smooth eruption.
 They are the largest of all volcanoes but are not steep.
 Example, Mauna Lao, Mauna Kia.
 Ash Cinder Volcanoes: They are formed by the accumulation of loose
particles around the vent.
 They are dominated by ash, debris, and other volcanic material with
less lava.
 Example Taal Volcano of Philippines.
 Composite of Strato Volcano: They are formed by the accumulation of
Viscous Magma with lower fluidity.
 They are the steepest of all volcanoes.
 The alternative layers of ash and lava provide for composite structure.
 E.g. Mount Fuji in Japan.
 2. Crater: A funnel-shaped depression at the mouth of a volcanic vent is
called a crater.
 When the volcano is inactive it may result in a crater lake.
 Caldera: It is a greatly enlarged depression formed due to the violent
eruption of the volcano resulting in the subsidence of a major part of the
volcano itself.
 When water is collected, it results in Caldera Lake.
 Example Lake Toba of Indonesia.
 Flood Basalt Province:
 When a fluidic basaltic magma from a hotspot erupts over a plateau
region, it flows for a long distance covering an area of thousands of
kilometers called Flood Basalt Province.
 Hot Springs: When water sinks deep enough beneath the surface to be
heated by a hot spot, magma chamber, or a Geothermal belt.
  Water then rises to the surface and flows without explosion resulting in
hot or thermal springs.
 Eg Hot springs of Iceland, USA, and India (Manali, Manikaran, Rajgir,
etc)
 Geyser: These are fountains of hot water and superheated steams
ejected intermittently at regular intervals with explosions.
 E.g. Geysers of the USA (Old Faithful Geyser), New Zealand.
 Fumarole: It is a continuous jet-like emission of steam and other gases
without water.
 Mud Volcano: It involves the eruption of mud mixed with water and
gases and may not contain magma. E.g. Mud Volcanoes of Baratang
Island of Andaman and Nicobar.

VULCANISM - INTRUSIVE FEATURES:

 Batholith: These are long irregular and dome-shaped structures formed

by the cooling of magma along deeper layers of the lithosphere.
 Lacolith: These are mushroom-shaped features formed due to the
intrusion of magma along bedding planes.
 It maintains a connection with the magma chamber.
 Lopolith: When magma solidifies in saucer-shaped depressions along a
shallow basin, it results in Lopolith.
 Sills and Sheets: These are intrusive features usually formed parallel to
bedding planes of sedimentary layers.
 Dykes: These are wall-like formations, formed due to the solidification of
magma intruding vertically along sedimentary rocks.

GEOMAGNETISM:

 The magnetic field associated with the Earth is called Geomagnetism.

 Earth has an outer rocky mantle below which there is the liquid outer
core which surrounds the solid inner core.
 It is considered that the motion of charges i.e. iron in a liquid part of the
earth's core generates a magnetic field.
 The motion of charges is caused by:
 1. Rotation of the earth.
 2. Heat rising from the earth's inner core results in the generation of
convection currents of molten material in the outer core.
  The motion of ions in this molten material would produce an electric
current through the earth's core that results in a magnetic field around
the earth i.e. Geomagnetism.
 Palaeomagnetism:
 It is the historical study of the earth's magnetism in rocks.
 When magma crystallizes, the crystals of ferromagnetic minerals such
as iron, manganese, titanium, etc. acquire stable magnetism which
becomes frozen as the magma cools down.
 This acquired magnetism is called fossil magnetism.
 Such rocks will have ferromagnetic minerals oriented in the same
direction as that of Earth's magnetic fields at the time of its
consolidation.
 A gradual change in the orientation can be observed in the rocks of
oceanic floors with time.
 This implies the position of magnetic poles moves steadily over time
 This movement is called Polar wandering.
 Some of the oceanic rocks show completely opposite orientations of
magnetic minerals indicating reversal of earth's magnetic field.
 The reversal of the earth's magnetic field may be due to convection
currents in the outer core.
 Such reversal is observed once every 200 to 300 thousand years.
 Aurora Australis and Aurora Borealis:
 The magnetosphere of the earth's atmosphere which is formed due to
the earth's magnetic field blocks the charged particles from solar
winds.
 However, some of these charged particles get trapped near polar
regions where the magnetic field lines are straight.
 Due to the interaction of charged particles in the earth's atmosphere
near polar regions colorful lights are released called Auroras.
 It is called Aurora Borealis near the North Pole and Aurora Australis
near the South Pole.

EARTHQUAKES:

 Vibrations or oscillations of the earth are caused by transient

disturbance of elastic or gravitational equilibrium of the rocks at or
beneath the surface of the earth.
 The scientific study of earthquakes is called seismology.
 The point below the earth's surface where energy is released during the
earthquake is called a focus or hypocentre.
 The epicenter is the point on the surface that is nearest to the focus.
 Causes:
 Earthquakes are caused by both natural and anthropogenic reasons:
 Natural:
 Plate movements.
 Volcanic eruptions.
 Meteorite.
 Landslide and Land subsidence.
 Anthropogenic:
 Mining and Blasting.
 Nuclear explosion.
 Deep Ocean drilling.
 Reservoir Induces Seismicity (RIS).

 Earthquake Waves:
 An earthquake generates two types of waves i.e. Body waves and
Surface waves.
 Body waves:
 These are generated from the focus and move through the interior of
the earth.
 There are two types of body waves: P and S waves.
 P Waves (Primary or Longitudinal or Compressional Waves):
 They oscillate back and forth in the direction of propagation.
 They are the first earthquake waves to be detected during an
earthquake.
 P waves depend on the density and compressibility of the material.
 Therefore, P waves can pass through solids, liquids, and gasses
 S Waves (Secondary or Transverse Waves):
 The oscillation occurs perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
 They depend on the rigidity of the material through which they are
passing.
 Therefore S-waves cannot pass through liquid and gases.
 Surface Waves:
 They are generated from Epicentre due to the interaction of body waves
with the surface.
 They are confined to the surface of the earth.
 They are much slower than the body waves and can cause more
damage.
 Shadow Zone:
 Seismic Waves undergo reflection, refraction, or change in speed while
passing from one medium to another.
 A shadow zone is a zone in the earth's interior where earthquake waves
are not reported.
 P-waves are not reported between 105* to 145* from the focus resulting
in the P-wave shadow zone.
 It is caused by bending and slowing down as it enters the outer core.
 The S-Waves are not reported beyond 105* as S-Waves cannot pass
through the liquid outer core.
 The extent of shadow zones and the timing and speed of arrival of
earthquake waves are important sources of information regarding the
earth's interior.
 Types of earthquakes:
 Shallow earthquakes 0-70 Km focus; found along all types of plate
margins.
 Intermediate earthquakes = 70-350 Km; found along all convergent
plate boundaries.
 Deep-seated earthquakes = 350-700 Km of focus along Ocean and
Ocean; Ocean-Contient Convergence.
 Distribution of earthquakes:
 Circum-Pacific Belt with Ocean-Ocean convergent boundary along the
Western side; and the Ocean-Continent convergent along the Eastern
side.
 Mediterranean and Trans-Asiatic Belt due to continent-continent
convergence.
 Along Mid-Oceanic Ridges (MOR): due to divergent plate boundary.
 Along the East African Rift Valley due to continent-continent divergence.
 Measurement of Earthquakes:
 The instrument used for the recording of earthquake waves is called a
seismograph.
 The record produced by the instrument i.e. a seismograph is called a
seismogram.
 The magnitude of the earthquake:
 It is the amount of energy released during an earthquake at the focus.
 It is objective in nature.
 Magnitude remains constant.
 Richter scale is used which is from 1 -10 and technically no upper limit
which is a log scale.
 The intensity of the earthquake:
 It is the extent of visible damage caused.
 So, intensity is subjective in nature
 Intensity decreases away from the epicentre.
 A modified Mercalli scale is used which is 1-12 and is a normal scale.
  Examples of earthquakes:
 World:
 Chile Earthquake (1960) - 9.5.
 Indian Ocean Earthquake (2004) - 9.1.
 Japan Earthquake (2004) - 9.1.
 India:
 Bhuj Earthquake (2001) - 7.7 magnitude.
 2005 - Kashmir Earthquake (POK) - 7.6 magnitude.
 Sikkim Earthquake - 2011 - magnitude 6.9.
 Latur Earthquake - 6.2 magnitudes in 1993.
 1991 - Uttarkashi - 6.1 Magnitude in 1991.
 Indian Ocean Earthquake (2004) and its impact on India along with
Tsunami - 9.1
 Nepal Earthquake (2015) - 7.8 Magnitude.
 2023 - Nepal Earthquake - 6.2 Magnitude.
 Impacts of earthquakes:
 Loss of life, property, damage to infrastructure.
 Deformation of land, changes in slope; fire incidence.
 Landslide and land subsidence
 Dam outburst; change in river course, volcanic eruptions.
 Tsunami.

TSUNAMI:

 It is a Japanese word for harbour waves.

 They are also called seismic sea waves.
 There are 4 stages during Tsunami:
 1. Generation: This is due to the vertical displacement of the water
column within the ocean.
 It is due to earthquakes during normal and reverse faults within the
oceanic floor.
 Also, due to underwater volcanic eruption; landslide and land
subsidence along the oceanic floor; meteoritic impact; and underwater
nuclear explosions.
 2. Propagation in Deepwater: Along deep waters, the speed of waves
will be very high and Tsunami is not visible due to low amplitude. It will
not cause any damage.
  3. Propagation in shallow water: As the Tsunami waves approach the
coast depth of water decreases resulting in a decrease in the speed and
increase in amplitude. This sudden decrease in speed results in the
piling up of water near the coast called the shoaling effect.
 4. Landfall: Tsunamis break over the land.

EXOGENTIC MOVEMENTS.

 These are the earth's movements caused due to various forces acting
from outside the Earth's surface.
 The source of energy for exogenetic movements is sunlight and gravity.
 The different agents of exogenetic movements are wind, river water,
groundwater, glaciers, and waves.
 Exogenetic movements involve aggradation and degradation.
 Aggradation: It is the action of various processes that cause deposition
on the surface in order to bring uniformity of grade i.e. slope.
 Degradation or Denudation: It involves the combined action of various
processes that cause the wearing away of the earth's surface and cause
a general lowering and leveling out of the earth's surface.
 It involves weathering, erosion, and mass movements.

WEATHERING:

 It is the total effect of various processes that cooperate in bringing about

the decay and disintegration of rocks involving no large-scale
transportation.
 Weathering is insitu and it does not involve the transportation of
degraded rock materials.
 Factors affecting Weathering:
 1. Temperature: The range of temperature particularly the diurnal range
subjects the surface layer to expansion and contraction continuously
causing a physical breakdown.
 The temperature also increases the rate of chemical reactions.
 2. Water: When water is added or removed, it imposes mechanical
stress on the rocks and causes them to split.
  The presence or absence of water decides certain chemical reactions
causing chemical weathering.
 3. Biological Agents: These include the action of plant roots; burrowing
animals and micro-organisms.
 4. Rock Type and structure: It involves characteristics such as the
presence of massiveness, porosity, permeability, fractures, etc.
 Eg sedimentary rocks are weathered faster than igneous rocks.
 5. Slope and aspect: A steep slope will greatly aid weathering as
disintegrated materials will immediately flow down.
 The slopes which are exposed to wind, rain, and sunlight are more
prone to weathering.
 Types of weathering:
 Mechanical/Physical Weathering.
 Chemical Weathering.
 Biological Weathering.

Difference between Mechanical and Chemical Weathering:

Mechanical I. Chemical
1. Disintegration of rocks a. The decomposition of rocks
takes place without any takes place with changes in
change in the chemical the chemical constituents of
constituents of rocks. rocks.
2. Factors such as b. Temperature, moisture, etc.,
temperature, moisture, cause minerals in rocks to
frost action, and wind either dissolve in water or
cause physical break-up change their composition.
of rocks. c. It occurs in moist and cold
3. It is more rapid in desert climates
climates. d. It mostly takes place near
4. Rocks are affected to the surface of the earth.
great depths. e. Its agents are water, oxygen,
5. Its agents are and various organic acids.
temperature and
moisture.

 Physical Weathering:
 1. Frost Shaterring: It is due to the freezing of water.
 When water finds its way into cracks or pores, it wedges apart rock
fissures and joints causing deeper cracks.
 In plain and desert areas, it results in frost shattering, and in glacial
regions it causes freeze-thaw.
 2. Haloclasty: It involves the growth of salt crystals by crystallization as
moisture evaporates, thus creating pressure in pore spaces and cracks
causing them to deepen. This is also salt as salt weathering.
 3. Exfoliation - The rapid expansion and contraction of the surface rocks
weakens the outer shell creating fissures causing the rock shell to peel
off.
 It results in exfoliation domes.
 4. Pressure Release - The confining pressure from the weight of
overlying rocks is released when the overlying cover is removed by
weathering or erosion.
 This causes rocks to expand leading to the development of fractures.
 Types of Chemical Weathering:
 1. Hydrolysis - It involves a chemical union of water and minerals.
 It causes specific chemical changes in which new material is produced
through the solution.
 2. Hydration - It occurs when minerals incorporate water into their
molecular structure. It causes swelling.
 3. Oxidation-Reduction - It involves the addition or removal of oxygen
and usually causes discoloration.
 They are the first visible signs of chemical weathering.
 4. Carbonation - The rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide as it falls through
the atmosphere and gets converted into carbonic acid.
 Limestone and dolomite are altered by the dissolving action of carbonic
acid.
 Biological Weathering:
 It involves the breakdown of rocks due to pressure exerted by plant
roots, burrowing animals, microorganisms, worms, insects, etc
 The decomposing organic matter releases different chemicals which
may increase the rate of weathering.
EROSION:

 It refers to the wearing away of land surface by the mechanical action of

debris derived from weathering as they are transported to different
locations by agents like wind, water, glaciers, etc
 Types of erosion:
 1. Abrasion
 2. Attrition
 3. Cavitation
 4. Corrosion
 5. Deflation
 6. Hydraulic Action
 7. Plucking.

 1. Abrasion: The wearing away of surfaces by mechanical processes

like rubbing, scratching, polishing, etc.
 Abrasion in water is called corrosion.
 The result of abrasion in desert areas is finely polished surfaces called
ventifacts.
 2. Attrition: It involves the reduction of the size of fragments by friction
and impact during transportation.
 It breaks down the sedimentary load into finer particles.
 3. Cavitation: The collapse of water bubbles in rivers or near the coastal
region leads to an explosion sending shock waves that tend to
disintegrate the adjacent rocks.
 4. Corrosion: It involves the wearing away of particles by the solvent
and chemical action of water.
 5. Deflation: The lifting and removal of dust and sand by wind is called
deflation.
 It involves aerial erosion by removing unconsolidated materials.
 6. Hydraulic Action: The breaking of rocks by fast-moving waters is
called hydraulic action.
 7. Plucking: As the glaciers move they pluck the rocks at their base,
drag them, erode, and disintegrate them during the process.

MASS MOVEMENTS:

 It involves large-scale movement of weathered or disintegrated material

under the influence of gravity along downhill slopes.
 The weathered material moves downhill slope under the influence of
gravity with or without the assistance of running water
 Types:
  Slow Movements:
 1. Soil Creep: The slope downhill movement of the soil and weathered
mantle occurring on the slope is called soil creep.
 They are continuous movements but difficult to notice.
 2. Solifluction: It involves the slow movement of soil mixed with water as
a viscous fluid.
 It is more active in glacier regions.
 Rapid Movements:
 1. Landslide: The movement of a cross-section of a hill under the
influence of gravity is called a landslide.
 In case of a landslide, the unconsolidated material crosses across the
mountain slope maintaining continuous contact with the surface.
 2. Mudflow: It involves the rapid movement of uncompacted soil
saturated with water.
 3. Earthflow: It forms on terraces and along hillsides which are capable
of flowage under the influence of gravity when saturated with water
along lower layers.
 4. Rockslide/rock fall: It involves rapid movement of rocky material
vertically or along the mountain slopes.
 Causes of Mass Movements:
 1. Natural: Earthquakes, heavy rainfall, Young Fold Mountains; flooding;
Cloudburst; nature of rocks eg sedimentary rocks; volcanic eruptions,
etc.
 2. Anthropogenic: Deforestation; Construction activities such as roads,
dams, tunnels, bridges, and buildings; Soil erosion; Overgrazing;
disturbance of drainage channels; mining and blasting activity, etc.
 Regions of India with common mass movements:
 All Himalayan State - J&K, Himachal, Uttrakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal.
 North East States
 Western Ghats.
 Hills of Central India including Aravallis.

LANDFORMS:

 Riverine/fluvial - River Water.

 Karst - Groundwater.
 Marine - Sea Water.
 Arid Desert - Wind.
 Glacial - Glacier.
RIVERINE TOPOGRAPHY:

Stages-> Youth Mature Old

Slope High Moderate Very Low

Speed High Moderate Very Low

Erosional Capacity High Moderate Very Low

Erosion Vertical Lateral Very Low

Deposition No Moderate High

Meander No Moderate High

Riverine Topography:

Topography Process Erosional Depositional

Features Features
Riverine  Corrasion  V-shaped  Meander - Slip
 Attrition valley of slope
(River  Cavitation  Gorges &
Water) or,  Corrosion Canyons
 Hydraulic  Waterfall
Fluvial Action  Cataract
 Landslide  Rapids
Topography  Mud Flow  Plunge
Pools
 Potholes
 River
Capture &
Wind Gap.
 River cliff of
meander
RIVERINE TOPOGRAPHY:

 Depositional Features:
 Flood Plain: A floodplain created on both sides of the river.
 A sudden and temporary inundation of water is called a flood.
 There should be construction activities on flood plains eg Yamuna Flood
Plains.
 The rivers generally change their path within the flood plains.
 Levee: It is a natural bund kind of structure.
 Oxbow lakes: It is very common in the northern plains eg the Ramganga
River.
 At the mouth of the river, most of the sediments get deposited leading to
the formation of a delta eg Sunderban Delta.
 Alluvial Fans are formed at the junction of youth and mature stage.
 Big-size alluvial cones are commonly found in the Ladakh region due to
a lack of vegetation.
 Estuary - Rivers may or may not bring sediments; it is characteristic of
the old stage. eg Narmada and Tapi; Amazon River.
 There is a formation of more delta in the Eastern Coasts as compared
to the Western coast of India.

KARST TOPOGRAPHY:

 Conditions required for Karst Topography:

 Presence of large-scale limestone and dolomite rocks near the surface.
 Moderate to heavy precipitation.
 The presence of hard strata after a certain depth.
 Regions:
 Erstwhile Yugoslavia.
 Italy; Islands of France and Spain.
 Yucatan Peninsula.
 South East Asian Countries.
 Northern Australia.
 Meghalaya, India.
 Processes involved in Karst Topography:
 Hydrolysis, Hydration, and Carbonation will take place.
 Corassion but more of Corrosion.
 Erosional Features:
 Sinkholes - large depressions.
 A sinkhole that is deep and filled with water is called a blue hole; ner
coastal regions.
  Swallow Hole - A shallow and wider sinkhole is called a Swallow hole.
 Doline - It is a merger of multiple sinkholes.
 Uvala/Valley Sinks - It is when multiple dolines merge.
 Blind Valley and Caves.
 Depositional Features:
 Stalagtite and Stalagmite
 Cave Pillar.

MARINE TOPOGRAPHY:

 It is found all along the coast regions.

 Agent of action: Corassion; Attrition; Cavitation; Corrosion and Hydraulic
action.
 Erosional coast: Gujrat, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
 Depositional Coast: Kerela and Entire Eastern Coast.
 Erosional features - Cliff; Wave Cut platform; Bay; Hanging Valley and
Waterfall; Sea caves; Natural Bridge or Sea Arch; Sea Stack and Sea
Stump; blow hole.
 Depositional features - Wave built platform; Beach; Off Shore Sand Bars
eg Abdul Kalam Island; Sand Spit; Tombolo; Lagoon eg Chilika and
Pulicat Lake.

ARID OR DESERT TOPOGRAPHY:

 Here, the agent is wind.

 Frost shattering; exfoliation; oxidation and reduction; deflation and
abrasion; Attrition; Deflation hollow; Mushroom rocks; Zeugen and
Yardung; Inselberg (remnant of a Hill).
 Depositional Features - Sand dunes; Crescent shapes; Parabolic;
Barchans; Seif; Transverse Sandunes; Longitudinal Sandunes; Playa
Lake or Bolsan Lake; Pediment and Pediplains;
 Sahara Desert; Highest Sand Dunes in the Namib Desert; the Dryest
Desert is the Atacama Desert.
 Hunder Sand Dunes - Bactrian Camels; in between Karakoram and
Ladakh Region.

