GEC 302

PRELIM

• Much of the energy reaching Earth from the sun is

WEEK 1: Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycling in reflected back into space by the atmosphere,
Ecosystem clouds, and the Earth’s surface
• Some is absorbed by the Earth to warm the planet
How do nutrients and energy move through • Less than 0.03% of the energy reaching Earth from
ecosystems? the sun is captured by photosynthetic organisms,
and supports life on Earth
• All ecosystems consist of two components
– Biotic - living organisms in a given area— • Energy enters ecosystems through photosynthesis
bacteria, fungi, protists, plants, and – Plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria
animals acquire nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen,
– Abiotic - all nonliving physical or chemical oxygen, and phosphorus from the abiotic
aspects of the environment, such as the portions of ecosystems
climate, light, temperature, availability of – Photosynthesizers bring energy and
water, and minerals in the soil nutrients into ecosystems
 Energy flow through ecosystems begins with photosynthetic
organisms and passes through several levels of
• Nutrients are atoms and molecules that organisms nonphotosynthetic organisms that feed on the
obtain from their environment photosynthesizers or each other
– The same nutrients have been sustaining  autotrophs - make their own food using inorganic nutrients
and solar energy from the environment
life on Earth for about 3.5 billion years
– Your body includes oxygen, carbon,
• Energy is passed from one trophic level to the next
hydrogen, and nitrogen atoms that were
– Each category of organisms is called a
once part of a dinosaur or a wooly
trophic level
mammoth
• Producers (or autotrophs)
– Nutrients are transported around the
Earth, but they never leave Earth photosynthesizing organisms
• Consumers (or heterotrophs)
• Energy, in contrast, takes a one-way journey cannot photosynthesize
through ecosystems – They acquire energy and
nutrients from molecules
– Solar energy is captured by photosynthetic
in the bodies of other
bacteria, algae, and plants, and then flows
organisms
from organism to organism
– There are several levels of consumers
– Eventually, all of life’s energy is converted
to heat that is given off to the environment • Primary consumers (herbivores)
and cannot be used to drive the chemical feed directly and exclusively on
reactions of living organisms producers
• Carnivores act as secondary
– Life requires a continuous input of energy
consumers when they prey on
herbivores
• Some carnivores eat other
carnivores and are called tertiary
consumers

• Net primary production is a measure of the energy

stored in producers
– The amount of life that a particular
ecosystem can support is determined by
the energy captured by the producers in
that ecosystem
– Biomass, or dry biological material, is
usually a good measure of the energy
stored in organisms’ bodies
 GEC 302
PRELIM
 The energy that photosynthetic organisms store and make – Animals in natural communities often do
available to other members of the community over a given not fit neatly into the categories of
period is called net primary production
 Biomass is presented as grams per square meter per year.
primary, secondary, and tertiary
consumers depicted in simple food chains
• Net primary production is a measure of the – A food web shows many interconnected
energy stored in producers food chains, and actual feeding
– The amount of life that a particular relationships in a community
ecosystem can support is determined by – Some animals, such as raccoons, bears,
the energy captured by the producers in rats, and humans, are omnivores
that ecosystem (“everything eaters”) and act as primary,
– Biomass, or dry biological material, is secondary, and tertiary consumers
usually a good measure of the energy
stored in organisms’ bodies • Detritivores and decomposers release nutrients for
reuse
• The net primary production of an ecosystem is – Among the most important strands in a
influenced by many factors food web are the detritivores and
– The amount of sunlight decomposers
– The availability of water and nutrients • Detritivores (“debris eaters”) are
– The temperature an army of mostly small and often
unnoticed organisms
• An ecosystem’s contribution to Earth’s total – Nematode worms and
production is determined by the ecosystem’s Earthworms
productivity and by the portion of Earth that the – Vultures
ecosystem covers – Millipedes
 In the desert, lack of water limits production – Dung beetles
 In the open ocean, light is a limiting factor in deep waters – Slugs
 The oceans have low net primary production, but they cover – Decomposers are primarily fungi and
about 70% of Earth’s surface, so they contribute about 25% of bacteria
Earth’s total production
• They feed on the same material as
 The rainforests are about the same because they have high
productivity but cover less than 5% of Earth’s surface. detritivores
• They do not ingest chunks of
• Food chains and food webs describe the feeding organic matter
relationships within communities • They secrete digestive enzymes
– A food chain is a linear feeding relationship outside their bodies, where the
with just one representative at each enzymes break down nearby
trophic level organic material
• Decomposers absorb some of the
resulting nutrient molecules but
leave the rest