GLACIAL TOPOGRAPHY:

 Processes Active:
 Abrasion and Plucking are the major processes which are active here.
 Erosional Features:
 Nivation Hollows; Cirque; Arete; Horn; Col; U-shaped valleys; Hanging
Valley; Fjords.
 Depositional Features:
 Moraines - Unconsolidated sediments of sand, clay and various other.
 Types of moraines: Lateral Moranines; Medial Moraines; End Moraines.
 Moraine Capped Lakes - Glacial Lake Outburst Flow (GLOF) is a result
of it; Chorabari Lake in Kedarnath; Recent Sikkim GLOF.
 Tillites; Drumlins; Esker.
 CLIMATOLOGY
 Topics to be covered:
 Weather and Climate.
 Composition of Atmosphere.
 Structure of Atmosphere.
 Insolation, Heat Budget and Albedo.
 Temperature and Inversion of Temperature.
 Pressure.
 Planetary Winds.
 Seasonal Winds and Local Winds.
 Humidity, Evaporation and Condensation.
 Types of Clouds and Precipitation.
 Jet Streams.
 Air Masses.
 Temperate Cyclones and Tropical Cyclones.
 Climatic Regions.
 Weather and Climate:
 Weather is day to day state of the atmosphere of a particular place.
 Climate is the average atmospheric conditions of an area over a
considerable period of time calculated for a minimum of 30 years.
 Climate includes the factors of rainfall, temperature, humidity, pressure,
winds, etc.
 Composition of Atmosphere:
 The atmosphere is a layer of air surrounding the earth held by gravity.
 It is a thick gaseous envelope which surrounds the earth from all sides.
 Constituent and Percentage by Volume:
 1. Nitrogen - 78.08%
 2. Oxygen - 20.95%
 3. Argon - 0.93%
 4. Carbon dioxide - 0.0418%
 Other gases in order: Neon, Helium, Methane, Krypto, Xenon, Hydrogen
and Radon.
 Also, Water vapour and dust particles are present.
 Nitrogen: Nitrogen fixation helps in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.
 Oxygen: It is required for respiration and is reactive in nature; forms
oxides very easily.
 Carbon Dioxide: It is expelled out of living organisms during respiration;
it is a greenhouse gas, etc.
  Noble Gases: Argon, Neon, Helium, Krypto; Xenon and Radon.
 Water Vapour: It is a variable gas and varies from one season to
another; responsible for the Green House Effect.
 Dust Particles: These are very fine particles; that get lifted by the current
of air and hence their presence in the atmosphere.
 These are known as hygroscopic nuclei.
 Clouds are a combination of water and dust particles.

STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE:

 The extent of the atmosphere is up to 64,000 Km.

 Homosphere (first 80 KM of atmosphere) and Heterosphere (from 80
Km to 64,000 Km).

Homosphere Heterosphere
Upto 80 Km Beyond 80 Km
Uniform mixture of Separate layers
gases
Molecular Form Atomic Form
Water Vapour and Almost Absent
Dust Particles

 Homosphere:
 Troposphere (6-16 Km)
 Stratosphere (16 to 50 Km)
 Mesosphere (50-80 Km)
 Heterosphere:
 Thermosphere - Ionosphere (80-500-700 Km)
 Exosphere - Magnetosphere (Beyond 700 Km)
 Troposphere:
 It extends from sea level to 16 km near the tropics and 6 Km near the
poles.
 Temperature decreases at the rate of 6.5* Celsius per Km which is
called as Normal Lapse Rate.
 The troposphere contains 99% of water vapour and dust particles and
75% of all the gases in the atmosphere.
 This is also called the zone of turbulence and mixing.
 All weather phenomenon is restricted to the troposphere.
 The edge of the troposphere is called tropopause where mixing stops.
 Stratosphere:
 It extends from tropopause to up to 50 Km.
 The layers are stratified and non-convective in nature.
  Temperature rises in the stratosphere due to the absorption of UV
Radiation by ozone.
 The conditions are extremely dry except few rare clouds called
stratospheric clouds such as Mother of Pearl, Nacreous, etc.
 The edge of the stratosphere is called Stratopause.
 Mesosphere:
 It extends from Stratopause to up to 80 Km.
 Temperature decreases with height and reaches the lowest in the
atmosphere which is around -90*Celsius.
 The edge of the Mesosphere is called Menopause.
 Thermosphere:
 It extends from 80 Km to up to 500-700 Km.
 It consists of lower nitrogen and upper oxygen layers.
 Temperature rises rapidly in the thermosphere due to the absorption of
high-energy solar radiation.
 However, the high temperature is not felt due to the absence of
molecular collisions.
 Exosphere:
 It extends from 700 Km to vacuum and contains atomic oxygen, helium
and hydrogen.
 It contains a magnetosphere which is composed of electrons and
protons derived from solar winds and other charged particles trapped in
Earth's magnetic fields.
 They are arranged in two bands known as Van Allen Radiation Belts at
the height of 3,000 and 15,000 km.

IONOSPHERE:

 It extends between 80 to 650 kilometers from the surface.

 It is formed due to ionization by solar radiation.
 It is stronger in the daytime and it is made up of different layers such as
D, E, F, etc.
 It reflects short-wave radio waves to the surface and helps in radio
communication.
 Karman Line:
 It is the boundary defined at 100 km from Sea Level where outer space
begins.
  International Law doesn't define the limit of the air space however,
above 100 kilometers the air is too thin for any kind of navigation other
than Space Crafts.

INSOLATION:

 Insolation is Incoming Solar radiation.

 The amount of insolation received by the earth in the form of incoming
solar radiation is equal to 2 billionth of Solar Energy.
 The amount of the insolation received from the surface is equal to 1.92
calories per centimeter square per minute which is called the Solar
Constant.
 The incoming solar radiation is shorter in wavelength and the
atmosphere is transparent to it.
 This radiation is absorbed by the Earth's surface and is remitted as
long-wavelength terrestrial radiation.
 The atmosphere is opaque to this outgoing terrestrial radiation.
 The warming of the earth's atmosphere and its surface by the
absorption of terrestrial radiation by some of the gases in the
atmosphere is known as the Greenhouse Effect and the gases involved
as known as Greenhouse Gases.
 Examples of greenhouse Gases are C02, CH4, N2O, HFC/PFC, SF6,
etc. (these six gases were covered under the Kyoto Protocol.
 Normal Lapse Rate:
 The Earth's surface absorbs the incoming solar radiation and emits
territorial radiation hence it acts as a source of heat for the atmosphere.
 Therefore, temperature decreases with height at the rate of 6.5 Degrees
Celsius per Kilometer which is also known as the Normal Lapse Rate.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE INSOLATION:

 1) Latitude: It affects the angle of incidence of the insolation.

 Vertical sun rays along the tropical regions cause insolation to be
concentrated in smaller areas than the temperate and polar regions
where oblique sun rays result in lesser intensity.
 2) Length of the Day: The Longer the day higher the amount of
insolation received at the surface.
 3) Transparency of the Atmosphere: Cloud-cover dust particles and
water vapor reduce the transparency of the atmosphere and reduce the
insolation received at the surface.
 Methods of Heat Transfer:
 Four Main Methods Of Heat Transfer:
  1) Radiation:
 It involves the transfer of heat in the form of radiant energy. Insolation is
a form of radiation.
 2) Conduction:
 It involves the transfer of heat through molecular activity at the zone of
contact. It transfers heat between the earth's surface and the
troposphere.
 3) Convection:
 Transfer of heat by vertical movement of a mass of air or any other
matter.
 For example, convection of air along the Equator.
 4) Advection:
 Transfer of heat by horizontal movement of mass.
 For example, Platenary winds or ocean currents.

HEAT BUDGET:

 On a global scale, the Earth must reradiate as much heat back to space
as it receives from the Sun.
 This is necessary to maintain a uniform temperature on the earth.
 The gains and losses in heat by way of incoming solar radiation and
outgoing terrestrial radiation are called the Heat Budget.
 Diagram For The Heat Budget:
  The solar energy radiated towards the earth's surface is expressed as
100% or 100 units.
 Out of 100%, 35% of the total solar radiation entering the earth's
atmosphere is scattered by dust particles (6%), reflected by clouds
(27%), and reflected by the ground surface (2%).
 51 % is received by the earth's surface (received as direct radiation),
and 14 % is absorbed by atmospheric gases (ozone, oxygen, etc.) and
water vapor in various vertical zones of the atmosphere.
 The heat budget of the atmosphere is made up of 48% solar radiation,
with 14% originating from short-wave entering solar radiation and 34%
coming from outgoing long-wave terrestrial radiation.

ALBEDO:

 It is the ratio between reflected and incoming radiation. It is also called

the Reflection Co-Effficient.
 The average albedo of the entire earth is 35%.

Temperature:

 The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called temperature.

 Factors Affecting Temperature:
 1) Insolation: The higher the insolation higher the temperature.
 Insolation depends upon latitude, length of the day, and transparency of
the atmosphere.
 Even though the sun's rays fall vertically along the equator throughout
the year.
 The equator experience lower temperature than the sub-tropics due to
cloud cover.
 2) Albedo: Surfaces with higher albedo reflect more insolation resulting
in lesser absorption causing lower temperature.
 3) Altitude: Temperature decreases with an increase in altitude due to
normal lapse rate.
 4) Nature of the Surface.

 The surface differs depending on the specific heat of the substance.

 The land surface with lower specific heat heats up more rapidly and
intensely than the water surface also, the land cools more rapidly.
 5) Continentality:
 It is the distance from the sea the locations in the continent's interior will
have a higher temperature range than coastal locations.
  For example, Delhi experiences a hotter summer and colder winter than
Mumbai.
 6) Distribution of Continents And Ocean:
 The Northern Hemisphere with the more proportion of land experiences
a higher range of temperature than the Southern Hemisphere where
water surface is more.
 Platenary Wind/Air Masses and Ocean Current helps in transporting
heat from one region to another and help in the Global Distribution of
temperature.

ISOTHERMS:

 The line joining places of equal temperature are called Isotherms.

 Near the Tropical Region, the temperature remains high therefore called
Torrid Zones.
 Near the Polar Region, the temperature remains low due to the low
angle of incidence and lower intensity of sunlight therefore called a
Frigid Zone.
 In between the torrid and frigid, a Temperate Zone exists due to
moderate temperature.
 The Isotherms shift Northwards between January to July and Southward
between July to January.
 The shifting of isotherms is more pronounced in the Northern
Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere.
 The isotherms bend equatorward over oceans in July and bend
poleward in January.
 The seasonal changes are less marked in the Southern Hemisphere
than over the Northern Hemisphere.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, higher summer temperatures and lower
winter temperatures are experienced.
 The range of temperature increases from the equator to the poles e.g.
Equatorial Region experiences a lower range of temperature than
Siberia between summer and winter.

TERMS RELATED TO TEMPERATURE:

 1) Diurnal Range of Temperature: Daily maximum- daily minimum

temperature is diurnal range.
 2) Mean Daily Temperature: Average of 24 hours of temperature (the
sum of 24 hours of temperature/24 hours).
 3) Mean Monthly Temperature: The sum of daily temperature for 30
days divided by 30 is the Mean Monthly Temperature.
  4) Annual Range of Temperature: Highest mean monthly
temperature- lowest mean monthly temperature.

TEMPERATURE INVERSION:


 The Average rate of decrease in temperature with altitude is called as
Normal Lapse Rate.
 Under certain special conditions in the atmosphere reversal of the
normal lapse rate occurs so that temperature increases with the altitude
this phenomenon is called Temperature Inversion.
 Types Of Temperature Inversion:
 1) Radiation Inversion:
 It is observed during the following conditions:
 a) Long Winter Nights.
 b) Calm and windless.
 c) Clear and cloudless sky.
 In these above-mentioned conditions, the loss of radiation by the land
causes the land to cool down & the air just above the surface also cools.
 This colder air is replaced by warmer air above which has absorbed
heat from the radiation loss.
 Therefore, temperature increases with the increase in altitude resulting
in temperature inversion.
 It is frequent during winters over the Northern Plains of India.
 2) Air Drainage Inversion:
  a) The mountain tops experience rapid fall in the temperature during the
night time.
 b) Valley sides and floor remain warmer due to radiation exchange
between the valley sides.
 c) The cooler and denser air from the hilltop will start to sink to the valley
floor due to gravity.
 After some time the warmer air rests over cooler air resulting in the
inversion of the temperature.
 3) Frontal Inversion:
 It is caused by to Frontal Convergence of air masses.
 Along the fronts, the warmer air is forced upwards from the ground by
the undercutting of cold air which leads to temperature inversion where
warm air is lying above the cold air.
 4) Advection Inversion:
 It is produced when a thick layer of warm air passes over a cold water
surface or snow-covered surface which results in Advection inversion.

SIGNIFICANCE OF TEMPERATURE INVERSION:

 1) Temperature inversion prevents convection by creating stability in the

atmosphere and hence prevents precipitation.
 2) Temperature inversion reduces wind activity and prevents the
dispersal of pollutants which results in bad air air quality e.g. Delhi in the
months of November, and December.
 3) The temperature inversion conditions are favorable for the formation
of fog.
 4) Formation of fog reduces visibility and disrupts transportation.
 Smog Formation: In urban areas where the air is stable and winds are
absent fog mixes with smoke and results in the formation of Smog.
 This is a thick layer and remains closer to the ground.
 5) Air drainage type of inversion pattern of settlement in the
mountainous region and the mountain slopes are preferred over the
valley floors and mountain tops.
 For example, human settlements along the hills of the Himalayas, and
fruit orchards of Himachal/Uttarakhand in India, coffee plantations of
Brazil.


PRESSURE:

 Pressure is force experience per unit area.

 Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by Earth's atmosphere on
the surface.
 Pressure is measured by a barometer.
 The average atmospheric pressure near sea level is 1013 millibar.
 Isobars are a line connecting places with uniform pressure.
 Various Factors Affecting Pressure: (9:58 AM)
 Altitude:
 The pressure of air at ground level is higher than that of air at higher
altitudes.
 When air rises through convection, its volume increases, pressure
decreases and temperature decreases.
 When air sinks through subsidence, its volume decreases, pressure
increases, and temperature increases.
 Temperature:
 When air is heated it expands and the outward pressure of the molecule
is spread over a larger area.
 Therefore, the pressure of air decreases.
 When air is cooled, it contracts causing a decrease in volume and
increasing pressure.
 Rotation of earth:
 It causes air at the poles to be thrown away towards the equator.
 As the air moves away from the poles, it occupies a larger area and
expands causing a drop in the pressure.
 Formation of Pressure Belts:
 Near to equator, high temperature causes the expansion of air and the
development of low-pressure belts.
 The strong heating results in convection at the equator and this rising air
reaches the top of the troposphere and diverges to move towards the
poles.
 This air which is moving towards the poles starts to converge into
smaller areas and density increases and begins to sink ie subsidence at
30* North and South resulting in a sub-tropical high-pressure belt.
 Some of the air from this high-pressure belt moves toward the equator
and some toward the poles.
 The air moving towards the equator replaces the air rising there
resulting in the completion of a cell.
 Low temperatures at the poles result in the contraction of air and cause
the development of high-pressure belts.
 The rotation of the earth, causes the air near the poles to spread out
and occupy a larger area resulting in a drop in the pressure and causing
a development of a temperate low or sub-polar low at 60* North and
South.
 Some of the air from sub-tropical high pressure moving towards the
poles converges with the air from the poles at 60* North and South
leading to convection at 60* North and South.
 The rising air at 60* diverges and moves towards 30* and 90* along the
upper troposphere.
 The air moving towards 30* merges from the equator and subsides
completing a cell.
 The air moving towards the poles joins the subsiding air completing
another cell.
 The apparent movement of the sun between the tropics causes different
pressure belts to shift North and South of the Equator.
 During Summer in the Northern Hemisphere, the pressure belts shift
Northward and during winter it shifts southwards.
 Distribution of Pressure:
 Pressure in January:
 The equatorial low-pressure belt extends well into the Southern
Hemisphere and has shifted towards the South of the Equator.
 The Sub-tropical high-pressure belt of the Southern Hemisphere is
found only over the oceans and the high temperature of land has
disrupted the high-pressure belt.
 The Sub-polar low is strong and continuous due to the absence of land
mass.
 The polar high at the South Pole remains strong.
 The sub-tropical high-pressure belts in the Northern Hemisphere are
strong and continuous due to low temperatures in the Northern
Hemisphere.
 It gets intensified after linking with the high-pressure belts of Siberia and
North America.
 The temperate low of the Northern Hemisphere is disturbed due to high
pressure over land and exists as two small pressure cells ie one near
Iceland and another near the Aleutian Islands in the North Pacific.
 The polar High of the Northern Hemisphere is strong.
 Pressure in July.
 Equatorial low-pressure belts extend well into the Northern Hemisphere
linking with low pressure systems of India and Tibet.
  The Sub-tropical high-pressure belts in the Northern Hemisphere are
not continuous and exist only over the oceans in the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans. Example: Azores High.
 The temperate low in the Northern Hemisphere is continuous without
disruption.
 Polar high is also strong and continuous.
 Sub-tropical high-pressure belt in the Southern Hemisphere forms a
continuous belt due to low temperatures over the land.
 Temperate low and polar High in the Southern Hemisphere remains
continuous and strong.

WINDS:

 The wind is air in motion.

 Air always moves from high-pressure to low-pressure area.
 Forces affecting the motion of wind:
 1. Pressure Gradient Force:
 The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is called as
Pressure Gradient.
 Pressure Gradient in the atmosphere causes the movement of air from
high pressure to low pressure.
 The force causing this movement is called as Pressure Gradient force.
 Pressure Gradient force acts perpendicular to the direction of the
direction of Isobar.
 The Pressure Gradient force is greater when the isobars are closer.
 2. Frictional Force:
 Any moving body near to land surface experiences frictional force in the
direction opposite to that of its movement.
 The frictional force is maximum over land than over oceans.
 Frictional Force is maximum near to the surface than the upper
atmosphere.
 3. Coriolis Force:
 It is a frictional force produced due to the rotation of the earth.
 It is the combined effect of various forces and factors such as the
centrifugal force, angular velocity, and variation in speed of rotation at
different latitudes.
 The Coriolis force causes any moving object to defect towards the right
in the Northern Hemisphere and left in the Southern Hemisphere
 Coriolis force causes no change in the speed of the moving body and it
causes a change of direction only.
 The degree of Coriolis force depends upon:
 1. Speed of moving body - the higher the speed, the more the
deflection.
 2. The speed of rotation of the earth - the greater the speed of rotation,
the greater the Coriolis effect.
 3. Latitude at which the body is moving - Coriolis effect is zero at the
equator and it is maximum at the poles.
 Geostrophic Winds:
 When isobars are straight and if the frictional force is assumed zero at
some latitude, the pressure gradient force is balanced by Coriolis force
and the resultant wind flows parallel to the direction of isobar.
 These are called Geostrophic Winds.

Pressure Pressure Pattern of Wind Direction

System Condition Northern Southern
at the Hemisphere Hemisphere
Centre
Cyclone Low Anticlockwise Clockwise
Anticyclone High Clockwise Anticlockwise

 Planetary Winds:
 These are the winds that blow throughout the year and across the entire
planet.
 There are 3 planetary winds:
 1. Trade Winds.
 2. Westerlies
 3. Polar Easterlies.
 Trade Winds:
 They blow from sub-tropical high to equatorial low in both hemispheres.
 In German trade means track as they blow in the same direction
throughout the year, they are called trade winds.
 Trade winds are dry and stable in the area of origin i.e. subtropical High-
Pressure Belts.
 Moving towards the equator, it picks up moisture over the ocean
causing precipitation along the eastern margins of the continent.
 Reaching Western Margisn they are devoid of moisture and the offshore
trade winds will not result in precipitation.
 This causes the formation of deserts.
 The formation of hot deserts along the Western Margins of Continents
within the tropical regions is mainly due to:
 1. Offshore Trade Winds.
 2. Nearness to Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts.
 3. Presence of Cold Ocean Currents.
 Examples - Sahara Desert, Namib Desert, etc.
 Westerlies: (3:35 PM)
 They blow from Sub-tropical High to Temperate low.
 The vast landmass in the Northern Hemisphere obstructs the westerlies
whereas, in the Southern Hemisphere, they blow strongly and
consistently due to the presence of a huge water expanse.
 Therefore they are called roaring forties, furious fifties, and shrieking
sixties.
 Polar Easterlies:
 They blow from Polar High to Sub-Polar low.
 They are extremely cold, stable, and dry.
 During winters, they blow for long distance and affects the climatic
conditions of surrounding regions.
 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ):
 It is a zone of converge of trade winds from both the sides of tropics.
 It is extended up to 5* North and South of Equator.
 This zone experiences low pressure, and high temperature but calm
and windless conditions.
 This is also called the zone of Doldrums
 Horse Latitude: (3:50 PM)
 It is a zone of the Sub-tropical High-Pressure Belt.
 Due to vertically descending winds, this region experiences light and
calm conditions.
 Tricellular Meridional Circulation:
 The surface winds blow from High Pressure to Low pressure along the
upper troposphere.
 The direction of air circulation is opposite to surface winds.
 Together with convection and subsidence along low-pressure and high-
pressure belts, these winds result in 3 Cellular Circulations along each
meridian called Tricellular Meridional Circulation.
 It includes 3 cells - Headley, Ferell, and Polar.
 Seasonal Winds:
 The seasonal differences in temperature and pressure cause the
movement of air and subsequent winds blowing in particular seasons
are called as seasonal winds.
 Example - South West Monsoon, North East Monsoon Winds.
LOCAL WINDS :

 Differences in heating and cooling of the earth's surface and the cycles
developed daily or annually can create several common winds called as
local or regional winds.