• Detritivores and decomposers are absolutely

essential to life on Earth
– Without detritivores and decomposers,
ecosystems would gradually be buried by
accumulated wastes and dead bodies,
whose nutrients would be unavailable to
enrich the soil and water

• Energy transfer through trophic levels is inefficient

– Second Law of Thermodynamics
– Inefficiency is a rule in living systems
• Waste is heat produced by all
biochemical reactions that keep
cells alive
• Only a fraction of the energy
captured by producers of the first
trophic level can be used by
 GEC 302
PRELIM
organisms in the second trophic the atmosphere, to reservoirs in
level freshwater lakes, rivers, and groundwater,
 When energy is converted from one form to another, the and then back again to the oceans
amount of useful energy decreases.
 Burning ATP releases heat.
• The hydrologic Cycle
– The hydrologic cycle would continue even
– The average net energy transfer between
if life on Earth disappeared because the
trophic levels is roughly 10% efficient and
biotic portion of ecosystems plays a small
is known as the “10% law”
role in the hydrologic cycle
• An energy pyramid illustrates the
– The hydrologic cycle is crucial for
energy relationships between
terrestrial communities because it
trophic levels—widest at the base,
continually restores the fresh water
and progressively narrowing in
needed for land-based life
higher trophic levels
– The oceans cover 70% of the Earth’s
• A biomass pyramid for a
surface and contain more than 97% of
community has the same general
Earth’s water
shape
– Solar energy evaporates water, and it
comes back to Earth as precipitation

– The most abundant organisms are plants

– The most abundant animals are herbivores
– Carnivores are relatively scarce because
there is far less energy available to support
them • The carbon cycle has major reservoirs in the
– Energy losses within and between trophic atmosphere and oceans
levels mean that long-lived animals at – Carbon atoms form the framework of all
higher trophic levels eat many times their organic molecules
body weight in food – The carbon cycle is the pathway that
– If the food contains certain types of toxic carbon takes from its major short-term
substances, they may be stored and reservoirs in the atmosphere and oceans,
become more concentrated through producers and into the bodies of
– This biological magnification can lead to consumers, detritivores, and
harmful and even fatal effects decomposers, and then back again to its
• Mercury in fish reservoirs

• Nutrient cycles, also called biogeochemical cycles,

describe the pathways that nutrients follow as they
move from their major sources in the abiotic parts
of ecosystems, called reservoirs, through living
communities and back again

• The hydrologic cycle has its major reservoir in the

oceans
– The water cycle, or hydrologic cycle, is the
pathway that water takes as it travels from
its major reservoir—the oceans—through
 GEC 302
PRELIM
 Carbon enters communities through capture of carbon – N2 is converted to ammonia by specific
dioxide (CO2) during photosynthesis bacteria during a process called nitrogen
 Producers on land get CO2 from the atmosphere which is
fixation
then “fixed” in biological molecules
 Primary consumers eat producers and acquire carbon – People significantly manipulate the
stored in their tissues nitrogen cycle, both deliberately and
 These herbivores release some of the carbon through unintentionally
respiration as CO2, excrete carbon compounds in their • Plant legumes to fertilize fields
feces, and store the rest in their bodies, which may be
• About 150 million tons of
consumed by higher trophic levels
 All living things eventually die, and their bodies are broken nitrogen-based fertilizer are
down by detritivores and decomposers, whose cellular applied to farms each year
respiration returns CO2 to the atmosphere and oceans • The heat produced by burning
fossil fuels combines atmospheric
N2 and O2, generating nitrogen
• The carbon Cycle oxides that form nitrates
– The complementary processes of uptake – Human activities now dominate the
by photosynthesis and release by cellular nitrogen cycle
respiration continually recycle carbon
from the abiotic to the biotic portions of an
ecosystem and back again
– Much of Earth’s carbon is bound up in
limestone rock, formed from calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) deposited on the ocean
floor in the shells of prehistoric
phytoplankton
– This cycling requires millions of years
– Fossil fuels, which include coal, oil, and
natural gas, are additional long-term
reservoirs for carbon
 These substances were produced from the remains of
prehistoric organisms buried deep underground and subjected
to high temperature and pressure Nitrogen fixers:
 In addition to carbon, the energy of prehistoric sunlight is  Some of these bacteria live in water and soil and convert the
trapped in these deposits ammonia into nitrate that plants can directly use
 When human beings burn fossil fuels to tap this stored energy,  Others live in symbiotic associations with plants called
CO2 is released into the atmosphere, with potentially serious legumes, which include alfalfa, soybeans, clover, and peas
consequences  Some nitrogen is released in wastes and dead bodies
 Decomposer bacteria convert this back to nitrate and
• The nitrogen cycle has its major reservoir in the ammonia in the soil or water, which is then available to plants
atmosphere  Denitrifying bacteria break down nitrate, releasing N2 back to
the atmosphere completing the cycle.
– Nitrogen is a crucial component of
proteins, many vitamins, nucleotides (such
as ATP), and nucleic acids (such as DNA)
– The nitrogen cycle is the pathway taken by
• The phosphorus cycle has its major reservoir in
nitrogen from its primary reservoir—
rock, bound to oxygen as phosphate
nitrogen gas (N2) in the atmosphere—to
– Phosphorus is found in biological
much smaller reservoirs of ammonia and
molecules such as nucleic acids and the
nitrate in soil and water, through
phospholipids of cell membranes
producers, consumers, detritivores and
– It also forms a major component of
decomposers, and back to its reservoirs
vertebrate teeth and bones
– The phosphorus cycle is the pathway
• The nitrogen Cycle
taken by phosphorus from its primary
– While nitrogen gas (N2) makes up 78% of
reservoir in rocks to much smaller
the atmosphere, this form of nitrogen
reservoirs in soil and water, producers,
cannot be utilized by plants
consumers, detritivores and decomposers
• Plants utilize nitrate (NO3−) or
and back
ammonia (NH3) as their nitrogen
source
 GEC 302
PRELIM
– Days later and often hundreds of miles
from the source, these acids fall to Earth in
rain or snow

• Interfering with the carbon cycle is warming

Earth’s climate
– Natural process called the greenhouse
effect, which keeps our atmosphere
relatively warm and allows life on Earth as
we know it
– For Earth’s temperature to remain
Throughout its cycle, almost all phosphorus is bound to oxygen, constant, the total amount of energy
forming phosphate (PO43−) entering and leaving Earth’s atmosphere
o There are no gaseous forms of phosphate, so there is must be equal
no atmospheric reservoir in the phosphorus cycle
o As phosphate-rich rocks are exposed by geological
– If atmospheric concentrations of
processes, some of the phosphate is dissolved by rain greenhouse gases increase, more heat is
and flowing water retained than is radiated into space,
▪ carries it to soil, lakes, and the causing Earth to warm
ocean
– Greenhouse gases are increasing because
o Dissolved phosphate is absorbed by producers, which
incorporate it into biological molecules people burn fossil fuels, releasing CO2
From producers, phosphate is passed through food webs – Other important greenhouse gases include
At each level, excess phosphate is excreted methane (CH4), released by agricultural
Detritivores and decomposers return the phosphate to the soil activities and burning fossil fuels
and water

• Burning fossil fuels is causing climate change

What happens when humans disrupt nutrient cycles?
– Climate scientists predict that the warming
atmosphere will cause more severe
• As the human population grew and technology
storms, including stronger hurricanes
increased, people began to act more
– Greater amounts of rain or snow will fall in
independently of natural ecosystem processes
single storms
– The Industrial Revolution resulted in a
– More frequent and more prolonged
tremendous increase in our reliance on
droughts will occur
energy stored in fossil fuels for heat, light,
– Increased CO2 makes the oceans more
transportation, industry, and agriculture
acidic
• Overloading the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles
damages aquatic ecosystems
– Fertilizers are applied to farm fields
– Water dissolves and carries away some of
the phosphate and nitrogen-based
fertilizer
– Overstimulating the growth of
phytoplankton in the ocean “bloom”
– The phytoplankton die, and their bodies
sink into deeper water and provide food
for decomposer bacteria
– The decomposers use up most of the
available oxygen, and other aquatic
organisms, such as invertebrates and fish,
die, creating “dead zones” in many waters
(Gulf of Mexico)