Land Breeze and Sea Breeze:

 Land gets heated more quickly than the adjacent sea during the
daytime.
 Therefore, low pressure is developed over the land and high pressure
over the adjacent sea.
 This causes the circulation of relatively cool air from the sea to
adjacent land called as Sea Breeze.
 Sea Breeze results in a cooling effect along coastal regions in the
evening.
 Rapid loss of heat from the land causes reversal of daytime pressure
conditions due to high pressure over land and low pressure over
oceans.
 Winds blow from land to sea causing Land Breeze.
  Fishermen along coastal regions use Land and Sea Breeze for
fishing activity.

Mountain and Valley winds:

 During day time mountain slopes heat up rapidly compared to Valleys.

 This results in the air from the Valley moving up along the slopes
called valley Breeze or anabatic winds.
 At night the temperature difference between mountain slopes and
Valleys is reversed causing winds to blow from mountain to Valley
called as Mountain Breeze or Katabatic winds.

HOT AND COLD WINDS :

Chinook:

 Region: European Alps and Rocky Mountains (respectively)

 Characteristics: These winds occur when humid air passes over a
mountain range, leading to precipitation on the windward side.
 As the air descends on the leeward side, it becomes warmer, drier, and
gains speed.
 Warm, dry winds that can cause rapid snowmelt and temperature rise.

Foehn:

 Foehn is a local wind that develops on the leeward side of the Alps
mountain ranges and is strong, dusty, dry, and warm.
  The air is forced to climb and cross the barrier due to the regional
pressure gradient.
 On the windward side of the mountains, rising air might cause
precipitation.
 After clearing the mountain crest, the Foehn winds begin to fall as a
warm and dry wind on the mountain's leeward side or northern slopes.
 The temperature of the winds varies from 15 to 20 degrees Celsius,
which aids in the melting of snow.
 As a result, the pasture area will be ready for animal grazing and grapes
will ripen earlier.

Harmattan:

 Region: West Africa, particularly Nigeria the Sahara region.

 Characteristics: Harmattan is a dry and dusty wind that originates in
the Sahara Desert and blows south across West Africa. (Northeast to
south-west)
 The western coast of Africa is warm and moist and hence the weather
becomes unpleasant because the weather conditions characterized by
high temperature and high relative humidity become injurious to human
health.
 The weather becomes suddenly dry and pleasant at the arrival of
harmattan as the relative humidity of the air is remarkably reduced due
to the high temperature and hyperaridity of harmattan.
 This is why harmattan is known as ‘doctor’ in the Guinea coastal
area of western Africa
 It carries fine particles of dust and sand, reducing visibility and
causing dryness.

Sirocco:

 Region: Mediterranean, especially North Africa and Southern Europe

 Characteristics: Sirocco winds are hot, dry, and dusty winds that
originate in the Sahara Desert. They blow northward across the
Mediterranean Sea, carrying dust and sand. These winds can bring
extremely high temperatures and can last for several days, often
affecting parts of Southern Europe.
 Under certain conditions, when rain falls during a Sirocco event,
the rainwater can mix with the dust particles carried by the wind,
giving the appearance of "blood rain."
  Khamsin(means 50) in Egypt, Gibli in Libya, and chilli in Tunisia.

Brickfielder:

 The Brickfielder is a strong, hot, dry and dusty wind in southern

Australia.
 The Brickfielder usually occurs during summer and is mainly
affecting southeast Australia's states of Victoria
 The Brickfielder is associated with the passage of a frontal zone of
low pressure.
 Preceding the passage of the front tropical, hot, dry north-westerly
desert air from the interior of Australia is carrying clouds of dust and
bringing sudden hot spells often exceeding 38C (100F), to areas which
normally have a much milder climate.
 The temperature might jump up 15 to 20 °C within hours.

Levante:

 Warm, easterly wind.

 Occurs around the Strait of Gibraltar, affecting the southern coast
of Spain and the city of Gibraltar.
 Originates from the eastern Mediterranean and crosses the Strait
of Gibraltar.
 Characterized by warm, humid conditions, often bringing cloudiness and
fog to the region.
 May lead to rough seas along the coastline.
 Regional impact: Affects weather conditions in the southern parts of
Spain.

Berg Wind:

 Hot, dry wind in South Africa.

 Occurs in coastal areas of the Eastern Cape, Western Cape, and
KwaZulu-Natal provinces.
 Type of foehn wind blowing from the interior plateau towards the
coast.
 Known for high temperatures and low humidity levels.
 Results in hot and dry weather, causing increased temperatures
and decreased humidity.
 May lead to heatwaves and heightened fire risk.
 Regional impact: Affects weather conditions in specific coastal areas of
South Africa.
Karaburan:

 The Karaburun winds are also known as the black storm. The
Karaburun winds are found to blow around parts of Central Asia.
 The winds are particularly characterized as dusty and hot.

Loo:

 Northern plains of Indis.

 Loo winds are commonly experienced in the northwestern parts of India
during the pre-monsoon and summer seasons.
 Regions like Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, and parts of North India often
encounter these scorching winds.
 Direction: They travel in a west-to-east direction and are most common
in the afternoons.
 Their temperature ranges from 45 to 50 degrees Celsius.

COLD WINDS :

Blizzard:

 Canada and Alaska.

 Extremely cold and dry causing freezing conditions.
 Direction from North to south.

Norther:

 Along the western coast of the USA.

 A cold, strong wind that originates from the north. It often follows a cold
front and brings colder temperatures to the region.
 In Mexico it is called Norte.

Burran: Cold winds of Siberia. (Blizzard of Siberia).

Pompero:

 They blow over the southern tip of Argentina (very close to Antarctica).
Hence, these are extremely cold winds
 Cold wind of Argentina
 Direction: south to North.
Southerly:

 Cold wind of Australia.

 Comes from South to North.

Mistral:

 Cold wind of France.

 Direction from North to south.
 Blows over Rhone River valleys

Bora:

 Cold wind experienced along the Adriatic Sea.

 Direction: Northeast to Southwest.

HUMIDITY:

 Water in gaseous form is water vapour.

 The amount of water vapour in the air is called as Humidity.
 The amount of humidity in the atmosphere shows the potential of the
atmosphere to cause precipitation.
 3 ways to measure Humidity:
 Specific Humidity: gm/kg.
 Absolute Relative: gm/m^3
 Relative Humidity: % (Percentage)

 Measurement of Humidity:
 Specific Humidity:
 It is measured as the ratio of the weight of water-vapor in grams to the
weight of air in Kgs is expressed as grams per kg of air.
 It indicated the actual amount of moisture present in the air.
 It remains the same with changes in temperature or volume
 Absolute Humidity:
 It is the ratio of the weight of water vapor in grams to the volume of air in
a meter cube expressed as grams/m3 of air.
 It varies with volume i.e. it increases with contraction caused by the
decrease in temperature and Decreases with expansion caused by an
increase in temperature
 Relative Humidity:
  It is the ratio between the amount of water vapor present in the air to the
maximum amount of moisture it can hold at a given temperature.
 It decreases with an increase in temperature and increases with a
decrease in temperature.
 Air is said to be saturated when relative humidity is 100%.

EVAPORATION:

 The conversion of liquid water into water vapor is called evaporation.

 Factors affecting Evaporation:
 1. Surface Area of the water body.
 2. Temperature of water as well as air - The higher the temperature
higher the evaporation.
 3. Humidity - The higher the humidity, the lower the rate of evaporation
due to saturation of air.
 Eg Subtropical regions experience a higher rate of evaporation than
equatorial regions due to the presence of dry air in sub-tropics and
higher humidity near the equator.
 4. Wind speed: The higher the wind speed, the higher the rate of
evaporation as air movements provide a constant supply of fresh air
with lesser humidity.
 Distribution of Evaporation:
 30*> 0* > 60* > 90*.
 A higher rate of evaporation is experienced more over the oceans than
continents.

CONDENSATION:

 The process of conversion of water vapor into liquid water is called

condensation.
 It is the reversal of evaporation.
 The temperature at which condensation takes place is called a Dew
Point.
 If the dew point is 0* celsius, it is called a frost point.
 Condensation Forms:
 Dew: It is the moisture deposited in the form of liquid water droplets on
the land surface.
 It is due to the condensation occurring near the surface.
 The conditions favorable for the formation of dew are:
 1. Long winter nights
 2. Calm and windless conditions.
 3. Clear and cloudless skies.
 Frost:
 It is a thin layer of ice on a solid surface.
 It is formed when the temperature of the surface is below freezing point
and the water droplets are falling on this cold surface.
 Rime:
 The deposition of needle-like white opaque icy crystals on the surface
with a temperature below 0* Celsius.
 It is formed when supercooled water droplets in the air come in contact
with the surface below the freezing point.
 Mist:
 It consists of small water droplets suspended in the air.
 The humidity is higher compared to fog.
 The visibility is between 1-2 Km.
 It clears faster than fog.
 Haze:
 It is caused by smoke and dust particles with humidity less than 75%.
 The visibility is up to 2 Km.
 Fog:
 It is produced near the surface when the temperature of air drops
suddenly.
 The visibility in fog is less than 1 Km.
 The conditions required for the formation of fog are the same as the
temperature inversion.
 It includes long winter nights, calm air, and a clear sky.
 Types of Fogs:
 1. Radiation Fog: Observed over plain areas during winter due to
radiation inversion.
 2. Valley Fog: Observed along valleys in mountainous areas due to air-
drainage type of inversion.
 3. Frontal Fog: In temperate regions due to frontal inversion.
 4. Advection Fog: It is found over cold surface areas, and over ocean
waters due to advection inversion.
 For example - fog forms in the regions where the warm ocean current
merges with the cold ocean current.
 Rainfall:
 Stability and Instability:
 Stability
 It is the condition when air resists vertical movements and remains in its
original position.
 It occurs when the air is cooled at its base or when air subsides in the
region of high-pressure belts.
 Precipitation is unlikely in this condition.
 Instability:
 It is a condition where air does not resist, vertical movements and leads
to cloud formation and precipitation.
 It occurs around the regions of light temperature and low pressure.
 Clouds:
 1. Cirrus - High altitude feathery appearance.
 2. Alto - Middle altitude.
 3. Status - layered.
 4. Cumulus - small cotton-wool like
 5. Nimbus - Dark and rain-bearing.
 Cirrus Clouds: High altitude feathery appearance, fibrous in nature,
white in color indicates fair (good) weather.
 Cirro-Cumulus: Patches of globular masses at high altitudes are also
called a mackerel sky.
 Cirro-Startaus: Layered and high altitude with a milky appearance.
 Alto-Cumulus: Globular masses of clouds with a cotton-wool-like
appearance at middle altitude.
 Alto-Stratus: Layer of clouds in sheets along middle altitude.
 Stratus: Uniform layer of low-lying clouds near ground level.
 It causes a light drizzle.
 Cumulus Clouds: Thick cotton wool appearance with dome-shaped and
cauliflower top.
 Strato-Cumulus: Globular masses of cotton wool-like appearance,
regularly arranged at low altitudes.
 Cumulo-Nimbus: It is an overground cumulous cloud.
 It is very dark, heavy, and dense with an anvil top.
 It causes heavy rainfall with thunderstorms and lightning.
 Precipitation:
 The conditions necessary for precipitation:
 1. Mechanism to uplift the moist air.
 2. Saturation and cooling of air below the dew point.
 3. Presence of Hygroscopic Nuclei such as dust particles around which
water droplets can form.
 Types of precipitation:
 1. Convectional rainfall:
 It occurs in the regions of intense heating near the ground surface
causing air to expand and rise.
 Often it is accompanied by thunder and lightning due to cumulonimbus
clouds.
  They are experienced throughout the year in equatorial regions and in
summer in tropical regions.
 2. Orographic Rainfall:
 When the warm and moist air is forced to rise across mountain slopes, it
cools down causing precipitation along the windward side.
 However, on the leeward side, the descending air will not cause
precipitation resulting in a rainshadow region.
 For example, the Western Ghats of India and Ladakh.
 3. Frontal Rainfall:
 It occurs along the frontal zones due to the converge of air masses.
 The warm air mass rises above the cold air mass causing precipitation.

DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL :

 The highest rainfall above 200 cm per annum is experienced

in equatorial regions due to convectional rainfalll.
 Within the tropical regions along monsoon climatic conditions,
however, it is concentrated in a few months in a year.
 Along sub-tropical regions, a minimum rainfall of 25 cm per annum is
experienced particularly along the western margin of continents due to
offshore trade winds, sub-tropical high-pressure belts and cold ocean
currents.
 Along mid-lattitude regions above average rainfall or 100 to 120 cm
per annum is received due to frontal rainfall and onshore westerlies.
 Along polar regions minimal rainfall due to cold and dry winds.
 Due to the presence of moist maritime air mass oceans receive more
rainfall than continents.
 Coastal regions experience more precipitation than the continental
interior.

THUNDERSTORM :

 A thunderstorm is a huge system of clouds with thunder and lightning.

 Due to intense heating and strong vertical convection, cumulonimbus
clouds are formed in a thunderstorm.
 The raindrops in this cloud move up and down due to strong air currents
creating electric charges that accumulate along opposite sides.
 When both types of charges are attracted a flash of light is produced
called as lightening.
 Lightening creates a vacuum in a cloud due to the rapid expansion of
air.
 It is filled by the surrounding cold air producing a clap of thunder.
CLOUDBURST :

 The Indian Meteorological Department defines cloudburst as rainfall of

over 10 cm per hour concentrated in a small area of a few
kilometres.
 Cloudburts are formed under the following conditions:
 Strong heating of land causes rapid convection.
 Highly humid and warm air.
 A buildup of huge cumulonimbus clouds without rainfall due to strong
convection.
 Steep topography along mountainous regions causes a funnelling
effect and aids the rapid upliftment of warm and moist air.
 As the raindrops become too heavy for the clouds to hold on, they drop
together in a quick flash causing cloudburst.

TORNADO :

 A violently rotating column of air that extends from a thunderstorm to the

ground.
 It appears like a funnel descending from a cloud.
 The wind speed goes up to 400 km/hr.
 It is observed over all the continents except Antarctica.
 It is frequently observed in the USA.
 It is formed when changes in wind speed and direction create
a horizontal spinning effect within a storm cell.
 Water Sprout- it is a whirling column of air and water mist developed
over water bodies like rivers, lakes or oceans.
 JET STREAMS :
 WMO Defines Jet Streams as strong narrow currents concentrated
along a quasi-horizontal axis in the upper troposphere or lower
stratosphere characterized by strong lateral wind sheer featuring one or
more velocity maxima.
 Characteristics
 They are thousands of km in length and a few hundred km in width.
 They are confined to a narrow belt in the upper troposphere or
lower stratosphere.
 They normally move from west to east and follow a zig-zag path in the
form of Rossby waves.
 They are faster during winter.
 The entire system follows the sun.
 Jet streams are generated due to temperature differences between two
regions i.e. Tropical -Temperate and Temperate- Polar.
 The difference in pressure gradient with altitude above cold and warm
air mass causes strong movement of winds.
 The larger the temperature difference, the stronger the winds.
 Types of Jet Streams (JS)
 1) Polar Front Jet Streams-
 They are formed where Ferrel and Polar Cells meet.
 They are irregular and discontinuous and they move from west to east.
 2) Sub-Tropical Westerly JS-
 It is associated with the temperature difference between the Hadley cell
and the Ferrel cell.
 It is more regular and strong.
 It moves from West to East.
 3) Tropical easterly JS-
 It forms over India and Africa in summer due to the intense heating of
the Tibetan Plateau.
 The direction is east to west.
 4) Local JS-
 They are formed due to local temperature and pressure conditions.
 For e.g. Somali JS.
 5) Polar Night JS-
 They are formed over Polar regions during winter.
 They circulate the entire polar region with cold temperature conditions.
 The direction is west to east.
SIGNIFICANCE OF JET STREAMS:

 The jet streams are responsible for cyclonic and anti-cyclonic

circulations along the surface.
 Upper divergence in jet streams causes lower convergence and upper
convergence causes lower divergence.
 As jet stream move across different parts of the world, it changes the
weather conditions by suppressing or accelerating precipitation.
 Strong Jet Streams during the winter help clear the pollutants trapped in
urban areas by transporting them into the upper troposphere.
 They are used in aircraft navigation. By flying within the jet stream, time
and fuel can be saved.
 The polar night jet streams developed over the Arctic and Antarctica
during the winters accentuates the Ozone Depletion Process and helps
in the formation of Ozone Hole.
 The monsoon of South Asia is controlled and affected by Subtropical
Westerly Jet Streams, Tropical Easterly Jet Streams, and Somali Jet
Streams.
 The Western Disturbance experienced over North West India during
winters is due to the subtropical westerly jet streams.
 The Jet streams help in the formation of a Temperate Cyclone and their
intensification.
 Reduction in temperature contrast between tropical and polar regions
causes weakening of Jet streams which results in meandering of Jet
Streams.
 A meandering jet stream allows warm air to reach higher latitudes
causing sudden increases in temperature and heat wave conditions.
 For example: Western Europe in Summers in 2023.
 Weakening of Polar Night Jet Streams causes the outbreak of Polar
Vortex causing Freezing conditions in lower latitudes.

POLAR VORTEX:

 It is a large area of low pressure and cold air surrounding the earth's
poles.
 The term vortex refers to the counter-clockwise flow of air which keeps
the cold polar air locked inside.
 The polar winter night Jet Streams keeps this region covered with
strong winds.
  Occasionally when the vortex weakens due to the weakening of Jet
Streams the vortex expands and sends the cold air downwards along
lower latitudes along with the jet stream.
 This brings down the temperature in the Southern region to colder levels
of below 0* Celcius.

AIR MASSES:

 It is an extensive portion of the atmosphere whose physical properties

such as temperature, pressure, humidity, etc are homogenous -
horizontally and vertically for hundreds of Km.
 The temperature of the source area shall remain uniform horizontally
with a very gradual change in vertical direction.
 The humidity conditions should also be uniform with the least variability.
 The surface area shall remain homogenous for a few hundred
kilometers.
 The regions with light divergent winds, high-pressure belts, and cyclonic
circulations are more favorable for the formation of air masses due to
stable conditions.
 Classification of Air Masses:
 1. Source Area:
 Continental (c).
 Maritime (m).
 2. Temperature:
 1. Warm Air Mass (w)
 2. Cold Air Mass (k)
 3. Pressure:
 Stable Air Mass (s)
 Unstable Air Maa (u)
 4. Latitude:
 Equatorial Air Mass (E).
 Tropical Air Mass (T).
 Polar Air Mass (P).
 Artic Air Mass (A).
 Antarctic Air Mass (AA).
 Significance:
 Air masses transport heat from one region to another and help in the
global distribution of temperature.
 The movement of air masses away from its source impacts the weather
conditions of destination regions.
  The maritime air masses bring more moisture toward continental
regions increasing their humidity and causing precipitation.
 The dry continental air mass along sub-tropical regions helps in
maintaining aridity conditions by reducing the chances of precipitation.
 The cold air mass formed over Canada and Siberia during winters
affects the surrounding regions for long distances and causes cold
conditions.
 The maritime air masses of the Indian Ocean play an important role
over the Indian sub-continent in precipitation over the Indian sub-
continent during the Monsoon.
 The maritime equatorial and tropical air masses of the Indian and
Atlantic Oceans help in the development of tropical cyclones.
 The interaction of warm and cold air masses in temperate regions
results in the formation of fronts and temperate cyclones.