• Overloading the sulfur and nitrogen cycles causes

acid deposition
– Burning of sulfur-containing fossil fuels,
primarily coal, accounts for about 75% of
all sulfur dioxide emissions worldwide
 GEC 302
PRELIM

The biosphere includes every part of Earth where life

WEEK 2: Ecology and the Basic Ecological exists, including all the land, water, and air where living
Principles things can be found. The biosphere is the largest
ecological category, and it consists of many different
What is ecology? biomes
• a branch of science, including human
science, population, community, ecosystem and
biosphere.
• study of organisms, the environment and how the
organisms interact with each other and their
environment.
• It is studied at various levels, such as organism,
population, community, biosphere and ecosystem.
• An ecologist’s primary goal is to improve their
understanding of life processes, adaptations and
habitats, interactions and biodiversity of organisms

Biotic and Abiotic Factors Habitat and Organism

• The main aim of ecology is to understand the • Habitat is the physical environment in which an
distribution of biotic and abiotic factors of living organism lives. Each organism has particular
things in the environment. requirements for its survival and lives where the
• The biotic and abiotic factors include the living and environment provides for those needs.
non-living factors and their interaction with the • A habitat may support many different species
environment. having similar requirements.
Biotic Components Abiotic Components • The various species sharing a habitat thus have the
o components are living o are non-living chemical same ‘address
factors of an and physical factors of • The features of the habitat can be represented by
ecosystem an ecosystem. its structural components :
o could be acquired o Space
from the atmosphere, o Food
lithosphere and o Water
hydrosphere o cover or shelter
• Earth has four major habitats:
o Terrestrial
Ecological Hierarchy o Freshwater
A population consists of all the individual organisms of o Estuarine
the same species that live and interact in the same o Ocean
area.
A community refers to all of the populations of Niche
different species that live and interact in the same area. • The term niche means the sum of all the activities
and relationships of a species by which it uses the
An ecosystem includes all the living things in a given resources in its habitat for its survival and
area, together with the nonliving environment. The reproduction.
nonliving environment includes abiotic factors, such as • No two species in a habitat can have the same
water, minerals, and sunlight niche. This is because if two species occupy the
same niche they will compete with one another
Biome is a group of similar ecosystems with the same until one is displaced. For example, a large number
general type of physical environment anywhere in the of different species of insects may be pests of the
world. Terrestrial biomes are generally delineated same plant but they can co-exist as they feed on
by climate and major types of vegetation. Examples of different parts of the same plant.
terrestrial biomes include tropical rainforests and
deserts. Aquatic biomes are generally defined by Importance of Ecology
distance from shore and depth of water. Examples of a. Conservation of Environment
aquatic biomes include the shallow water near shore o The term niche means the sum of all the
(littoral zone) and the deepest water at the bottom of activities and relationships of a species by
a body of water (benthic zone).
 GEC 302
PRELIM
which it uses the resources in its habitat for
its survival and reproduction.
o No two species in a habitat can have the WEEK 3: Biogeochemical Cycles
same niche. This is because if two species
occupy the same niche they will compete What sustains Life on Earth?
with one another until one is displaced. For • Solar energy, the cycling of matter, and gravity
example, a large number of different sustain the earth’s life.
species of insects may be pests of the same
plant but they can co-exist as they feed on Two secrets of survival: energy flow and matter
different parts of the same plant. recycling
• An ecosystem survives by a combination of
b. Resource Allocation energy flow and matter recycling
o With the knowledge of ecology, we are
able to know which resources are Matter Cycling in Ecosystems
necessary for the survival of different • Nutrient Cycles: Global Recycling
organisms. Lack of ecological knowledge o Global Cycles called biogeochemical cycles,
has led to scarcity and deprivation of these are cycling of nutrients from the abiotic
resources, leading to competition reservoirs to biotic reservoirs.
o Nutrients are the elements and
c. Energy conservation compounds that organisms need to live,
o All organisms require energy for their grow, and reproduce.
growth and development. Lack of o Biogeochemical cycles move all nutrients
ecological understanding leads to the over- through air, water, soil, rock and living
exploitation of energy resources such as organisms over millions of years.
light, nutrition and radiation, leading to its o Abiotic – nonliving cycles like rock cycle,
depletion water cycle and other chemical cycles.
o Biotic – living organism involved cycles like
d. Eco-friendliness carbon and nitrogen cycle.
o Ecology encourages harmonious living o All cycles enable a specific chemical
within the species and the adoption of a element or nutrient to be taken and reused
lifestyle that protects the ecology of life through various forms.

7 ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES
1. Everything is connected to everything else. (Ang
lahat ng bagay ay magkakaugnay.)
2. All forms of life are important.(Ang lahat na may
buhay ay mahalaga.
3. Everything must go somewhere. (Ang lahat ng
bagay ay may patutunguhan.)
4. Ours is a finite earth. (Ang kalikasan ay may
hangganan.)
5. Nature knows best. (Ang kalikasan ang mas
nakakaalam.) Water Cycle
6. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s Water’s Unique Properties
creation. (Ang kalikasan ay maganda at tayo ang • There are strong forces of attraction between
tagapangasiwa ng lahat na nilikha ng Diyos.) molecules of water.
7. Everything changes. (Ang lahat ay nagbabago.) • Water exists as a liquid over a wide
temperature range.
• Liquid water changes temperature slowly.
• It takes a large amount of energy for water to
evaporate.
• Liquid water can dissolve a variety of
compounds including rock.
• Water expands when it freezes.
Effects of Human Activities on Water Cycle
→ We alter the water cycle by:
 GEC 302
PRELIM
o Withdrawing large amounts of • Calcium carbonate in the shells of marine
freshwater from the ground causing organisms.
salt water to contaminate reservoir. Effects of Human Activities on Carbon Cycle
o Withdrawing large amounts from • We alter the carbon cycle by adding excess CO 2
rivers and streams changes flow of to the atmosphere through:
nutrients o Burning fossil fuels.
o Clearing vegetation causes eroding o Clearing vegetation faster than it is
soils that clogs streams. replaced.
o Polluting surface and underground o Just Breathing
water.
o All of this contributes to climate
change. Nitrogen Cycle
→ Nitrogen is the second largest nutrient cycle on the
Carbon Cycle planet, second only to carbon.
→ One of the most complex cycles on Earth

Effects of Human Activities on the Nitrogen Cycle

• We alter the nitrogen cycle by:
o Adding gases to atmosphere that
• Carbon just like all other nutrients cycles from contribute to acid rain.
one reservoir to another through many years. o Adding nitrous oxide to the
• Eg: Carbon enters plants as CO2 which is atmosphere through farming
incorporated into organic molecules by a practices which can warm the
process called photosynthesis atmosphere and deplete ozone.
• When organisms respire, a portion of this o Contaminating ground water from
carbon is returned to the atmosphere as CO2. nitrate ions in inorganic fertilizers.
Carbon Reservoir pools: Where Carbon is stored o Releasing nitrogen into the
• Organic molecules – in living and dead troposphere through deforestation.
organisms. • Human activities such as production and use
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in atmosphere. of fertilizers now “fix” (put into environment)
• Organic matter in soil. more nitrogen than all natural sources
• Fossil fuels and sedimentary rock like combined.
limestone.
• CO2 in ocean/water bodies.
 GEC 302
PRELIM

Phosphorous Cycle
→ Phosphorous Cycle has been greatly affected by
human activity in the last 100 years

Effects of Human Activities on the Phosphorous Cycle

• We remove large amounts of phosphate from the
earth to make fertilizer.
• We reduce phosphorous in tropical soils by
clearing forests.
• We add excess phosphates to aquatic systems
from runoff of animal wastes and fertilizers.
• We add sulfur dioxide to the atmosphere by:
o Burning coal and oil
o Refining sulfur containing petroleum.
o Convert sulfur-containing metallic ores
into free metals such as copper, lead, and
zinc releasing sulfur dioxide into the
environment.

The Gaia Hypothesis: Is the Earth Alive?