FRONTS AND TEMPERATE CYCLONES:

 The front is a narrow zone of transition dividing two air masses of

differing temperatures and humidity conditions.
 They are usually formed in mid-latitude or temperate regions.
 The process of formation of fronts is called frontogenesis.
 The process of decay of fronts is called frontolysis.

Types of Fronts:

 Stationary Fronts:
 When the surface position of a front is not changing, the two air masses
are unable to push each other is called Stationary Fronts.
 When this front is disturbed, it results in warm fronts or cold fronts.
 Warm fronts:
 It is the boundary between cold and warm air mass.
 Where the warm air mass is advancing and overriding over cold air
mass.
 The gradient of the front is gradual leading to slow upliftment of warm
air resulting in Nimbo-Stratus clouds.
 It causes steady rainfall over a larger area.
 Cold Front:
 It is the boundary between warm and cold air mass where the cold air
mass is advancing and undercutting the warm air mass.
 It results in a steeper gradient along the front resulting in rapid
upliftment of warm air and the formation of cumulo-nimbus clouds.
 It results in heavy rainfall over smaller regions.
  Occluded Front:
 It is the later stage of front formation where the air is in a warm sector
and is no longer on the ground surface due to the meeting of the cold
and warm front.
 It is a compound zone with both warm and cold front characteristics.

TEMPERATE CYCLONES:

 There are 6 stages in the development of temperate cyclones:

 1. Convergence of 2 airmasses with different characteristics. Air masses
move parallel to each other and a stationary front is formed.
 2. The warm and cold air masses penetrate territories of each other
forming a wave-like front.
 3. With warm and cold fronts starting to move towards each other, the
warm sector is wedged between the cold sector.
 4. The warm sector is narrowed in extent due to the advance of a cold
front.
 5. The occlusion starts with warm air, rising completely above the cold
air; the cold front completely takes the warm front.
 6. The warm sector completely disappears, the occluded front is
eliminated and the cyclone dies out.
 Temperate cyclones are also called mid-latitude cyclones, extra-tropical
cyclones or wave cyclones.
 They are prominent along the latitudes between 35 and 65* North &
South.
 The role of the Jet Stream in temperate cyclones:
 Jet streams being quasi-horizontal results in upper divergence in some
locations and upper divergence causes surface conversions which help
in bringing together the warm and cold air masses and the subsequent
formation of fronts.

TROPICAL CYCLONES:

 A tropical cyclone is a low-pressure and high-velocity wind system

originating within the tropics and over the oceans.
 In the Indian Ocean, it is called a cyclone.
 In the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, it is called a Hurricane.
 In the South China Sea, it is called a Typhoon.
 Near Japan, it is called Taipu.
 Near the Philippines, it is called as Bagui.
 Near Australia, it is called Willy-Willy.
 Stages in Cyclone Formation:
 1. Low Pressure.
 2. Depression
 3. Deep Depression
 4. Cyclone or Cyclonic Storm (more than 62 kmph)
 5. Severe Cyclonic Storm
 6. Very Severe Cyclonic Storm
 7. Super Cyclone (more than 221 kmph)
 Names are given at the cyclonic storm level.
 Conditions favourable for tropical cyclones: (3:10 PM)
 1. Temperature: A minimum of 27* celsius along the oceanic surface to
ensure sufficient evaporation.
 2. Depth of Warm Water: A temperature of 27* celsius should reach up
to 60 to 70 metres of depth.
 3. Humidity: A high relative humidity of 50-60%, near to the surface
 4. Coriolis Force: Some minimum wind deflection is required which
causes air to circulate in a low-pressure centre.
 5. Minimum Vertical wind shear bringing calm conditions so that humid
and warm air is not swept away.
 6. Divergence in the upper troposphere causes stronger convection and
convergence near the surface.
 7. Pre-existing low-pressure conditions which get intensified to form
cyclones.
 Implications/Distribution:
 Cyclones are not experienced beyond 30* of North and South due to
low temperatures.
 Along the western margins of continents due to the presence of cold
ocean currents, the cyclones are not formed.
 The cyclones are not formed up to 5* of North and South of the equator
due to the absence of Coriolis force.
 ITCZ is the ideal location for the formation of tropical cyclones due to its
high temperature, humidity and calm conditions.
 However, if the ITCZ is near the equator, the absence of Coriolis force
prevents cyclone formation.
 During summers if ITCZ shifts North or South of the Equator, it supports
cyclone formation.
 The Bay of Bengal experiences a higher number of cyclones than the
Arabian Sea due to the following conditions:
 1. Arabian Sea experiences stronger wind shear.
 2. Higher number of pre-existing disturbances in the Bay of Bengal.
 3. Higher surface temperature in the Bay of Bengal due to its enclosed
nature as well as a higher influx of fresh water.
TROPICAL CYCLONES:

 Formation of the cyclone:

 Strong convection results in a huge build-up of clouds along a warm
ocean surface.
 The release of latent heat provides more energy to the system
supporting further strong convection.
 The rise in winds through convection starts to descend along the sides.
 The entire system gets stabilized.
 The lateral winds moving towards the centre start to rotate around it due
to the Coriolis force
 After the strong build-up, some of the dense air rising near the centre
starts to descend resulting in the formation of the eye.
 Once a cyclone becomes stronger it results in heavy rainfall and strong
winds destroying its path.
 It moves under the influence of planetary winds and moves towards a
north-west direction.
 As it encounters a land surface or colder waters, it starts to dissipate.
 Structure of the cyclone:
 Eye:
 It is the centre of the storm with a 5-50 Km in diameter with clear skies
due to descending air.
 Experiences calm conditions, lowest pressures and highest
temperature.
 Eye wall:
 The walls of cumulonimbus clouds with 10-20 km of width have the
strongest winds in the cyclone.
 Thunderstorms occur in this region due to intense convection and
rainfall.
 Spiral bands, also known as rain bands/feeder bands:
 It extends for 100s of Km in length and leads to a galaxy-type
appearance.
 Annular Zone:
 It is a zone of suppressed cloudiness, high temperature and low
humidity.
 The outer convective bands, it is along the edge of the main cloud mass
with instability and convection.
 Naming of cyclones:
 Each cyclone is given a separate name to ensure better coordination of
disaster relief and for future reference.
 In 2004, 8 countries of the Northern Indian Ocean agreed to have a
common naming system for cyclones in the Northern Indian Ocean.
 Each of the countries arranged in alphabetical order submitted a set of 8
names which are arranged in a matrix in the assigned sequence.
 The suggested names shall be neutral politically, religiously, culturally
and concerning gender.
 It should be short and easy to pronounce.
 The list is maintained by the regional specialised meteorological centre
of WMO.
 This earlier matrix expired in 2019 and a new matrix suggested by 13
countries was agreed upon.
 These include Bangladesh, India, Iran, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan,
Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, UAE and Yemen.
 Recurvature of Cyclone:
 When the air current in the local atmosphere pushes the winds from the
poles towards the equator and interferes with cyclone formation, the
cyclone is about to dissipate, gets more winds and deflects right or
eastward under the influence of westerlies.
 This phenomenon is called as re-curvature of cyclones.
 The re-curvature is very difficult to predict and we are observing
frequent recurvature of cyclones due to global variation of pressure
conditions.
 Fujiwhara Effect:
 When two tropical cyclones come closer to each other and interact with
each other it may result in the formation of a larger cyclone.
 2023 Cyclones in the Indian Ocean: Mocha, Biparjoy, Tej, Hamoon,
Midhili, etc.
 Colour-Coded Warning System of IMD:
 1. It is used by IMD to signify the intensity of the situation and the
warning associated with it.
 2. It uses 4 colours: Green - No Warning; Yellow - Be Aware; Orange -
Be Prepared; Red - Take action.
 The objective is to alert people of hazardous weather and be prepared
for handling disaster-like situations.
 It is universal and issued during floods, heavy rainfall and other related
phenomenon.
 For cyclone, is represented through a matrix.
 Difference between Tropical and Temperate Cyclones:

Tropical Cyclones Temperate Cyclones

These are produced mainly over the Produced both on land and sea
sea

Generally originate in tropical regions Originate in the mid-latitudinal

between 8* and 20* North and South. region between 35* and 65*
latitude.
Limited to a small area Occupy areas measuring
thousands of kilometers
They travel from east to west. Travel from West to East
They are largely a summer They are more intense in winter.
phenomenon
They are associated with violent winds The wind speed is low and the
with great speed, dense clouds and rainfall is light, which continues
heavy rains. for many days

CLIMATIC REGIONS:

 Hot and wet equatorial climate:

 It is found up to 10* North and South of the Equator.
 Experiences high temperature throughout the year with an average daily
maximum of 30* and daily minimum of 20*.
 There are no seasonal variations in temperature.
 The diurnal range of temperature is more than the annual range.
 Precipitation: Annual average of above 250 cm through conventional
rainfall which occurs daily due to the formation of cumulonimbus clouds.
 High relative humidity because of high moisture content.
 The vegetation is evergreen with multi-layered arrangement.
 Rich diversity is observed in both plants as well as animal species.
 The vegetation has low undergrowth due to the absence of sunlight
along the floor.
 High precipitation causes leaching making the soil fragile.
 Regions: Amazon basin, Parts of Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia; Congo
Basin in Africa; and islands of South East Asia.
  Monsoon Type Climate:
 Found in Hot Zone's eastern margin.
 It experiences a seasonal reversal of winds between different times of
the year.
 Precipitation is concentrated during the monsoon period only.
 It experiences one or more months of dry season.
 Vegetation is a deciduous type and sheds leaves during winter.
 Diversity is less compared to evergreen rainforests.
 The density of vegetation varies within the monsoon region based on
rainfall.
 Regions: South Asia, Indo-China; Eastern Africa; Northern Australia.
 Within the Monsson type, in some regions, the onshore trade winds
cause rainfall throughout the year.
 It is called a tropical marine climate; for example Central America,
Eastern Brazil, and North East Australia.
 Sudan Type Climate:
 It is also known as the hot zone continental type.
 Savanna Grasslands: These are the grasslands in tropical regions.
 They receive lesser precipitation than eastern margins but more than
western margins.
 Rainfall occurs in summer due to convection.
 The average annual rainfall is 70 cm or less.
 It is known for its characteristics, definite dry winter season.
 Vegetation is dominant in tall grass with scattered drought-resistant
trees.
 Fire is the limiting factor which checks the spread of vegetation.
 Regions: Savanna of Africa, both north and south of the equator; Llanos
and Campos of South America; Northern Australia.

CLIMATIC REGIONS:

 Desert Type Climate:

 Hot deserts are found due to the following conditions:
 1. Nearness to Sub-tropical high-pressure belts.
 2. Offshore trade winds.
 3. Cold Ocean Currents.
 4. Formation of dry continental air mass.
 Therfore hot deserts are always found along the western margin of
continents within tropical regions.
 Precipitation: It is very low and is less than 25 cm per annum.
 They are characterised by a high diurnal range of temperature.
 The diurnal range exceeds the annual range of temperature.
 Vegetation is xerophytic with adaptation to survive dry conditions.
 Adaptations: thorn instead of leaves, green stem, waxy leaves; deep
and dense root system.
 Regions:
 Sahara - The largest desert in the world; covers a larger part of North
Africa.
 The Rocky deserts of the Sahara are called Erg.
 The deserts of Saudi Arabia are called Rub-al-Khali.
 The salty deserts of Iran are called Dast-e-Kavir and Dash-e-lut.
 Thar Desert, Mojave Desert, Namib Desert, Atacama Desert, Kalahari
Desert, Great Victorian Desert, Simpson Desert, etc.
 China Type (Warm Temperate Eastern Margin):
 Summers are not too hot and winters are not too cold.
 Precipitation is not throughout the year with more concentration in
summer.
 During summer they are impacted by Tropical cyclones.
 During winter they are under the influence of temperate cyclones.
 Vegetation is mixed type with both evergreen and deciduous
vegetation.
 Regions:
 Eastern China (Shanghai), South East USA (Florida); South East Brazil
(Rio).
 South-East Africa and South-East Australia (Sydney).
 Steppe Type (Warm Temperate Continental):
 Precipitation is higher than tropical grasslands under the influence of
Temperate Cyclones.
 It is hotter during the summer and colder during winter due to
continentality.
 During winter they are covered with snow.
 Rainfall is moderate and it is throughout the year.
 In summer due to convection, and in winter due to temperate cyclones.
 Vegetation is dominated by short and green grass.
 Soil is very fertile and is known as Black earth.
 They are known for large-scale wheat cultivation and animal rearing.
 Regions:
 Steppes of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.
 Prairies of North America.
 Pampas of South America
 Velds of South Africa.
 Downs of Australia.
 Mediterranean Type of Climate (Warm Temperate Western
Margins): (10:26 AM)
 In Summer this region is under the influence of Offshore Trade winds
causing no precipitation.
 In winter, ITCZ shifts southwards bringing on-shore westerlies causing
good rainfall
 They are also under the influence of temperate cyclones during the
winter.
 They are characterized by dry summer and wet winter.
 Vegetation is drought-resistant, deep-rooted and short-growing in the
form of short bushes; they are evergreen in nature.
 Examples: Olives, Orange, Grapes and other citrus fruits.
 Regions: Mediterranean region, California, Central Chile, South West
Africa (Capetown), South West and Southern Australia (Perth and
Adelaide).
 Laurentian Type (Cool Temperate Eastern Margin):
 The temperature in summer goes up to 20* Celcius and in winter below
0* celsius causing rainfall/snowfall.
 Rainfall is moderate throughout the year and is impacted by temperate
cyclones.
 Vegetation is broad leaves and deciduous, up to 50* North and
confiderous above that.
 Regions: Eastern Canada, North East USA (New York), Northern China
(Beijing), Korea, Japan (Tokyo), South East Argentina.
 Siberian Type (Cool Temperate Continental):
 Summers are hotter and winters are extremely cold and dry.
 Low-temperature conditions during winter result in Anti-cyclonic
circulations due to the formation of high-pressure belts.
 It experiences the highest annual range of temperature.
 Vegetation is coniferous and is the largest stretch of natural vegetation
on the earth.
 Biodiversity is low making it a fragile ecosystem.
 It is the only type of climate which is present exclusively in the northern
hemisphere.
 Regions: Siberia, Russia (Moscow), Poland (Warsaw), Scandinavia
(Finland and Sweden), Canada and Alaska.
 British Type (Cool Temperate Western Margin):
 They are under the influence of warm Ocean currents.
 It results in cool summers and mild winters.
 They are also under the influence of onshore westerlies throughout the
year.
 It brings moderate rainfall throughout the year.
 They are known for ice-free ports which can be operated even during
winters.
 Vegetation is mixed type with both broad-leafed, deciduous and
coniferous.
 Regions: UK, Norway Coast, The coast of Western Europe, Western
Canada and Southern Alaska.
 Most importantly New Zealand and Tasmania.
 Artic or Polar Type:
 It is covered with ice throughout the year.
 It is also called a Tundra Climate.
 During the summers when ice melts, vegetation grows as stunted
mosses, Lichens, Sedges, etc.
 The soil is frozen called Permafrost.
 The same kind of climatic functions are found in high mountains which
are called Alpine climates.
 Together with these regions of the North Pole, South Pole and Glaciers
of High Mountains is called as Cryosphere.
 Koppens Classification:
 A - Tropical.
 B- Dry Climate (both Arid and Semi-arid).
 C - Warm temperate.
 D - Cool Temperate.
 E - Cold Climate - Poles.
 H - High Land.
 f - Dense forest.
 m - Monsoon.
 w - Winter dry (Sudan Type).
 s - Summer dry (Mediterrannes Type).
 a - warm summer.
 b - cool summer.
 S - Semi-arid.
 W - Desert.
 T - Tundra.
 F - Frozen.
 h - Hot.
 k - Cold.
 OCEANOGRAPHY

 Ocean Bottom Topography:

 Continental Shelf:
 These are submerged shallow parts of continental crust with depths
between 200 to 1250 metres.
 It is rich in sunlight, nutrients and oxygen favouring the growth of
plankton.
 It is known for its rich biodiversity and are large fishing grounds.
 The continental shelf is wider along the coastal plains and narrows
along the mountainous coast.
 Continental Slope:
 It is the boundary between the continents and oceans formed by the
outer edges of continents.
 They are much steeper than continental shelves.
 Continental Rise:
 It is the base of the continental slope with a lower gradient and
continues into Absyaal Plains.
 It is absent along the regions of trenches.
 Submarine Canyons:
 These are the canyons formed along the Continental shelf and slopes
due to turbidity currents of rivers entering the oceans.
 For example, Ganga Canyon and Indus Canyon.
 Absyaal Plains:
 These are technically inactive oceanic floors with relatively smooth
surfaces and are covered with various different types of oceanic
deposits.
 The average depth of these basins is 3000 to 6000 metres.
 Sea Mounts:
 These are isolated volcanic features formed due to volcanic activity
along the oceanic floor.
 They are found in the regions of Ocean-Ocean convergence or Hot
Spots.
 Guyots:
 These are flat-top hills with summits below the water level.
 They provide banks for a rich life.
  Island, Island Arch and Archipelago: These are the result of Ocean-
Ocean convergence plate boundaries.
 Mid Oecanic Ridge (MOR): These are the result of ocean-ocean
divergence plate boundaries.
 Trenches: It is the result of sub-duction.

Temperature of Oceans:

 Factors affecting:
 1. Nature of the surface: With higher specific heat the oceans heat up
slowly and cool down slowly.
 2. Distribution of landmass: The ocean surface in the Northern
Hemisphere is surrounded by more landmass and experiences a higher
range of temperature than the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere.
 3. Winds: The winds are stronger and persistent over oceans which
results in better distribution of temperature across the world, for
example along the region of Westrelies, ocean temperature remains
higher than other regions.
 4. Ocean currents: Heps in the distribution of temperature between
equatorial and Polar regions.
 5. Depth: Temperature decreases with increase in depth

 Distribution:
 Epilimnion: It is up to 200 metres in depth with uniformly high
temperatures.
 It is a zone of constant sunlight and a zone of uniform mixing by winds.
 It is a zone of abundant life.
 Thermocline or Metalimnion: The temperature decreases rapidly with
depth beyond 200 metres up to 1000 metres. It is also called Twilight
Zone.
 Hypolimnion: It is a zone of uniform cold temperatures beyond 1000
metres.
 The average temperature is nearly 4* Celcius as the ocean water
attains maximum density at this temperature.
 It is also known as the dark zone.
 The surface temperatures of oceans is high between 20-25* Celcius
near tropical regions.
 Along temperate regions, it is moderate between 10-12* celsius and
decreases rapidly.
 Along Polar regions, the surface temperatures are nearly freezing and
increase slightly with depth to become uniform.

 SALINITY:
 It is the grams of dissolved salt in 1000 grams of water measured as
parts per thousand (ppt) (o/oo)
 The average salinity of oceans is 35 ppt.
 Sources:
 Sources of increase in salinity:
 Sediments brought by winds, rivers and glaciers from the continents get
dissolved in ocean water over a long period of time.
 Volcanic eruptions along MOR and Sea Mounts.
 Evaporation in oceanic surface.
 Ice formation near polar regions.
 Sources of Decrease in Salinity:
 Addition of fresh water by rivers.
 Salt precipitation on the oceanic floor.
 Rainfall over the oceans.
 Ice melting near polar regions.
 Higher temperature causes a higher rate of evaporation causing higher
salinity.
 For example, the salinity of tropical oceans is higher than the polar
regions.
 Winds increase the rate of evaporation and through ocean currents help
in the distribution of salinity from one part of the ocean to another.
 Distribution:
 Along Polar regions, low salinity near the surface due to low
temperature, and low rate of evaporation.
 Along sub-tropical regions, high evaporation due to high temperatures
and dry air causes high salinity, decreases sharply to become uniform
after a certain depth
 Along equatorial regions, high precipitation results in low salinity near
the upper layer.
 It decreases with depth to become uniform
 Above normal salinity: Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea,
Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean near sub-tropics.
 Below Normal Salinity: Bay of Bengal, North Sea, Baltic Sea, Bering
Sea.
 Lake Van in Turkey is the highest saline water body in the world,
followed by the Dead Sea.
 Also, Sambar Salt Lake in India and Great Salt Lake in the USA.
 Dissolved salts in Sea Water (gm of salt per kg of water):
 Chlorine - 18.97
 Sodium - 10.47
 Sulphate - 2.65.
 Magnesium - 1.28
 Calcium - 0.41.

Oceanic Deposits:

 Terrigenous/Lithogenus: Sand, gravels, Mud and silt.