• Some have proposed that the earth’s various forms
of life control or at least influence its chemical
cycles and other earth-sustaining processes.
o The strong Gaia hypothesis: life controls
the earth’s life-sustaining processes.
o The weak Gaia hypothesis: life influences
the earth’s life-sustaining processes
 GEEE
MIDTERM

STRESSORS Chemical pollution

o occurs when one or more substances occur in a
concentration high enough to elicit physiological
Environmental Stressors responses in organisms, potentially causing toxicity
• are factors whose influence is to constrain productivity, and ecological change.
reproductive success, and ecosystem development o include pesticides, gases such as ozone and sulphur
• stressors affect all organisms as well as their populations, dioxide, and toxic elements such as arsenic and
communities, and ecoscapes (landscapes and seascapes). mercury
o may be natural in origin, being associated with o Pollution may also be caused by excessive nutrients,
such environmental influences as: which can distort productivity and other ecological
o competition, predation, disease, and other function
interactions among organisms
o constraints related to climate or to inadequate or Thermal pollution
excessive nutrients, moisture, or space o caused by the release of heat (thermal energy) into
o disturbances such as wildfire and windstorms the environment, which results in ecological stress
• The effects of natural stressors are not always negative. because species vary in their tolerance of
Some individuals, populations, and communities may temperature extremes.
benefit from the effects of natural stress, even while o may occur at natural springs and submarine vents
others suffer a degree of damage. where geologically heated water is emitted. It is also
• stressors associated with human activities are the most associated with discharges of hot water from power
critical influence on species and ecosystems. plants.
• anthropogenic stressors are causing important damage to
resources that are needed to sustain people and their Radiation Stress
economy, and also to natural biodiversity and ecosystems o caused by excessive exposure to ionizing energy.
• may occur as an intense, short-lived event of destruction, o may be emitted by nuclear waste or explosions, or it
also known as a disturbance. can be diagnostic X-rays or solar ultraviolet energy.
• The interaction of organisms with a stressor at a particular
place and time is called exposure. Climatic stress
• Exposure can be instantaneous, or it may accumulate over o associated with insufficient or excessive regimes of
time. temperature, moisture, solar radiation, wind, or
• if it intense enough, it will cause some sort of biological or combinations of these.
ecological change, called a response, to occur.
• Damage occurs when one or more stressors elicit Biological stressors
responses that can be interpreted as a degradation of o associated with interactions occurring among
environmental quality. organisms, such as competition, herbivory, predation,
• Such responses may include illness or death caused by an parasitism, and disease
exposure of wild animals to pesticides, or as a reduction
of the productivity of ecosystems, or the endangerment of Biological pollution
vulnerable elements of biodiversity. o when people release organisms beyond their natural
range.
o involve the introduction of alien species that invade
Kinds of Stressors and alter natural habitats, or it may be the release of
Physical stress pathogens into the environment through discharges
o is a disturbance in which there is an intense exposure of raw sewage.
to kinetic energy, which causes damage to habitats
and ecosystems.
Ecological Responses
wildfire
o involves the uncontrolled combustion of the biomass • An ecosystem that has been affected by a disturbance
of an ecosystem. typically suffers mortality among its species, along with
o can be ignited by people, or naturally by lightning. damage to its structural properties (such as species
o A severe fire consumes much of the biomass of an composition and biomass distribution) and functional
ecosystem, but even a less-severe wildfire may kill attributes (such as productivity and nutrient cycling).
many organisms by scorching and poisoning by toxic • Once the disturbance event is over, a process of recovery
gases. through succession begins. If the succession proceeds for
a long enough time, it will restore another mature
ecosystem, perhaps one similar to that existing before the
disturbance.
 GEEE
MIDTERM