 Biogenous: Shell, Coral reef, Crude Oil, Ooze.
 Hydrogenous: PMN, PMS, Red Clay
 Cosmogenous: Meterotic deposits

Coral Reefs:

 Coral reefs are masses of limestone and dolomite accumulated by lime-

secreting organisms called Coral polyps.
 They are developed due to the symbiotic relationship between coral
polyps and zooxanthellae.
 Coral polyps provide habitat through building reefs; zooxanthellae
provide nutrients through photosynthesis.
 Coral reefs host nearly 31 phyla of animals resulting in rich biodiversity
therefore they are also called rainforests of oceans.
 Conditions:
 Temperature: Corals are marine animals which live in water of
temperatures above 20* Celcius.
 Depth: The depth of water cannot be more than 200 to 250 feet below
the sea level
 Salinity: An average salinity of 35 ppt is required.
 Clear Water: The water should be clear and sediment-free
 It needs a platform for building the reef ie continental shelf.
 Distribution:
 Coral reefs are found only between 30* North and South of the equator.
 They are limited in the tropical regions along the western margins of
continents due to the presence of cold ocean currents.
  They are absent along the deltas due to excessive fresh water and
sediments; for example eastern coast of India.
 The coral triangle covers the islands of South East Asia ie Malaysia,
Indonesia, etc; Australia (Great Barrier Reef) and the Pacific Islands
 Northern and Western Indian Ocean; Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabian
Sea; Madagascar and surrounding islands.
 Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico
 Coral reefs in India:
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 Lakshadweep.
 Gulf of Mannar.
 Gulf of Kutch.
 Malwan in Maharashtra Coast, Angria Bank, Netrani, etc.
 Types of Coral Reefs:
 1. Fringing Reef: A narrow coral platform close to the coast in the form
of discontinuous patches.
 Example: Western Coast of India; Gulf of Kutch; Andaman and Nicobar;
Caribbean Islands.
 2. Barrier Reef: Wide coral platform located away from the coast and
separated by coastal waters or lagoon; example - Great Barrier Reef.
 3. Atool: Circular coral reefs developed around sea mounts or guyots or
islands.
 Example Lakshadweep, Islands of Pacific Oceans.
 Coral Bleaching:
 Corals receive their colouration from the algae living in symbiotic
relationships.
 Coral bleaching refers to the loss of colour of corals due to stress-
induced expulsion of symbiotic algae due to:
 1. Changes in water temperature caused by ocean warming, thermal
pollution, etc.
 2. Changes in salinity, increased sedimentation and ocean acidification.
 3. Marine Pollution and increased incidences of storms and cyclones.
 4. Overfishing, trawling, dredging and El Nino.
 Recent example: 1997-98 which caused large-scale bleaching in the
Northern Indian Ocean
 2014-17: During which the Great Barrier Reef underwent bleaching in
more than 50% of its area.

OCEAN CURRENTS AND CIRCULATIONS :

  An ocean current is the general movement of surface water of the
ocean in a definite direction over long distances.
 There are two types of ocean currents:
 1) Warm current- moving from Equatorial to Polar regions.
 2) Cold Current- moving from Polar to Equatorial regions.
 Factors affecting Ocean currents:
 1) Winds- A steady blowing of winds drags the surface water in its
direction and brings about the surface flow and steadily sets the water
currents in motion.
 2) The shape of the coastline and topography modify the ocean
current's direction.
 3) Differences in temperature, salinity and density cause the water
to move and reduce the variations. Such differences guide the
movement of ocean currents.
 4) Coriolis force- It causes ocean currents to deflect right in the
northern hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere.

DIFFERENT OCEAN CURRENTS OF THE WORLD :

 Currents of the Atlantic Ocean-

 North Equatorial current
 South Equatorial current
 Counter Equatorial current
 Antilles current
 Florida Current
 Gulf stream
  North Atlantic drift
 Norwegian current
 Canaries current
 Labrador Current
 Currents of The Pacific Ocean
 North Equatorial current
 South Equatorial current
 Counter Equatorial current
 Kuroshio current
 Oyashio current
 North Pacific drift
 Alaska Current
 Californian current
 Currents of The Indian Ocean
 North Equatorial current
 South Equatorial current
 Mozambique current
 Agulhas current
 West wind drift
 West Australian Current
 Currents of the Northern Indian Ocean-
 During winter, the North Equatorial current flows westward above the
equator and counter equatorial current flows between the North
Equatorial current and the South Equatorial Current.
 The North East Monsoon causes the water of the Bay of Bengal and
Arabian Sea to circulate in an anti-clockwise direction called as North
East Monsoon drift.
 In summer, the entire water of the Northern Indian Ocean comes under
the influence of southwest monsoon producing a clockwise flow of
southwest Monsoon drift.
 During this time, the north Equatorial current and counter Equatorial
current are nearly absent.

SIGNIFICANCE OF OCEAN CURRENTS :

 1) The continuous movement of water from east to west in tropical

regions causes cold water upwelling along the Eastern parts, resulting
in a drop in the temperature.
 Accumulation of warm water along the western part of tropical oceans
leads to a rise in the water temperature. It results in favourable
conditions for the formation of cyclones.
  2) The higher temperature of water along the western part of tropical
oceans provides favourable conditions for the formation of coral reefs.
 3) The cold ocean currents along the west coast in tropical and sub-
tropical regions suppress precipitation through the desiccation effect
resulting in the formation of deserts.
 Examples: the Sahara desert near the Canary Current, the Namib
desert near the Banguela Current, the Atacama desert near the
Humboldt Current, the Mojave desert near the Californian Current, and
the Deserts of Australia near the West Australian Current.
 4) The merging of warm and cold ocean currents results in favourable
conditions for the development of fishing banks.
 E.g. Grand Bank, and Gorges Bank near New Foundland due to the
merging of the Gulf Stream with Labrador Current, Dogger Bank near
the East Atlantic and around Japan due to the merging of Kuroshio and
Oyashio Currents.
 5) The merging of warm and cold ocean currents results in fog formation
which may obstruct ocean navigation.
 6) The warm ocean currents in temperate regions keep winter mild and
keep the ports ice-free. E.g. North Atlantic drift along Britain.
 The offshore winds near subtropical and tropical regions push the
surface water away and cause cold water from the bottom to rise
upwards to the surface. This brings cold and nutrient-rich water to the
surface through upwelling. This resulted in the creation of large fishing
banks.
 E.g. Cold Water upwelling along Peru Chile Coast.
 7) The ocean currents are used in navigation in the open ocean.
 8) The ocean currents help in the global distribution of temperature and
salinity.

THERMOHALINE CIRCULATIONS :

 The deep ocean currents are driven by differences in water density

which is controlled by temperature and salinity and is called as
Thermohaline circulation.
 The circulation begins near Polar regions of downwelling where ice
formation leaves the water saltier and denser leading to sinking.
 This underwater current moves in a single and continuous belt across
the different oceans.
 They are also connected to surface water currents in the regions of
upwellings.
 They are called as the Great Ocean conveyor belts.
  Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC)
 AMOC is part of the thermohaline circulation in the Atlantic Ocean.
 The recent report of the IPCC predicts the weakening of AMOC due to
global warming.
 Factors responsible for weakening.
 Decrease in temperature between tropical and polar regions due to
Arctic amplification.
 Excessive addition of fresh water reduces downwelling.
 Weakening of North Atlantic Drift.
 Impacts of Weakening
 The western part of oceans in tropical regions experiences a rise in sea
levels.
 Increased occurrence of cyclones in tropical waters.
 Disturbance of fishing zones.
 British climate experiences harsh winters and frozen ports.
 Disturbance of marine ecosystem due to variation in temperature and
salinity.
 E.g. Coral bleaching.

WATER MASS :

 It is a body of water with uniform characteristics of temperature and

Salinity.
 There are three types of water masses-
 i) Surface water mass. E.g. Sub-Tropical surface water mass
 ii) Intermediate water mass. E.g. Antarctic water mass
 iii) Deep water mass. E.g. North Atlantic deep water mass.
 Significance of Water Mass
 The movement of water mass helps in the distribution of temperature,
salinity, and Oxygen.
 It helps in the generation of Thermohaline circulations.
 It results in the generation of upwelling and downwelling.
 Uniforming of conditions within water mass supports the growth of
plankton and Coral Reefs.

EL NINO AND RELATED PHENOMENA:

 Walker Circulation:
 In the Pacific Ocean, the ITCZ usually remains near or above the
equator.
 Near the South American West Coast, trade winds blow offshore and
push the surface water westwards away from the continents.
 To replace this water, cold water upwells; the air above cold water is
stabilized and convection is suppressed.
 The water flows westwards as the South East Trade winds blow towards
the Western Pacific.
 During this, the water gets heated and accumulates along the western
Pacific in the form of the Western Pacific Warm Water Pool.
 There it rises through convection resulting in cloud formation and good
precipitation.
 This rising air flows eastwards in the upper troposphere and starts to
subside along the eastern Pacific and completes the circulation.
 This results in high pressure and low temperature along the eastern
Pacific and low pressure and high temperature along the western
Pacific.
 The resulting convective cell is called Walker circulation.
 In normal conditions due to Walker circulation, the Eastern Pacific
experiences drought conditions, and the Western Pacific receives good
rainfall.
 El-Nino:
 One in 2 to 7 years in October-November, ITCZ moves too much to the
south of the equator resulting in a weakening of trade winds.
 The weakening of trade winds causes warm tropical surface water
which was earlier flowing westwards to flow back eastwards and cause
a reduction in upwelling.
 This results in warm surface water off the coast of South and Central
America which is called El Nino.
 The appearance of El Nono causes air pressure to drop over the
eastern Pacific and rise over the western Pacific.
 This see-saw variation of air pressure is called El-Nino Southern
Oscillation (ENSO).
 El Nino results in heavy precipitation along the eastern Pacific and
drought along the western Pacific.
 After 1 or 2 years, the enhanced Headley circulation strengthens the
trade winds and increases the upwelling bringing back normal
conditions.
 La Nina:
 It is the intensified Walker Circulation
 El Nino is usually followed by La Nina.
 It results in intensified high pressure and low temperature along the
eastern Pacific and low pressure and high temperature along the
western Pacific.
 It causes very high precipitation along the western Pacific including
India and Australia resulting in floods.
 It causes more than normal dry conditions along the Eastern Pacific
causing droughts and dry air.
 In recent times, the strongest El Nino years were 1982-83; 1997-98;
2014-16; and 2018-19.
 Triple Dip La Nina in 3 continuous years from 2021, 2022 and 2022
 2023 - El Nino and in 2024 EL Nino continues.
 Significance/Impact of El Nino:
 Disturbance of walker Circulation causes disturbance in global weather
patterns and convective cycles across other oceans.
 It causes drought and dry conditions along the western Pacific
impacting rainfall over India and Australia.
 The amount of precipitation and the onset and distribution of rainfall
during monsoon is impacted over South Asia and Indo-China.
 It results in heavy rainfall along the coastal deserts of Peru and Chile.
 Rainfall in deserts causes flowering from seasonal plants which come
during El Nino rain.
 Dry conditions in India and Australia trigger large-scale forest fires and
the destruction of natural vegetation in Southeast Asia as well.
 It creates severe dust storms over India and Australia.
 The warm water inhibits the growth of plankton and algae and
suppresses upwelling devastating the marine ecosystem and killing fish
on a large scale along the Peru-Chile coast.
 This results in a catastrophic impact, on the fishing and fertilizer
industries of Peru-Chile.
 Large-scale killing of fish and its decomposition in water makes it dark
foul-smelling and unfit for human activities.
 El Nino causes mass coral bleaching episodes due to disturbance of
stable conditions and high temperatures.
 The high-pressure conditions and subsidence of air in the Caribbean
Sea, Western Pacific, and Bay of Bengal suppress the formation of
tropical cyclones.
 El Nino Modoki:
 While EL Nino Causes strong warming in the Eastern Pacific; El Nino
Modoki results in the warming of the Central Pacific with dry conditions
along the eastern and Western Parts.
 While El Nino results in a single convective cell, El Nino Modoki causes
two smaller convective cells over the tropical Pacific region.
 El Nino causes reduced hurricanes in the Caribbean Sea; EL Nino
Modoki causes increased incidence.
 During El Nino Modoki, cyclones occur more in the Arabian Sea than in
the Bay of Bengal.
 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD):
 The difference in Sea surface temperature between the Western
Arabian Sea and Eastern Indian Ocean of Indonesia and Australia is
called as Indian Ocean Dipole.
 It is similar to Walker Circulation and is a coupled Ocean atmospheric
phenomenon.
 Positive IOD:
 Warm Sea surface in the west compared to the east.
 Good precipitation in India and low rainfall over Indonesia and Australia.
 It will reduce the impact of El Nino on India.
 Higher cyclones are observed in the Arabian Sea than Bay of Bengal.
 Negative IOD:
 Warm Sea surface along Eastern Part than West.
 Negatively affects the Indian Monsoon due to dryness and drought
conditions.
 more precipitation over Indonesia and Australia.
 Increases the impact of El Nino over India.
 Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO):
 Unlike El Nino which is stationary, MJO is an eastward moving
disturbance of clouds, rainfall, winds, and pressure that traverses the
planet in the tropics and returns to its initial starting point in 30-60 days
on average.
 MJO has two parts:
 1. The convective side with enhanced rainfall.
 2. The subsiding side with suppressed rainfall.
 MJO can impact the timing and strength of the Indian Monsoon.
 It will also influence the impact of El Nino over India.
 Heat Dome:
 It is a phenomenon that occurs when the atmosphere traps hot air like a
lid.
 It is due to the combined effect of La Nina (Strong subsidence of hot Air
and meandering Jet Streams)
 It causes the hot air to reach higher latitudes and gets trapped by the jet
stream for longer periods forming a heat dome.
TIDES:

 The regular rise and fall of the water level in the world's oceans resulting
from the gravitational attraction of the sun and moon is called a tide.
 The gravitational pull of the sun and moon through its combined effect
causes a bulge in ocean water in one direction.
 The centrifugal force of the earth's revolution causes a bulge in the
opposite direction.
 The bulges in one direction cause low water in another.
 As the earth rotates, the positions of high and low waters change
resulting in tides.
 Factors affecting tides:
 The gravitational pull of the sun and moon.
 The relative positions of the sun and moon.
 The centrifugal force of earth's revolution.
 Distribution of continents.
 Ocean bottom topography.
 Types of Tides:
 1. Spring Tides: When the earth, moon, and sun are aligned in a straight
direction (syzygy).
 It involves:
 1. Conjunction - on sun and moon on the same side.
 2. opposition - sun and moon on opposite sides.
 2. Neap Tides: When the sun and moon are at right angles ie
quadrature.
 Significance of tides:
 It helps in navigation along coastal regions and helps in fishing
activities.
 The ideal ports are easily accessible during high tides eg Kolkata Ports.
 The generation of power through tidal energy.
 Helpful for the shipbuilding industry and also helps in the natural
cleansing of coastal areas.
 Helpful for tourist activities and results in an estuarine ecosystem with
higher biodiversity.
 Negatives:
 It restricts delta formation.
 It causes coastal erosion also.

MARITIME ZONES:
 Baseline: It is the average line where the land ends and oceans begin.
 Internal Waters: It is the landward side of the baseline. It includes
lagoons and deltas.
 Territorial Sea: Upto 12 Nautical miles from the baseline. Sovereign
jurisdiction over bottom, surface and air.
 However, innocent passage is allowed for ships with restrictions.
 Contiguous Zone: It is up to 24 nautical miles from baseline. Sovereign
jurisdiction over bottom and surface but not over air.
 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Upto 200 Nautical miles from the
baseline. Exclusive rights on resources on the floor as well as within the
water.
 In the regions where the continental shelf exceeds 200 Nautical miles,
EEZ extends to the edge of the continental shelf.
 High Seas: International waters beyond any national jurisdiction are the
common heritage of mankind. It comes under the International Seabed
Authority.
 BIOGEOGRAPHY
 It is the study of soil and its relations with natural vegetation and other
life forms called biogeography.
 Terms related to soil:
 Soil: The loose surface material consisting of organic and inorganic
matter and is the source of water and nutrients for vegetation is called
as soil.
 True soil is characterized by distinct horizons and the capacity to
support vegetation.
 Horizon: A distinguishable layer in the soil that has certain chemicals
and distinct colours is called a Horizon.
 Regolith: A layer of unconsolidated material derived from weathering
from a parent rock is called a regolith.
 Soil Profile: The vertical arrangement of horizons down to the parent
rock is called a soil profile.
 Soil Genesis:
 1. Parent Rock: It decides the basic character of soils like mineral
composition, colour, texture, grain size, etc.
 Example: The black soil of Maharashtra originates from the basaltic
magma of Deccan traps.
 2. Climate: It affects the soil formation process directly by controlling
weather, temperature, precipitation and evaporation.
 Climatic conditions result in the formation of different horizons.
 It reduces the impact of parent rock material over time eg along the dry
regions of Peninsular India, red soil is found; whereas along the regions
of high rainfall, laterite soil is found.
 3. Organism: The plant roots decomposing litter, burrowing animals and
other micro-organisms help in increasing the fertility of the soil. For
example, the forest soils of MP and Odisha.
 4. Relief: It determines the thickness of soil; for example, the soils of the
Himalayas and Northern Plains.
 5. Time: It determines the maturity of soil. With time, the influence of
climate increases and that of Parent rock decreases.
 For example, the Khadar and Bangar soils of the Northern Plains.
 Soil Formation Processes:
 1. Transformational: The processes of change of soil constituents from
one form to another through weathering, breakdown, decay,
disintegration, etc
 2. Translocational: It involves the movement of soil constituents from
one horizon to another in the soil profile.
 a. Leaching: The percolating water removes humus and soluble bases
from the upper horizon and deposits them in the lower horizon.
 Leaching is pronounced in humid areas.
 Leaching involves eluviation ie a downward transport process through
which minerals are removed from the top layer.
 Illuviation - It is the reversal of eluviation and involves the deposition of
minerals in lower layers.
 b. Lateritisation: In hot and humid equatorial regions, heavy leaching
removes silica, humus, bases and other minerals except iron and
aluminium.
 The removed minerals are washed away by the continuous percolating
rainwater.
 Hardening of the top layer is observed due to high temperature.
 c. Podsolization:
 Along temperate regions and high mountains, the slow decomposition of
coniferous litter and precipitation creates a solution of organic acids
which while percolating through the soil layers removes aluminium, iron
and organic matter; leaving the top layer acidic in nature along with
silica.
 These soils are known as Podsol soils.
 d. Calcification: It involves the decomposition of calcium carbonate in
the top layer of soil where evaporation exceeds precipitation.
 It is active in temperate grasslands and makes the soil very fertile.
 e. Salinisation: It involves the accumulation of highly soluble sodium and
magnesium salt in the soil resulting in saline soils.
 It is active in arid and semi-arid regions as well as the regions of flood
irrigation.
 f. Gleyization: It is observed in water-logged conditions where the colour
of topsoil changes due to reduction reactions.
 It involves the accumulation of organic matter in the top layer of soil.
 Soil Types:

Pedocals Pedoalfers
High evaporation than High precipitation than
precipitation evaporation
Dry climate Humid climate
Calcification and Salinization Leaching, laterisation and
Podzolization
Prairie Soils Podsols Soils

Chernozem Soils Red and Yellow Soils

Desert Soils Laterite Soils

 INDIA - PHYSICAL: PHYSIOGRAPHY
 Subcontinent: A large landmass that is part of a continent but is
separate from the rest of the continent is called Subcontinent.
 For example Indian Subcontinent; Arabian Subcontinent; Alaskan
Subcontinent, etc.
 Reasons for considering India as a Subcontinent:
 Physiography: Well-defined physical boundaries are the Himalayas and
Hinukush in the North and the Indian Ocean in the South.
 Geological Reason: A common geological history, the Himalayas and
Indi-Gangetic plains, etc.
 Climatic Conditions: The influence of monsoon winds, results in a
monsoon climate.
 Politically: A common identify ie South Asia
 Historically: Rules by common empires such as Mauryan, Mughals,
British, et
 Culturally: Similarity of festivals, food habits, language, etc.
 Indian Physiography:
 Divided into 4 sub-parts:
 1. Northern Mountains.
 2. Peninsular Plateau.
 3. The Plains.
 4. Islands
 Northern Mountains:
 Phases of Upliftment of Himalayas:
 The Himalayas are formed in 3 different phases:
 During the motion of the Indian Plate towards the Eurasian Plate.
 1. Between 120 to 70 MYA: Resulted in the folding and upliftment of the
Great Himalayas.
 2. Between 30 to 25 MYA: Folding and upliftment of Middle Himalayas.
 3. Between 20 and 2 MYA: Folding and upliftment of Shivaliks.
  Syntaxial Bending:
 It refers to the deep knee bend where the strike of the ridges suddenly
turns at right angles.
 It is evident through the u-turn of rivers in these regions.
 This is due to the maximum push offered at both the ends of Indian
peninsula during its northward drift.
 In the North West direction, the Aravallis and along the Northeast the
Assam ranges acted as two extended arms while the central area
sagged giving an arcuade shape.

NORTHERN MOUNTAINS:

 Evidence to prove that the Himalayas are still rising:

 Frequent earthquakes in the Himalayan Region along shallow and
intermediate depths.
 Steep topography along with events such as landslides, shifting of river
course, mass movements, river capture, etc.
 Himalayan rivers in the youth Stage have high erosional capacity with
high energy
 Recent adjustments in the height of Himalayan peaks. For example,
Mount Everest
 Recent drying of the Lakes of Tibet
 Fault Zones within the Himalayas:
 Between Great Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau: Indo Tsangp Suture
Zone (ITSZ)
 Between Great and Middle Himalayas: Main Central Thrust (MCT)
 Between Shivaliks and Middle Himalayas: Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)
 Between Northern Plains and Shivaliks: Main Frontal Thrust (MFT)
 Ranges:
 Trans Himalayas:
 They originated before the Great Himalayas
 They contain evidence of Volcanic eruption as it was active during
Ocean-Continet Convergence.
 It is much older than the Great Himalayas.
 Fossils found are very old eg Trylobytes and Corals.
 Eg Karakoram Range, Lakadh Range, Zaskar Range, Kailash Range
 Dry and lacks vegetation due to the rain shadow effect.
 Great Himalayas:
 It extends from Nanga Parvat in POK to Mancha Barwa in Tibet.
 These ranges are also called Himadri.
 6100 metres is the average height with more than 10 peaks above 8000
metres.
 It is covered with snow throughout the year.
 It stops the cold winds from Central Asia and Siberia and causes a
tropical climate over India.
 It plays a very important role in Indian Monsson.
 The southern slopes are covered in vegetation and the northern slopes
are barren.
 Middle Himalayas:
 These are also called Himachal or Lesser Himalayas.
 4000 metres is the average height.
 They are made up of discontinuous mountain ranges extending all the
way from east to west.
 Pir Panjal Range, Dhauladhar Ranges, Mussorie Range, Nagatibba
Range, Mahabharat Range, Daffla, Miri, Abhor, Mishmi
 During the winter it is covered with snow; during the summers, snow
melts producing fresh green grass called Bughyals for cattle and sheep
is found.
 The practice of movement of people along with their cattle, sheep and
goats from one region to another with season is called transhumance
and is found here. Eg Bakharwals, Gaddis, Gujjars, etc.
 Duns: These are flat longitudinal valleys located between the different
mountain ranges where the riverine of lake sediments accumulated over
a long period of time creates flat plains.
 Kashmir Valley is famous for Karewas and Saffron/Zafran.
 Shivaliks:
 1000 metres is the average height and extends from Jammu hills in the
west to Dafla, Miri, Abhir and Mishmi in the east.
 In Arunachal, the lesser Himalayas are merged with Shivaliks.
 Shivaliks are also called as Outer Himalayas.
 Regional Divisions of Himalayas: (10:25 AM)
 Between Indus and Sutlej - Punjab Himalayas.
 Between Sutlej and Kali - Kumaon and Garhwal Himalayas
 Between Kali and Teesta - Nepal Himalayas
 Between Teesta and Brahmaputra - Assam Himalayas.
 Purvanchal Hills:
 Patkai Range
 Naga Hills
 Manipur Hills
 Mizo/Lushai Hills
 Tripura Hills.
  Garo, Khasi and Jaintia Hills
 Barail and Mikir Range

 The Himalayan Mountains are divided into two parts:

Western Himalayas Eastern Himalayas

Taller and Wider Shorter and Narrow

Gradual slope Steeper Slope

The snow line is lower The snow line is higher

Located towards higher latitudes Located towards lower latitudes

Lower rainfall High rainfall

Cold and dry Warm and wet
Coniferous vegetation Evergreen vegetation

Biodiversity is comparatively lower Biodiversity is comparatively higher

PENINSULAR REGION:

 It extends from the Rann of Kutch to the Meghalaya Plateau and Delhi
Ridge to Kanyakumari.
 The Peninsular region is a great complex of ancient rocks which has
existed as a single rigid block for millions of years.
 However, it was subjected to a few episodes of tectonic activities such
as:
 1. Submergence of the western sides of the western ghats causes a
part of the Peninsular region to submerge below the ocean and form a
wide continental shelf along the west coast.
 2. Formation of rift valleys such as Narmada, Tapi, etc.
 3. Formation of Deccan traps: As the Indian Plate was moving towards
the Eurasian Plate, it encountered Reunion Hotspots.
  4. It resulted in the eruption of large-scale Basaltic Magma forming a
flood basalt province known as the Deccan Traps.
 Important Mountains in this region:
 Aravallis - Old fold mountains; a group of mountains called as
Caledonian Mountains; extends from Gujrat to Delhi.
 Vindhyas and Satpuras: These are block mountains and belong to a
group called Hercynian (Also e.g. Black Forest of Germany).

 Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats:

Western Ghats Eastern Ghats

From Tapi in Gujrat to From Mahanadi to Nilgiri.
Kanyakumari
Continuous Discontinuous
Taller Shorter
Steeper Slope Gradual slope

Narrow Broad and Wider

Height increases from North to Height increases from South to North

South

Highest Peak - Anaimudi Highest Peaks - Mahendragiri and

Jindhagada (AP)
Nearer to the coast Distant from the coast

Receives high rainfall Receives less/lower rainfall

Laterite soils Red soils

Dense evergreen vegetation Deciduous Vegetation

 Important Plateaus of this region:

 Malwa Plateau: Between Vindhyas and Aravallis; it is a volcanic
plateau.
 Bundelkhand Plateau: It is famous for the Chambal region.
 Chotanagpur Plateau: Rich in Minerals; called as Ruhr of India.
  Meghalaya Plateau: It is also part of the Peninsular region.
 Deccan Plateau: It incorporates the Maharashtra Plateau, Karnataka
Plateau Telangana Plateau, etc.

PLAINS OF INDIA:

 Northern Plains: Origin:

 It is formed by the deposition of sediments brought by Himalayan riverls
into the remnant of the Geosyncline between the Himalayas and the
Peninsular Region.
 It extends for 3200 Km of which 2400 Km is present in India.
 The Indo-Gangetic Plains are the largest Alluvial Plains in the world and
include the Alluvial Plains of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
 Parts:
 Rajasthan Plains: Desert plains of India.
 It is due to the drying of the region caused by the drying of rivers or due
to a change of river course or a change in the direction of the monsoon.
 Towards the western side, we have a desert proper called Marusthali
where sand dunes are found.
 Rajasthan Bagar: It is a semi-arid region.
 Punjab-Haryana Plains:
 It is part of the Indus Plains in India drained mainly by three rivers ie
Ravi, Beas and Sutlej and their doabs.
 Ganga Plains:
 It is the plain of Ganga and its tributaries in India.
 It extends from Delhi to Kolkata.
 Ganga-Yamuna Doab; Rohilkhand Plains; Awadh Plains; Lower Ganga
Plains
 Brahmaputra Plains:
 It is due to the river Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
 It extends from Sadya to Dhubri.
 Majuli Island is present in these plains.

TYPES OF PLAINS:

 1. Northern Plains:
 Bhabhar:
 It is a region of Gravels and boulders and porous in nature.
 It is found near the foothills where rivers from mountains enter plains.
  Due to its porous nature, smaller river streams disappear and start to
flow underground.
 Terai:
 It is a marshy region after Bhabhar where rivers start to reappear
 It is very fertile and is used for growing water-intensive crops such as
rice and sugarcane.
 It is prone to waterborne diseases.
 Khadar:
 It is an alluvial plain just next to a river valley.
 It is made up of fresh alluvial deposits and it gets replenished every
year.
 It is more fertile but prone to flooding.
 Bangar:
 It is an alluvial plain away from the river valley.
 It is made up of older alluvium.
 It is more settled and less fertile than Khadar.
 Duars:
 It involves the deposition of unconsolidated sediments along the foothills
of the Himalayas in Assam and West Bengal.
 They are very suitable for Tea cultivation.
 2. Coastal Plains:

Eastern Coastal Plains Western Coastal Plains

Wider Narrow
Deltas Estuaries
Depositional in nature, dominated Erosional in nature dominated by
by lagoons, beaches, sand bars cliffs, caves, etc except the Kerela
coast which is depositional.
Emerging Coast Submerging coast
Smooth coast Broken or indented coast
Artificial ports Natural ports
No coral reefs Coral reefs are present
Mangroves are present Mangroves are present

DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA: (1:50 PM)

 The natural flow of water over the land is called a drainage system.
 In the drainage system, it includes the main river and all the tributaries
and distributaries.
 Drainage basin: ENtire area drained by the river and its tributaries.
 Water divide: The great Indian water divide.
 Himalayan Drainage System of India:
  Evolution of Himalayan Drainage:
 The widely accepted hypothesis regarding the evolution of Himalayan
drainage proposes the existence of a single river all along the entire
Himalayas flowing from east to west called the Indo-Brahm/Shivalik
River.
 This earlier drainage system was disrupted by three main events:
 1. Higher upliftment of Western Himalayas.
 2. Upliftment of Potwar Plateau and Delhi Ridge.
 3. Subsidence of Garo-Rajmahal Gap or Malda Gap.
 This divided the entire river into 3 river systems:
 1. Indus and its tributaries.
 2. Ganga and its tributaries.
 3. Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
 Evolution of Peninsular Drainage:
 The Peninsular drainage system is influenced by the following events:
 1. Susbidence of the Westen side of the Western Ghats which disturbed
the symmetrical pattern of drainage causing the west-flowing rivers to
become shorter and faster.
 2. Upliftment of the Himalayas which exerted Pressure along the
Northern side of Vindhyas causing the rivers from this region to flow
straight towards the North and join Himalayan drainage.
 It also resulted in trough faulting of the Narmada and Tapi rift valleys.
 3. Gradual tilting of the Peninsular from North West to South East
causing the slope towards the Bay of Bengal.

Himalayan Drainage Peninsular Drainage

Origin - The Himalayan Origin - The Mountains of this region are fed
Glaciers by seasonal rainfall
Perennial Rivers Seasonal Rivers
The river basin is basically The river basin is basically a smaller
larger.
Dominated by Youth Stage Dominated by mature Stage
V-shaped valleys which are Flat and wide valley
deeper
High meandering Low meandering
Larger deltas e.g. Smaller deltas or estuaries
Sundarban
High water volume Low water volume
Nature of river - Nature of river - consequent
Antecedent
Drainage pattern - Drainage pattern - Rectangular and Trellis
Dendritic Pattern
 Antecedent River: These are the rivers that maintain their original
course despite the changes in topography. For example: Indus, Sutlej,
Brahmaputra, Kosi, Ghaghara, etc.
 Drainage Pattern:
 Drainage Pattern refers to the flow characteristics of a river and its
tributaries.
 1. Dendritic Pattern:
 The rivers and tributaries form a dense network of channels and appear
like branches of a tree.
 It occurs in regions of loose soil such as Alluvial plains where there is a
lack of structural control is clearly visible.
 2. Rectangular Pattern:
 The river while flowing through the Plateau region with high structural
control takes a sharp turn and forms a rectangular pattern eg Mahanadi,
Krishna, Godavari, etc.
 3. Trellis Pattern:
 The main river flows in a rift valley in a straight direction.
 The tributaries join at right angles.
 Example Narmada and Tapi.
 4. Radial Drainage:
 The different river originates from a highland or mountain flowing in
different directions.
 Example: Amarkantak with Narmada and Son.
 5. Parallel Drainage:
 The rivers run parallel to each other and enter the oceans separately.
 Example: West Flowing rivers of India.
 Indus River System: (3:16 PM)
 Right Bank Tributaries: Shyok, Nubra, Gilgit and Kabul.
 Left Bank Tributaries: Jhelum (meanders through Kashmir valley),
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej (originates near Mansarovar, Rakas Lake).
 Ganga River System:
 Bhagirathi and Alaknanda and merges to form Ganga river.
 In India, the longest river is Ganga.
 Left Bank Tributaries: Ram Ganga (passes through Jim Corbett National
Park); Gomti River (Lucknow), Ghagra (two tributaries - Rabti and
Sarda/Kali River - the border between India and Nepal); Ghagra,
Gandak and Kosi (Sapt Kosi, Sorrow of Bihar).
 Right Bank Tributaries: Yamuna, Chambal, Banas (rises from Aravalis in
Rajasthan), Sindh, Ken (surplus water), Betwa (deficit water), Son,
Hugli/Bhagirathi (Ajay and Damodar are two tributaries).
 Brahmaputra River System:
 Tsangpo in China and Brahmaputra in India.
 Merges with Ganga and then called Padma and eventually Meghna.
 The longest river if the border is not taken into consideration.
 Right bank Tributary: Subanshiri, Manas, Teesta (from Sikkim joins
Brahmaputra in Bangladesh)
 Left Bank Tributary: Lohit, Dhansiri, Barak.

 Peninsular Rivers:
 East Flowing Rivers:
 1. Subarnareka River.
 2. Mahanadi:
 Hirakund Dam, the longest earthen Dam in the world is present on this
river.
 3. Godavari: Originates from Tribakeshwar; known as Dakshin Ganga.
 Left bank tributary - Penganga, Wardha. Winganga and Indravati
 Right bank tributary - Majra
 4. Krishna: Originates from Mahabaleshwar; forms the border between
AP and Telangana.
 Left bank tributary - Bhima River
 Right bank tributary - Tungabhadra River (Hampi is based on the banks
of this river)
 5. Penneru River.
 6. Palar River.
 7. Kaveri:
 Left bank tributary -Shimsha
 Right bank tributary - Kabini
 8. Vaigai River: Flows through Madurai; Snagma happened on the
banks of this river.
 West Flowing Rivers:
 1. Luni - Rajasthan
 2. Sabarmati
 3. Mahi River: It crosses the Tropic of Cancer twice.
 4. Narmada
 5. Tapi
 6. Mondovi - In Goa; (Mahadai in Karnataka)
 7. Sharavati - Karnataka; Jog falls
 8. Periyar - Periryar Dam is located on this river.
CLIMATE OF INDIA :

 Factors affecting India's climate:

 The climate of India is called the tropical monsoon climate of India.
 However, we observe huge variations in the climatic conditions over
India.
 The factors affecting are:
 The latitudinal extent of nearly 30 degrees.
 The presence of the Himalayas along the north preventing cold and
dry winds from central Asia during winters.
 It also influences the Indian monsoon.
 The location along the north of the Indian Ocean results in the
moderating effect of the Oceans.
 Topographical features such as western ghats being perpendicular to
monsoon Aravalis being parallel to monsoon, etc.
 The monsoon winds are the most dominant factor because of which it
is called as the monsoon climate.
 Jet streams - The subtropical westerly jet streams and tropical easterly
jet streams, and Somali jet streams impact India's climate.
 Tropical cyclones - The eastern coast of India is largely impacted by
tropical cyclones.
 El-Nino, La-Nina, IOD, MJO, etc.
 Mechanism of monsoon :
 The monsoon word is derived from 'Mausam' an Arabic word which
means season.
 Classical theory:
 It explains the phenomenon of monsoon as large-scale sea
breeze and land breeze due to the reversal of temperature and
pressure conditions in northern plains from summer to winter.
 During summers, high temperatures and low pressure over the
northern plains attract winds from the Arabian Sea to be called
as southwest monsoon winds.
 During winter, low temperatures and high pressure cause winds to blow
away from the land towards the sea which are called as northeast
monsoon winds.
 Modern Theory of Monsoon:
 Winter conditions:
 Temperature is low and pressure is high as the angle of incidence of
sunlight has decreased along with the length of the day.
 It triggers surface anti-cyclonic circulations over northern plains.
 The winds are cold and dry, the sky is clear due to the absence of
convection.
 Subtropical westerly jet streams are strong and well-established.
 They are divided into two branches towards the north and south of the
Tibetan plateau.
 Southern branches are stronger and located along the northern Ganga
plains.
 It intensifies surfaces anti cyclonic circulations.
 Winds start to blow from land to sea from northeast to southwest
direction.
 The northeast winds after crossing the Bay of Bengal pick up moisture
and cause precipitation along the Coromandel coast.
 Spring :
 With an increase in the angle of incidence and the length of the day, the
temperature starts to increase and causes the weather to become hot
and dry.
 With a rise in temperature, pressure drops.
 Subtropical westerly jet streams begin to weaken and the southern
branch of this jet stream completely shifts toward the north of
the Tibetian plateau.
 An increase in temperature causes convection, causing precipitation
known as pre-monsoon showers.
 For example, Mango Showers in Kerala, Cherry
Blossom in Karnataka, Nor westers, Kalbaisakhi, and Bardoli
Chheerha along Odisha, West Bengal, and Assam which are useful
for rice, jute, and tea cultivation.
 Over northern plains, high temperature triggers the hot local winds
known as loo.
 Summer (May - Aug) :
 The complete development of low-pressure cells over northern plains
due to intense heating and high temperature.
 ITCZ shifts completely to the north of the equator and is well
established over northern plains as a monsoon trough.
 This attracts southeast trade winds towards the north of the equator
which after crossing the equator turns right under the influence of
Coriolis force and starts to blow as southwest monsoon winds.
 As the monsoon winds bring moisture, the local topography and
temperature conditions cause rainfall in the form of orographic or
conventional rainfall.
 Temperature stratification of air over the Indian peninsula does not allow
large-scale convection and build of major storms.
 Tropical easterly jet stream is a low-level jet stream developed
over South Asia and Africa between 5-20 degrees north during
summers.
 It triggers convergence on the surface and helps in the formation of
disturbance in addition to the depressions found in the Bay of Bengal.
 It causes the bursting of monsoon which is the sudden onset of
moisture-laden winds associated with violent thunder and lightning.
 These monsoon winds gradually get distributed throughout India
causing rainfall.
 In some regions due to local stability conditions and due to the
movement of winds parallel to topography, a break in
the monsoon occurs.
 The Somali jet stream of the coast of eastern Africa strengthens high-
pressure conditions near Madagascar.
 This high-pressure cell causes faster movement of monsoon winds
towards India.
 Autumn (Sept-Oct) :
 It is also called as retreating monsoon season.
 ITCZ starts to move backward gradually towards the south.
 This brings back the maximum extent up to which southwest winds
blow.
 The southwest winds slowly get replaced by northeast winds which are
dry.
 Subtropical westerly jet streams start to shift southwards and bring back
dry conditions.
 The high temperature with dry conditions in October along the northern
plains is called October Heat.
 Characteristics of the monsoon :
 The onset of monsoon is gradual and the retreat is more gradual.
  The amount of rainfall decreases from sea to land.
 The duration of monsoon rainfall decreases from south to north.
 Appearance of breaks during the monsoon season.
 The rainfall within the monsoon season varies with time ie temporal
variation.
 Rainfall varies from one region to another during monsoon ie spatial
variation.
 Distribution of monsoon rainfall :
 The monsoon winds get bifurcated into two branches - the Arabian
Sea and the Bay of Bengal by the Indian Peninsula.
 Bay of Bengal:
 It moves parallel to the Coromandel coast and causes no rainfall.
 From the KG delta with a change in the nature of the coastline, rainfall
starts to increase towards West Bengal.
 Along the Ganga Delta, this branch is bifurcated into east and west by
the Himalayas.
 The eastern branch hits the Meghalaya plateau at a right angle causing
heavy rainfall.
 These winds get distributed over the northeast causing high rainfall due
to mountaneous topography.
 The western branch moves across the Ganga basin, in Bihar coming
from east, it is called Purvaiya or easterly.
 The precipitation decreases from east to west along the Ganga plains.
 Towards the Himalayas, these winds get uplifted and cause precipitation
which increases from south to north.
 Arabian Sea branch:
 It hits the western Ghat at a right angle causing very heavy rainfall along
the western side, whereas along the eastern side, it causes dry
conditions due to the range shadow effect.
 The Arabian Sea branch advances toward Rajasthan and moves
parallel to Aravallis resulting in less rainfall over Rajasthan.
 The Arabian Sea branch meets the Bay of Bengal near Agra and the
combined branch causes precipitation over western UP, NCR, Haryana,
and the rest of northwest India.