• Chronic stressors operate over longer periods of time the environment, but at an intensity too low to cause
(rather than as events), and they include climatic factors measureable damage.
and many kinds of chemical and thermal pollution.
Depending on the intensity of exposure, organisms may Pollution and contamination are often judged with a human-
suffer acute toxicity resulting in tissue damage or even focused bias. People decide whether pollution is causing
death, or a less-obvious chronic damage that results in “damage” at some place and time, and how important the
decreased productivity. effects might be. This anthropocentric bias tends, quite
• Exposure to a higher intensity of environmental stressors naturally, to favour humans and those species, communities,
can result in evolutionary changes if individual organisms and ecosystem functions that are recognized as supporting the
vary in their tolerance and those differences are human economy, or may be appreciated for other reasons,
genetically based. Under such conditions, natural such as aesthetics.
selection in favour of tolerant individuals will eventually
result in increased tolerance at the population level. At the Pollution can be natural
community level, relatively vulnerable species will be - Pollution is not only caused by human activities – in
reduced or eliminated from the habitat if the intensity of some cases, it is a purely natural phenomenon.
stress increases markedly. “Natural” sources of pollution include emissions of
• The niches of those species may then be occupied by more particulates and gases such as sulfur dioxide from
tolerant members of the community, or by invading volcanoes, seeps of petroleum on the ocean floor,
species that are capable of exploiting a stressful but high concentrations of metals in certain soils and
weakly competitive habitat. rocks, and the heat of geothermal springs.
• the rate of community respiration exceeds that of - Natural pollution may cause severe ecological
production, so the net production becomes negative. changes
• sensitive species are replaced by more-tolerant ones
• top predators and large-bodied species may be lost from Anthropogenic pollution
the ecosystem - In the modern world, an enormous amount of
• previously self-maintaining ecosystems may require active pollution is associated with human activities. This has
management to sustain their desirable attributes, for caused important damage to human health and to
example, to maintain declining populations of rare or managed and natural ecosystems. People cause
economically valuable species that have become pollution in diverse ways, and we examine them in
threatened following chapters. Most commonly, anthropogenic
• Ecosystems that are chronically exposed to intense stress pollution is associated with these kinds of activities:
(such as climate-stressed tundra) eventually stabilize. o accidental or deliberate emissions of
Typically, the stable ecosystems are low in species chemicals into the environment, such as
richness, simple in structure and function, and dominated sulfur dioxide, metals, pesticides, and
by relatively small, long-lived species. As well, they have petroleum
low rates of productivity, decomposition, and nutrient - releases of substances that react in the environment
cycling. to synthesize chemicals of greater toxicity – this is
known as secondary pollution (as occurs when ozone
Contamination and Pollution is created by photochemical reactions in the
Pollution atmosphere)
o caused by an exposure to chemicals or energy at an - emissions of chemicals that degrade stratospheric
intensity that exceeds the tolerance of organisms. ozone, such as chlorofluorocarbons
o have occurred when it can be shown that organisms - releases of waste industrial heat, as when a power
have suffered toxicity, or other kinds of ecological plant discharges hot water into a river or lake
damage can be demonstrated. - discharges of nutrient-laden sewage or fertilizer into
o can affect humans and other species, as well as waterbodies
communities and ecoscapes. - emissions of greenhouse gases that threaten global
o caused by an exposure to chemicals in large enough climate
concentrations to poison at least some organisms. - releases of alien species that cause damage when
o can also be caused by non-toxic exposures, such as they invade managed or natural habitats, or are
the excessive fertilization of a waterbody, a release of pathogens of people, crops, or native species
waste heat into the environment, or the discharge of
raw sewage containing pathogens Disturbance
• is an episodic but intense disruption that causes severe
Contamination biological and ecological damage.
o refers to those much more common situations in • is followed by a sometimes-lengthy period of ecological
which potentially damaging stressors are present in recovery through the process known as succession.
 GEEE
MIDTERM