WESTERN DISTURBANCE:

 It is active between October to April.

 During winter, the Northern plains experience cold and dry conditions
along with strong sub-tropical Westerly jet streams.
  The Mediterranean region receives rainfall due to onshore westerlies
and temperate cyclones.
 The sub-tropical Westerly jet stream along the Mediterranean region
picks up moisture a low-pressure disturbance and is brought to India.
 When these accumulate near the North West Himalayas cause
precipitation.
 The precipitation due to Western Disturbance decreases from West to
East along the Ganga plains.
 Significance of Western Disturbance:
 1. Helpful for winter crops of wheat and mustard.
 2. Helps in clearing pollutants from the air near urban areas.
 3. It causes heavy rainfall and snowfall along the North West Himalayas.
 4. It results in an abrupt decrease in temperature over the Northern
plains.
 5. It may also result in cloud bursts and flash floods in the Himalayas.
 Western Disturbance in the winters of 2023-24:
 During the winter of 2023, Western disturbance was nearly absent in the
months of November, December and January.
 It is due to the weakened Western Disturbance which is the combined
effect of global warming and El Nino (2023-24).
 The temperature of the Himalayas was warmer than usual.
 It resulted in the total absence of snow over Kashmir, Himachal and
Uttrakhand till the end of January.
 Impacts:
 Reduced water availability and drinking water in the mountains since the
snow and glaciers result in the formation of streams and springs.
 Lesser water for rivers in the plains downstream.
 Reduced tourism and related activities which are National Winter
Games.
 It impacts apple cultivation, its quality and yield depend upon snowfall.

SOILS IN INDIA :

 Major Types: Alluvial Soil, Red Soil, Laterite Soil, Black Soil, Arid Soil
 Minor Types: Mountain and Forest Soil, Peaty Soil
 Common Conditions of Soils:
 All major soils are poor in nitrogen.
 The black soil, peaty soil, and mountain and forest soil are rich in
humus.
 Red soil and laterite soil are rich in iron.
 Alluvial soils:
 Formed by the deposition of sediments by rivers.
 They are of recent origin and no marked differences of layers were
observed.
 It is deficient in Nitrogen and humus.
 Regions: Northern plains and coastal plains.
 Laterite Soils:
 Found in regions of high precipitation and high temperature resulting in
heavy leaching and causing laterisation.
 It is rich in iron, aluminium and potash.
 It is poor in bases, silica and humus.
 It is acidic and found in the regions of the western side of western
Ghats, Meghalaya, parts of Odisha and southern Aravallis.
 Black Soils:
 The black colour is due to the presence of Titaniferrours magnetite
derived from parent rocks of basaltic magma.
 It is rich in humus, and poor in nitrogen and phosphorous.
 It is highly porous and has low permeability.
 It is sticky when wet and forms cracks when dry.
 Therefore it is also called self-ploughing soil.
 Regions: Maharashtra, Northern Karnataka, parts of Telangana,
Western MP, Southern Gujrat (Saurashtra)
 Red Soil:
 It is found in the regions of Peninsular India where the parent rock
material is mainly igneous and metamorphic and the climatic conditions
are moderate to low precipitation.
 It is rich in iron, aluminium and magnesium.
 It is poor in Nitrogen, humus and phosphorous.
 Regions: The entire peninsular region except the regions of black and
laterite soil and coastal plains.
 Arid Soil:
 Saline in nature as evaporation exceeds precipitation.
 Salts get accumulate in the top layer.
 Deficient in nitrogen and humus.
 Mainly found in Rajasthan, Northern Gujrat and parts of Punjab and
Haryana due to faulty irrigation practise.
 Mountain and forest soil:
 The thickness of soil is low in hilly and mountainous areas.
 It is rich in humus content.
 Due to slow decomposition, it is acidic (due to Podsolization)
 Regions: Himalayas, parts of western ghats and parts of Vindyas and
Satpuras.
 Peaty Soil:
 Found along the coastal region with submerged water-logged conditions
and experiences glaciation.
 Rich in organic matter and mainly found along the regions of deltas and
lagoons.

ECONOMIC AND HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

 Water Resources:
 Resource refers to any assets or entity of capability ie valuable and can
be used to achieve a particular objective.
 The utility of resources depends on time and technology.
 Conventional resources: the method of extraction is well developed; eg
Coal.
 Non Conventional resources: the method of extraction is not well
developed and issues exist; eg Solar energy
 Renewable: Can be replenished and inexhaustible in the time scale of
human beings; eg solar and wind energy.
 Non-renewable: Coal and petroleum.
 Renewable and conventional: Hydropower.
 Renewable and non-conventional: Solar, wind, tidal and Geothermal
energy.
 Non-renewable and convection: Coal and fossil fuels.
 Non-renewable and non-conventional: Shale gas and Nuclear energy.
 Oceanic Resources:
 1. Mineral Resource
 2. Energy resource
 3. Food Resource
 4. Water Resources
 Mineral Resources:
 Dissolved Minerals: Salts.
 Deposited Minerals: On the continental shelf and Deep Ocean basin
  Continental shelf - are pearls, coral stones, Monazite and Rare Earth
Elements (REE), sand, gravel, gold placers, phosphorite, magnetite,
Titanium, etc.
 Ocean Basin - Polymetallic Nodules (PMN) and Polymetallic sulphides
(PMS); found at the Clarion-Cliperton zone, Peru Basin, Cook Island
and Indian Ocean.
 Energy Resources: Petroleum and Natural gas; Shale gas; Hydrogen;
Wave Energy, Tidal Energy, OTEC, Wind Energy, Thorium, Heavy
Water, etc.
 Food Resources: Fish and other seafood, seagrass and seaweeds.
 Water Resources: Drinking water through desalinization, transport,
tourism, SLOC, etc.

OCEANIC RESOURCES.

 Issues in Extraction of Oceanic Resources:

 1. Technological issues: eg Shale gas is trapped in the shale rocks.
 Shale gas is extracted by the technology called fracking and guar gum
is used; a huge amount of water is used in it.
 Polymetallic nodules are highly distributed and are found in the deepest
part of oceans.
 OTEC, Wave Energy and tidal energy are difficult to produce and
transmit.
 Thorium and Desalinisation is limited by technology and is difficult.
 2. Economical issues: The very high cost of extraction eg Polymetallic
nodules and Desalinisation.
 3. Environmental issues: Petroleum extraction can cause devastating
effects; Gulf of Mexico oil spill; transportation can also impact the
environment; shale gas extraction and desalinisation can cause water
pollution and impact marine life.
 Also causes noise and watre pollution; along with plastic pollution; The
release of hot water causes thermal water.
 4. Political issues: Not uniformly distributed and impact international
polity; wars and international disputes; currency value, trade basket, etc
are impacted by it; energy security of the countries are impacted;
imbalanced development and huge inequality.
 Sir Creek dispute between India and Pakistan; South China Sea issue;
the Falkland Islands, Kachateevu Island between India and Sri Lanka,
etc.
 5. Geographical Issues: Volcanic eruptions; high pressure, low
temperature, etc hinders economic activity in oceans.
 Fish Resources: (9:46 AM)
 Marine Fishing: Favourable Conditions
 1. Merging of cold and warm ocean currents - good for the growth of
plankton and resulting in good fishing grounds.
 E.g. Merging of the Gulf Stream with the Labrador Current; and Kuroshi
Current with the Oyashio Current.
 2. Zones of upwelling eg Peru and Chile.
 3. Coral Reefs eg South East Asia
 4. Wide continental shelf eg West Coast of Europe; East Coast of North
America and Asia.
 5. Broken and indented coast eg West Coast of India.
 6. River deltas; moderate temperature; etc.

 Distribution :
 North-West Atlantic - Grand Bank and Georges Bank,
 Western Part of Europe: Dogger Bank.
 Also, North West Pacific and South East Asia.
 Fishing activity in tropical regions is not well developed as compared to
temperate regions because of:
 1. Temperature - in warm water the growth of plankton will be restricted
and not good for the fish growth. High temperature is not good for fish
preservation.
 2. Good development of agriculture and many are less developed or
developing countries.
 4. Difficult climate and absence of cold currents.
 5. The diversity of fish is high in tropical climates and less in temperate
regions; more profitable in temperate regions as segregation is
required.
 Fishing Indutry of India:
 It is enough to sustain our population.
 The contribution is more of inland fishing (65%).
 Issues of fishing:
 Mainly the informal sector and unorganised sector.
 Traditional methods of fishing are used and largely unskilled.
 Well-developed agriculture and a large vegetarian population.
 Lack of govt and private sector investment.
 Fishing is a caste-based occupation in India.
 Tropical cyclones and monsoon seasons are not good for fishing
activities.
  International disputes and issues such as piracy.
 So, the govt needs to give more cold storage facilities, etc.
 Initiatives taken for fishing by the Govt of India:
 Blue Revolution:
 Phase I (1980-91) and the Fishing Framing Development Agency
(FFDA) were established for inland fishing.
 Phase II (1991-2005) and FFDA were established all over India and for
marine fishing coastal states were targeted.
 Eventually, NFDB was established in 2006.
 Mission Neel Kranti from 2015-20: Integrated scheme for the fishing
sector.
 Matsya Sampada Yojana was introduced in 2019 to promote
aquaculture and is an ongoing scheme.

NATURAL VEGETATION :

 World's Distribution:
 1. Tropical rainforest.
 2. Monsoon Forests.
 3. Mediterranean forests
 4. Mixed Forest - China type, British type, Laurentian type.
 5. Coniferous Forests
 Natural vegetation of India:
 Champion and Seth Classification, 1968.
 5 major types of natural vegetation in India:
 1. Tropical evergreen
 2. Tropical deciduous
 3. Tropical thorn
 4. Montane
 5. Littoral and swamp vegetation.
 Tropical evergreen vegetation:
 Rainfall is more than 200 cm and is divided into 3 types:
 Tropical Wet evergreen (>250 cm rainfall) eg Western sides of western
ghats.
 Tropical semi-evergreen (200-250 cm rainfall)
 Tropical dry evergreen (can be less than 200 cm rainfall) eg
Coromandel Coast
 Important trees: Mahagony, Ebony, Indian Rosewood, Indian laurel,
Jamun tree, Jackfruits, rubber trees, etc.
 Dry evergreen trees: Tamarind trees, Jamun, Neem, toddy palm,
 Tropical deciduous forest:
 It is the largest and major type of forest in India.
 Moist Deciduous (100-200 cm rainfall): Parts of Western Ghats, MP,
Odisha and Jharkhand.
 Examples: Teak (Sagwan), Sal, Badam tree, Sheesham (Rosewood),
Sandalwood.
 Dry Deciduous (100-70 cm rainfall): It has the largest extent.
 Examples: Shisham, Sandalwood, Bamboo.
 Bamboo - outside forests are known as grass; and inside forests are
trees as per the Forest Act.
 Red sanders are restricted in availability and are endangered as per
IUCN.
 Tropical Thorn:
 Found where rainfall is less than 70 cm.
 It is found in the northern part of Gujrat and Rajasthan and the rain
shadow region of Maharashtra and Karnataka.
 Important trees: Babool tree, Acacia Tree, Neem tree, Axlewood tree
and Mahua tree.
 Mountain Vegetation:
 It is found in higher altitudes.
 Regions: Entire Himalayas, parts of Vindhyas, Nilgiris and other parts of
Western Ghats.
 Trees: Oak, Deodar, Chir Pine, Maple tree, Rhododendron, Juniper
trees, Bugyals and Shola forest.

 Littoral/Swamp/Mangroves vegetation:
 Characteristics:
 Adaptation - Impermeaible roots.
 Roots - Pneumatophores, stilt roots (to give stability, helps in
maintaining the vegetation above the water level).
 Thick leaves, controlled opening of stomata.
 Buoyant seeds (capable of floating).
 Trees: Agar, Brugeira, Sunderi, Sonneratia etc.
 Found in: Along all the coast, Sunderabans, Mahanadi Delta
(Bhitarkanika mangroves), Krishna-Godavari Delta (Coringa
Mangroves), (Pichavaram, Muthupet), Vembanad (longest lake of
India), Kundapur (Karnataka), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Goa, Gulf of
Kutch, A&N islands.
  Significance:
 Prevents soil and coastal erosion.
 Reduces the impact of tsunami waves, storms, and cyclones along the
coastal regions.
 Contributes towards higher biodiversity - provides habitat and food,
initiator of the food chain.
 Helps in nutrient recycling and filtering of pollutants.
 Carbon sequestration.
 Helps in preventing flooding along the coastal region.
 Source of wood and timber along the coastal region.
 Tourism and income generation.
 Acts as aquifers.
 Regions behind declining mangrove vegetation (09:51 am):
 Water pollution.
 Industrialization, Oil spills.
 Coastal encroachment and expansion of agricultural areas and human
settlement in mangrove regions.
 Infrastructural projects.
 Deforestation due to overexploitation.
 Aquaculture.
 Ocean warming, ocean acidification, and rise in the sea level.
 Changes in sedimentation (due to the change in the flow of the river).
 Introduction of invasive alien species.
 (Schemes taken by the govt: Add schemes from the current affairs)

LUMBERING ACTIVITY :

 Nature of activity:
 In temperate regions:
 Done on a large scale, use of machines.
 It is well-developed than in tropical regions because:
 Low diversity of species in temperate regions.
 Temperate forests are easy for clear felling and they have trees of soft
wood which are easy to cut and transport.
 Easy replacement of Temperate forest.
 Favorable climatic conditions in temperate regions.
 (Sequoia are the tallest trees in the world).
 They used rivers for transportation.
 Soils in the tropical region are very fragile, hence large-scale soil
degradation.
 In Tropical region:
  The activity is mainly manual.
 Woods are difficult to carry.

AGRICULTURE :

 World's agricultural typology:

 Tropical region:
 Nomadic herding.
 Shifting cultivation.
 Intensive subsistence agriculture.
 Plantation agriculture.
 Temperate region:
 Mediterranean.
 Extensive commercial.
 Commercial livestock.
 Mixed farming.
 Commercial dairy farming.
 Truck farming.
 Nomadic herding:
 Herding - Taking care of animals.
 One of the most primitive types of agricultural practice.
 It is practiced in the region where agriculture is not developed.
 It is the simplest form of pastoralism.
 People are primarily dependent on animals for their income (hide, wool)
and food (milk, meat )
 Found in the regions of dry and arid conditions (Entire North Africa,
Central and West Asia, Mongolia, China, Ladakh).
 Africa and West Asia - Camel herding.
 Central Asia - Horse.
 Mongolia and China - Yak, Lama, Markhor
 Kashmir and Ladakh - Changthangi goat (Pashmina - Finest Kashmir
wool).
 Shifting cultivation:
 Mainly practiced in forest areas.
 Usually entire forest is selected and is owned by the community.
 The forest is divided into multiple patches.
 Cut the trees and then burn them, clear the entire patch.
 The agriculture is done on the cleared patch.
 No use of mechanical instruments, chemicals, or fertilizers.
 Usually done for 3-4 years, once the soils lose fertility, people select
another patch.
 Adverse impacts:
 Soil degradation.
 Impacts the biodiversity.
 Legally it is not allowed in India.
 It is practiced in: The Amazon basin, parts of Venezuela, Mexico, the
Congo basin, the Forest of South-East Asia, and India (North-East -
Jhum cultivation).
 Intesnive subsistence agriculture (10:38 am):
 Intensive - Using the same land for multiple crops in a year.
 Subsistence - Produce is only for personal consumption.
 It is the most common method in developing and less developed
countries where population density is high.
 Low per capita availability of land.
 Fragmentation of land.
 Low development, low usage of machines, dominated by manual labor.
 Returns are less.
 high per hectare output, but very low per capita output.
 Regions: South Asia (Rice is the dominant crop), South East Asia,
Eastern China, and Developing and less developing countries of Africa.
 Plantation agriculture :
 Commercial in nature.
 It includes large estates, involvement of manual labor, highly centralized
in management, and scientifically managed.
 Use of scientific methods of processing, transporting, and packaging.
 Requires high investment and is totally export-oriented.
 Famous plantations: Malaysia (Rubber), Indonesia (Sugarcane), India
(Coffe, Tea, Rubber), Sri Lanka (Tea), West Africa (Coffe and Cocoa),
Pacific Islands (Sugarcane), West Indies (Banana and Sugarcane).
 Temperate region:
 Mediterranean type of agriculture :
 Viticulture, Citrus food.
 Regions: France, Italy, Spain, Central Chile, etc.
 Extensive commercial agricultural:
 Majorly wheat growing.
 Practiced in temperate regions.
 Practice agriculture in very land area, well suited for commercial
agriculture.
 Huge surplus.
 Most of these regions are developed, which brings high investment and
is highly mechanized.
 High per capita availability of land.
 Known for monoculture, usually wheat.
 Low per hectare output.
 All the crops are scientifically managed.
 Pampas of Argentina, Velds of Africa, and Downs of Australia are
known for extensive commercial agriculture.
 Extensive commercial livestock ranching:
 The ranch is a large area with highly nutritious grass.
 In this ranch, animals are openly reared and managed scientifically.
 Eg: Cattle, and horse rearing.
 South Africa & Australia - Sheep rearing.
 In Australia, they trained the dogs to control the sheep.
 Commercial mixed farming :
 Involves livestock + agriculture.
 It is found in regions where land availability is decreasing and requires
efficient utilization of land.
 Requires high investment, scientifically managed, and highly profitable.
 Regions: Towards the east of prairies in North America, western
Europe, North East Argentina, South East Australia.
 Commercial dairy farming :
 On a small area of land, cows are reared, just for the milk.
 Involves high investment, is highly commercialized, and involves both
machines as well as manual labor.
 It is found in regions where population density is higher and demand for
milk and milk products is higher.
 Regions: Eastern USA, Western coast of Europe, South East Australia,
and New Zealand.
 Truck Farming/Factory farming/Market gardening (11:51 am):
 It involves agriculture in the urban vicinity which can be covered
overnight through trucks.
 Crops grown: Perishable (Fruits and vegetables), higher demanded
crops.
 Regions: Most of the urbanized locations of the world (Western Europe,
Eastern Cost of the USA, Eastern Cost of Australia, Japan, etc).
 Different types of land use categories in India (11:55 am):
 Agricultural and Non-agricutural.
 Non - Agricultural:
 Forest area under the natural vegetation.
 (Legally it is not defined).
 Area under non-agricultural use.
 Barren and wastelands.
 Permanent pastures and tree crops.
  Agriculture:
 Net Sown Area (NSA):
 The land which is in cultivation in a year.
 Gross cropped area (GCA) - The gross area under cultivation which is
calculated by the number of times sowing is done.
 Cropping intensity = GCA/NSA*100
 India's cropping intensity is approximately 150% and it is lower than the
world average.
 Current fallow:
 The area which is left uncultivated in the present year.
 Fallow other than current fallow:
 The land area which is not cultivated between 1 to 5 years.
 Culturable wasteland:
 The land which is left uncultivated for more than 5 years.
 After independence, the following types of land are increased in India:
 Forest, Area under non-agricultural use, Net sown area (slightly), and
Current fallow.

INPUTS FOR GREEN REVOLUTION :

 HYV seeds:
 These are seeds responsible for high yield.
 Highly water intensive.
 They are prone to insects and pests.
 Highly nutrient intensive.
 They are costly also.

Irrigation facilities:

 Govt. gave power subsidies.

 Chemical fertilizers.
 Subsidies for purchasing seeds.

MSP:

 Pre-mature phase (1961-1968).

 Govt. started the Integrated Agriculture Development Programme.
 Punjab and Haryana: 8 districts targeted only for wheat.
 It was successful.

Phase II: (1968-1981)

  Expanded to Punjab Haryana and UP.
 Achieve self-sufficiency in food grains.

Phase III (1981-1992):

 More focus on rice.(WB, Odisha, A.P, Tamilnadu).

 Rice production nearly doubled.
 3rd phase: Rice production more than doubled.

POSITIVE OUTCOMES :

 Self-sufficiency in food grains.

 Controlling famine.
 Growth of the Industrial sector.
 Increased rural employment.
 Increase in the overall level of Income.
 Indian agriculture overall shifted from subsistence to commercial.

Negative impacts:

Ecological impacts:

 Heavy use of chemical fertilizer.

 Soil has lost its natural resistance.
 Depletion of groundwater.
 Salinisation of soil.
 Land degradation.
 Deforestation due to an increase in cultivation.

Economical impacts:

 Increase in the cost of agriculture.

 Cost of Inputs increased.
 Increased economic burden on the govt. due to MSP, subsidies.
 Neglect of other crops has resulted in imports of other crops.

Social impacts:

 MSP in a few crops results in Inequality in crops.

 Interstate and intrastate inequality.
 Increased agricultural migration.
 Health impact due to extensive use of chemical fertilizer.
  Drug trafficking in Punjab is one of the negative impacts of the Green
Revolution.

AGRICULTURE SEASON IN INDIA :

 Agriculture is a primary activity highly dependent on climate.

 The conditions required for a particular crop depend on :
 Temperature.
 Rainfall.
 soil.

Agriculture Season:

Agriculture Sowing Harvesting Main Crops

Season Season Season
Kharif June - July September - Rice, Sugarcane, Pulse, Cotton, Jute,
October Bajra, Jowar
Rabi October - March - April Wheat, Barley, Mustard, Lentils,
November Peas, Gram
Zaid March - April June - July Cucumber, Watermelon, Muskmelon,
Bottle Gourd, Bitter Gourd

Kharif Season:

 Sowing Season: June - July

 Harvesting Season: September - October
 Main Crops: Rice, Sugarcane, Pulse, Cotton, Jute, Bajra, Jowar
 Characteristics: Kharif season coincides with the onset of monsoon
rains.
 Crops grown during this season are typically water-intensive and are
suited to the warm and wet climate.
 Kharif crops are generally sown at the beginning of the monsoon and
harvested before the arrival of winter.

Rabi Season:
  Sowing Season: October - November
 Harvesting Season: March - April
 Main Crops: Wheat, Barley, Mustard, Lentils, Peas, Gram
 Characteristics: Rabi season occurs during the winter months when the
monsoon retreats.
 Rabi crops are sown after the monsoon rains have ended and are
harvested before the onset of the next monsoon season.
 These crops require relatively less water and are adapted to cooler
temperatures.

Zaid Season:

 Sowing Season: March - April

 Harvesting Season: June - July
 Main Crops: Cucumber, Watermelon, Muskmelon, Bottle Gourd, Bitter
Gourd
 Characteristics: Zaid season is a short-duration cropping season that
falls between the Kharif and Rabi seasons.
 Zaid crops are typically grown during the summer months when
temperatures are high.
 These crops are fast-growing and require minimal water, making them
suitable for cultivation during the hot and dry summer season.

Crop Temperature Rainfall Soil

Rice Not above 35°C 150-300 cm Clay or Loamy
Whe Below 20°C 50-100 cm Well-drained loamy soil
at
Jow not below 16 degrees celsius less than 100 cm variety of soils.
ar

Table with crops listed for each rainfall category:

Rainfall (cm) Category Crops

High (125-200) Rice Jute
Rubber
Coffee
Sugarcane
 Moderate (75-125) Maize
Cotton
Soybean
Groundnut
Low (less than 75) Millets
Pulses
Mustard
Sunflower

SOIL AND RELATED CROPS :

Soil Type Related Crops

Alluvial Rice, Wheat, Sugarcane, Cotton, Jute (Ganga Brahmaputra region)
Soil

Black Soil Cotton, Soybean, Millets, Pulses

Laterite Cashew, Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Coconut, tapioca
Soil

OILSEEDS:

 Temperature - High for Sunflower, Mustard - low temp; Rest all

moderate temperature.
 Less than 75 cm of rainfall and any type of soil is good for its
cultivation.
 60% of India's demand is made through import.
 Palm oil is the largest imported and mainly comes from Indonesia and
Malaysia.
 Sunflower oil is imported from Ukraine and Argentina
 Soya Oil is imported from Argentina and Brazil.
  Common oilseeds in India: Groundnut, Soya oil, Sunflower, Mustard oil,
Toria, Seasum oil and are under MSP.
 Not under MSP and found in India: Cotton seed; Linseed, Castor seed,
and Rice bran.
 Reasons for low oil seed production:
 1. Neglected during the Green Revolution.
 2. Shifted into dryland
 3. Low price support for the farmers.
 4. Lack of HYV Seeds
 5. Inconsistent import and export policy.
 Measures to be taken:
 Provide better quality seeds and better price support.
 Use micro-irrigation
 Increasing the awareness and skill training for the farmers.
 Creation of FPO for farmers

ENERGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES :

 Mineral Resources: Metallic and Non-Metallic.

 Metallic - Ferrous and Non-Ferrous.
 Non-Metallic - Organic and Non-Organic.
 Iron:
 Ores: Magnetite (black in colour and igneous in origin i.e. derived from
Magma), Haematite (sedimentary in origin, red in colour), Limonite
(brown in colour; sedimentary in origin), and Siderite (sedimentary in
origin).
 Distribution:
 USA or North America (near the Great Lake Region and the
Appalachian Mountains); South America (along Andes, Venezuela, and
Brazil)
 South of the African Continent; Europe (Kiruna and Gallivare; Alsace-
Loraine)
 Asia: Kerch (Ukraine); Manchuria in China, India.
 Australia: Iron Knob, etc.
 Manganese:
 Ore: Pyrolosite.
 Distribution: Africa: Southern Part and Congo region.
 Asia: Tocmac in Ukraine, Urals,
 Copper:
 Ore: Chalcopyrite.
 N. America (interior Canada and Lynn Lake; Rocky part of USA)
  S. America (Andes, Mines in Chile such as Chuquicamata and San
Jose)
 Africa (Congo Basin and Katanga Plateau)
 Asia: Lake Balkash (Russia) and Ulanbatore in Mongolia
 Aluminium:
 Ore: Bauxite.
 It is most abundant after Iron ore due to SiAl.
 West Part of Africa; Guyana-Surinam; Urals, etc.
 Tin:
 Mainly found in Southeast Asia and Nigeria
 Gold:
 N. America as placer deposits in Alaska in Yukon River; California.
 Lake Baikal in Asia and the South of Africa.
 Australia: Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie.
 Coal:
 The highest quality coal is anthracite; followed by bituminous; Lignite
and Peat.
 South America: Southern part of Andes and southern part of South
Africa
 Ruhr of Germany and Along the Rockies, Appalachian and
Pennsylvania in North America.
 Asia: Russia, China and India
 Australia: the area near Sydney.
 Petroleum:
 Persian Gulf, Oman, Red Sea; Gulf of Mexico, North Sea; South East
Asia.
 Nigeria Coast and Northern Part of Africa such as Liberia, Algeria,
Egypt, and Tunisia.
 West Asian countries: Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Bahrain, AbuDhabi, and Baku
in Azerbaijan.
 Central Asian countries are also very rich sources of petroleum and also
natural gas.
 Shale Gas: China, Argentina, Algeria and the USA are major reserves.
India is in 11th rank.
 Uranium Reserves: Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan and Namibia.

MINERALS OF INDIA :

 Geological rock formation in India:

 1. Archean Rocks:
 The oldest rock system in India and it is the fundamental complex of the
country mainly made of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
 It is 3-4 Billion Years old and no major minerals are associated. Also,
there are no fossils found inside it.
 Found in a few regions such as Bundelkhand and parts of Nilgiri.
 2. Dharwar Rocks.
 These are the oldest sedimentary horizons.
 They are rich in iron and other metalliferous minerals; for example:
Manganese.
 Regions: Karnataka, Chotanagpur Plateau and Aravallis.
 3. Cuddapah Rocks:
 They are the sedimentary deposits of Archean and Dharwar.
 They are found in basins such as the Cuddapah Basin; Bhima Basin,
and parts of the Krishna-Godavari Basin.
 It is known for Limestone, Dolomite, Uranium and glass making Sand.
 4. Vindhyan Rocks:
 They are the result of rifting activities.
 Known for limestone, sandstone and diamond (Panna).
 5. Gondwana Rocks:
 They are mainly due to rifting of river valleys eg Damodar River, Son
River, Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna River Valleys.
 They are found during the upper carboniferous period and are known for
Coal deposits.
 6. Deccan Traps:
 It is due to the eruption of basaltic magma.
 Found along the Western Ghats and it has resulted in stepped-like
topography.
 It is rich in black soil and can act well for ground waters.
 7. Tertiary Formations:
 Due to the upliftment of the Himalayas and are sedimentary in origins
and are devoid of any kind of metallic minerals.
 Limestone is found in Shivaliks, Pir Panjal and Dun valleys; Lithium is in
Kashmir.
 8. Quaternary Formations:
 The most recent rock formations of India are due to the deposition of
sediments from Himalayan rivers and have rich alluvial soils.
 Recent origin and minerals are Shale gas and petroleum gas.
 Petroleum in Brahmaputra Valley.
 Important Minerals:
 Iron: Dharwar, Chotanagpur Plateau and Rajasthan.
 Manganese: Karnataka, Chatishrah and Rajshtahn Belt.
  Bauxite: Odisha has the highest Bauxite; Jharkhand, MP-Chattishrah
Belt.
 Copper: Rajsthan-Aravallis, MP-Chattisgarh-Jharkhand belt.
 Mica: Jharkhand, AP, Rajasthan and Bihar. India is one of the largest
producers
 Coal: Gondwana Coalfields and all river valleys such as Damodar,
Mahanadi, Son, Godavari, etc.
 Petroleum: They are associated with quaternary rock formations. The
entire Brahmaputra Valley and Digboi is one of the oldest refineries in
Asia.
 Also, coastal parts of Maharashtra and Gujrat; are Bombay High; K-G
Delta; and Cauvery Delta.
 Shale Gas: 6 major basins in India eg Cambay basin.
 Others: Entire Ganga Basin, Assam, Arakan Basin, Damodar Valley
Basin, K-G Basin, Cauvery Basin.
 Uranium: All of these are minor locations; Kadappa Rock formation eg
Cuddapah Basin, Jharkhand and Chattisgarh eg Tumalapalle and Gogi
Basin; Singhbhum Province.
 Thorium: Coastal zones; depositional coast; entire eastern coast and
Kerala Coast; Monazite is found in AP, TN, Odisha and Kerala.
 Issues in the extraction of minerals:
 Environmental issues: Deforestation eg Kudremukh National Park;
pollution; land degradation; loss of biodiversity; landslides and
earthquakes.
 Technological issues: Old mining methods lead to less efficiency.
 Administrative issues: Damaged infrastructure such as roads, bridges,
etc; illegal mining; land encroachment, resettlement; illegal sand mining.
 Social Issues: Displacement of people ie rural and tribal displacement;
migration issues, health issues and poor working conditions.
 Minerals in India are classified into two groups:
 Major Minerals: Comes under the central govt eg Coal, Natural Gas,
Petroleum, iron Ore, bauxite, etc.
 Minor Minerals: Comes under the respective state govt eg bentonite,
Marble, Saltpetre and all building materials; Dolomite, Gypsum Steatite,
Sand, etc.

MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES:

 Production of identical goods on a large scale using raw materials,

machines, power, and specialized labor in a factory setting is called
manufacturing industry.
 It produces standardized commodities.
 Locational Factors:
 Raw materials: Characteristics of raw materials which can impact; it can
be weight loss (eg Sugarcane) or non-weight loss; universal availability
or cheaply available; cost of extraction.
 Labor: Can be skilled, semi-skilled; non-skilled; availability of labor;
cheaply available.
 Market: The bigger the market, the more the demand; presence of
agglomeration; forward and backward linkage, etc. Steel slag is used as
raw material for the cement industry, etc.
 Power: Regularity of availability and at a cheaper cost (eg Hydropower);
the Steel industry is highly power intensive; aluminum smelting, cement,
etc.
 Capital: From two sources ie Govt and private.
 Infrastructure: It includes transportation and should be well-developed
and interlinked; inland waterways and railways are cheaper and need
interconnectedness.
 Govt policy: Import-export policies, easy acquisition of land, industrial
policy, etc.
 Footloose industry which is not dependent on any type of raw material
or is easily available.
 For such an industry, govt policy plays a major role eg IT industry.
 Important industries of India :
 Agro-Based Industry:
 Cotton Textile Industry: Labour intensive; largest agro-based industry
in India amongst employment generation.
 3 types: Handloom (highly labor-intensive), power loom (small
machines), and Mill (capital-intensive and large scale).
 Moderate temperature; black or alluvial soils; 210 frost-free days.
 Cotton is not a weight-losing raw material and is easy to transport.
 Labor: Semi-skilled labour is required and should be cheap as is
required in large numbers.
 Market: It is the most dominant factor for the cotton textile industry.
 Infrastructure: To transport the finished goods and raw materials.
 Distribution:
 1. Bombay Presidency: Supply of raw materials from Sind and easy
availability of Capital.
 Ahmedabad - Manchester of India; Surat, Nagpur, Vadodara, etc.
 2. Karnataka and TN Region: TN has some availability of black soil;
easy availability of labour; ports such as Mangalore, etc.
 Hydropower from the Cauvery River (Mettur Hydropower Project);
Tirpur; Selum, Madurai.
 3. Northern Belt: Availability of alluvial soils, good irrigation network,
better road, and railway networks, and cheap labor.
 There is a huge market and Kolkata Port.
 Centres: Kanpur, Agra, Bhopal, Kolkata
 The cotton textile industry is decentralized all over India.
 Problems:
 Production fluctuation and quality also fluctuate.
 Competition from Bangladesh and Vietnam.
 Egypt and Uzbekistan; Europe cannot produce its cotton.
 Synthetic material and technological challenges.
 Jute Textile Industry:
 Significance: Labour-intensive and environmentally friendly.
 Bangladesh and India are large producers.
 It needs a Humid climate and also a non-weight-losing industry.
 Cheap labor and regular supply of water.
 Availability: West Bengal and Assam.
 1855-Rishra; Bangladesh is the largest exporter of jute in the world.
 UP and Bihar - Mainly sugar Packaging.
 Issues: Quality, technology; labor unionism, demand, and competition
from Bangladesh in terms of export.
 Act: Jute Packaging Material Act, 1987.
 Jute is also called Golden fiber.
 Silk Textile Industry :
 It is highly labor-intensive and supports the agriculture sector.
 Sericulture is supported by the Silk Textile Industry.
 India is the only country that has all the five varieties of silk.
 India is the 2nd largest producer of silk after China.
 Distribution:
 1. Mulberry Silk: Comes from Karnataka (largest producer), AP,
Telangana.
 Banglore, Mysore, Kanchi, Hyderabad, Kurnool, Vishakhapatnam, etc.
 2. Erie Silk: Kolkata and 24 Parganas.
 Ahimsa Silk used in Buddhist traditions
 3. Muga Silk: Golden silk from Assam.
 4. Tropical Tussar Silk: It is from Jharkhand and Chattisgarh
 5. Oak Tussar: Banarasi and Bhagalpur Silk; UP and Bihar.
 Problems of the Silk Industry: Competition from artificial silk and China,
Japan, and Italy.
 Sugar Industry:
 2nd largest agro-based industry in India.
 Locational factors: Raw material.
 Sugarcane: It is weight-losing and perishable.
 The crushing period is around 24 hours and too bulky to transport.
 Alluvial soil and irrigation facilities.
 North Belt: Punjab (Jalandhar, Patiala); Haryana (Karnal, Ambala); Bihar
(Champaran, Muzaffarpur) and UP (Saharanpur, Meerut).
 South Belt: More than 50% of sugar comes from this belt.
 It is due to black soil but needed water; sugarcane grown is of superior
quality; marine effect and high humidity led to more sugar content and
longer crushing period.
 Maharashtra (Nasik, Kohlapur), Karnataka (Belgaum, Mandya), TN
(Selam, Coimbatore) and AP (KG Delta and Basin).
 Per hectare, sugarcane productivity was higher here.
 Here it is being managed by larger co-operatives.
 Problem: Production fluctuation as dependence on water; Fair and
Remunerative Prices (FRP), etc.
 Iron and Steel Industry:
 It is considered the base and foundation of all other industries.
 Location factors:
 Raw material: Iron and coal; some quantity of limestone for processing.
 Pig iron: 100% pure iron; it is brittle.
 Pig Iron + Manganese to give Steel.
 Water is also required
 Labor and power are required.
 Good transportation is also required - mostly dependent on railways.
 It requires a huge capital and a longer gestation period.
 Locations:
 West Bengal - Durgapur and Burnpur
 Jharkhand - Jamshedpur and Bokaro.
 Odisha - Rourkela
 Chattisgarh - Bhilai.
 AP - Vishapatnam/Vizak Steel Plant.
 Karnataka - Vijaynagar and Bhadravati.
 TN - Selam Steel Plant.
 Mini Steel Plant:
 Low capital requirement and low power requirements.
 Reduction in transportation cost and low gestation period.
 Issue: Lack of raw material requirements and power.
 Overall issues of the steel industry:
 Iron: Low-quality iron in India.
  Delay in coal availability and long gestation period, etc.
 Old technology is used in these steel plants.
 Highly power intensive and polluting in nature.
 Competition from China as it is the largest exporter.
 Cement Industry:
 Raw material: Limestone, Coal (Gondwana rock formations), and
Gypsum (Rajasthan).
 Limestone: Cuddapah Rock Formations, Vindhyan Rock Formation,
Tertiary Rock formations (Shivaliks, Dun Valley and Pir Panjal)
 Gypsum from Sea shells and Steel slag (waste from steel plant)
 Sludge from the fertilizer industry is used in the cement industry.
 Distribution: All over India as of now.
 Fertilizer Industry:
 Nitrogenous Fertilizer: Naptha (around petroleum refineries);
Ammonium Sulphate in Gujrat, Rajasthan, AP, and TN.
 Phosphatic Fertilizer: Rock phosphate; Rajasthan, AP and Jharkhand;
largely imported
 Sulphurous Fertilizer: Sulphuric acid; from petroleum refineries.

TRANSPORTATION :

 4 modes of transportation - Road, Rail, Air, and Inland Water.

Road Rail Air Inland Water

Advantages Last mile Cheaper Fastest mode of Cheapest mode of
connectivity ie transportation transportation
door to door. Supports the
industrial For long-distance Requires low
It supports other development transportation of initial cost
modes of perishable goods
transportation Comfortable for Easy to maintain
a long journey Tourism
Affordable and Least pollution
comfortable for Required for Medical
shorter distances mass emergency Labor intensive
transportation and provides
Flexibility and Disaster employment
accessibility Energy-efficient management
and less Supports tourism
polluting Security and industry
border
management Helps industrial
growth
International
 transport and
movement
Disadvanta Needs to be No door-to-door Costly Slower mode of
ges regularly connectivity transportation
maintained Not suitable for
High initial cost mass transport Perishable goods
Safety and road cannot be
accidents Difficult to High transported
reach the maintenance and
Pollution mountainous initial cost Perennial rivers
and hilly terrain
Traffic Depends upon Reservoirs and
congestion Not suitable for weather dams are
perishable goods conditions constructed which
Not comfortable movement limits the flow of
for long High pollution water
distances Slower for short
distance Low investment
Not suitable for and siltation
large-scale
goods Shifting river
transportation course

Does not provide

door-to-door
connectivity

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF GEOGRAPHY :

 Terms:
 Population: Number of individuals of a particular species.
 Population Density: Total population/Total area = Arithmetic or Crude
Density
 Nutritional Density = Total Population/Total Fertile Area.
 Agricultural Density = Agricultural Population/Fertile Area.
 Population Growth: Increase in population.
 Natural Growth Rate (NGR) = (Total Live Birth - Total Death)/Mid Year
Population x 1000.
 Crude Birth Rate (CBR) = (Total Live Births/Total Population) x 1000.
 Crude Death Rate (CBR) = (Total Death/Total Population) x 1000.
 Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) and Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR).
 Fertility Rate (FR): P (0-4)/PF (15-49) x 1000.
 Replacement Level fertility: It is the fertility rate required for a generation
to replace itself.
 It is the average number of children a woman would need to have to
reproduce herself by bearing a daughter who survives to childbearing
age so that each generation would exactly replace itself without
considering migration.
 It is equal to 2.1.
 Migration:
 It is the movement of people from one place to another.
 It is a temporary change of residence for a substantial period of time.
 Factors which influence migration:
 Push factors - Lack of employment, war, disasters, persecution, etc.
 Pull factors - Employment, education, health facilities, etc.
 Types:
 Internal:
 Rural to Urban (Agricultural laborers and farmers );
 Urban to Urban (educational, employment, health facilities);
 Urban to Rural (Lockdown and after retirement) and
 Rural to Rural (Agricultural laborers; mining, Women due to marriage)
 International - Voluntary and forced.
 Population Pyramid:
 A graphical representation of the population of a country is called a
population pyramid.
 It shows the composition of the population.
 3 types: Expanding, Stationary and Contracting
 Demographic transition theory and its stages.
 Settlements:
 It is influenced by factors such as environment, land, resource
availability, etc.
 Types: Compact, Disperse, and Nucleated Settlement.