BIODIVERSITY
Two Broad Types of Disturbances
a. Community – replacing disturbances • It is estimated that 99% of the species that once roamed
o extensive in scale and results in a catastrophic earth have now gone extinct.
destruction of one or more original communities. • estimates of the extinction rate range from 1,000 to
o wildfire, windstorm, avalanche, and glaciation, 10,000 times its normal rate as a result of climate change,
while anthropogenic ones include clear-cutting pollution, deforestation, and other human-influenced
and ploughing. activities.
o These large-scale disturbances may be followed • The Philippines is one of 18 mega-biodiverse countries of
by a successional recovery that eventually the world, containing two-thirds of the earth’s biodiversity
regenerates a community similar to what was and between 70% and 80% of the world’s plant and animal
destroyed. species. The Philippines ranks fifth in the number of plant
species and maintains 5% of the world’s flora.
b. Microdisturbances
o involves a local disruption that only affects a Biodiversity – refers to the various refers to the various species
small area within an otherwise intact community. living and interacting with each other in a given area. This
o Anthropogenic microdisturbances include the encompasses all individual organisms, as well as their
selective harvesting of individual large trees or populations and species. It includes genetic diversity and the
particular animals, while leaving the community complex community and ecosystem structures.
otherwise intact.
Species Diversity
Natural Disturbance • the number of different species as well as the differences
• Disturbance is a natural force that affects all ecosystems. among and within those species.
• Other natural agents of disturbance include hurricanes, • These include all different kinds of species:
tornadoes, floods, and even glaciation (over geological microorganisms, fungi, plants, and animals.
time).
Genetic Diversity
Anthropogenic Disturbance • the variety of genes within a species
• Humans also disturb ecosystems in diverse ways • is beneficial for a species because it helps the species
• are associated with many activities, such as the conversion adapt to a changing environment.
of ecosystems, the harvesting of natural resources,
introductions of alien species, construction of roads and Ecosystem Diversity
buildings, and warfare. • encompasses different biological communities, ecological
processes, and various habitats.
Ecotoxicology
• Toxicology is the science of the study of poisons. Biodiversity
• It examines their chemical nature and effects on the
• High biodiversity is a sign of ecosystem health and a good
physiology of organisms.
indicator that it will recover in a reasonable amount of
• Environmental toxicology is a broader field than
time after a disturbance or periods of stress.
conventional toxicology. In addition to studying the
• Areas of high biodiversity are called hot spots.
biology of poisoning, it also examines environmental
• Biodiversity can also be low . Here, water quality is so
factors that influence the exposure of organisms to
poor and concentrations of oxygen are so low that only
potentially toxic chemicals.
simple organisms like microbes can grow
• The ultimate goal of ecotoxicology is to reveal and predict
• Areas with low biodiversity are called dead zones.
the effects of pollution within the context of all other
• Biodiversity is further defined by species richness and
environmental factors. Based on this knowledge the most
species abundance.
efficient and effective action to prevent or remediate any
• Species richness refers to the total number of different
detrimental effect can be identified. In those ecosystems
species present in a given area, while species abundance
that are already affected by pollution, ecotoxicological
refers to the number of individuals of a given species that
studies can inform the choice of action to
is present in that area.
restore ecosystem services, structures, and functions
efficiently and effectively
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE BIODIVERSITY
A. The ambient light hypothesis states that the more
sunlight accessible to an ecosystem, the more functional
it becomes. Functional in this context means having many
varied and specific roles within an ecosystem
(decomposition, photosynthesis, predation, pollination,
 GEEE
MIDTERM

etc.). This leads to high ecosystem richness. The more examined while he was exploring the Galapagos Islands
functional an ecosystem, the more biodiversity it harbors, (see the paragraph on evolution below). He observed
and the more Carbon, Nitrogen, and biomass it creates. A various finches uniquely adapted to eating seeds, fruit,
highly functional ecosystem has many plants, herbivores, insects, and plants. These finches, he presumed, were so
predators, prey, and decomposers—all forming an similar that a recent common ancestor was apparent.
intricate and robust food web. However, they were so uniquely adapted to their
o Consistent with the ambient light hypothesis, environment that he could also not discount that they
high biodiversity is observed near the equator. were distinct. Such a phenomenon is called adaptive
Because the earth spins on its axis, the equator radiation.
receives the most sunlight throughout the year. o Adaptive radiation often occurs on volcanic
An abundance of sunlight means more islands and mountain tops, where there are
photosynthesis, which means more plants and ecological islands of biodiversity and species
trees. More plants and trees mean more inhabit and adapt to the available unique niche.
herbivores, more species that feed on herbvores, (Such ecological islands have very little gene
and more species that help decompose dead flow with other populations and so are often
plant and animal matter.
threatened by habitat destruction or
o The coral reefs, also found along the equator and
disturbance.) Criteria for adaptive radiation
also considered hot spots, are sometimes
referred to as the “tropical rainforests of the include plenty of food and resources, little
ocean.” Coral reefs get an abundance of sunlight competition, and little predation. In other
and, therefore, are also a highly functional words, there is not a lot of natural selection
ecosystem. working the species being discussed

B. Tropical rainforests, relative to other ecosystems on the

earth, are extremely old. This factor may also help explain E. Ecosystems with intermediate amounts of disturbance
its high biodiversity. One hundred thousand years ago, tend to have high biodiversity. (A disturbance in this sense
during an era we call the Ice Age, North America was is an environmental factor that compromises the integrity
covered by glaciers , sheets of ice as thick as the height of the ecosystem: storm, fire, flood, etc.) An ecosystem
of the of the Empire State building. with too much disturbance makes it difficult, if not
impossible, for species to thrive and adapt, as they are
The glaciers eventually receded, leaving lakes, streams, consistently out of their range of tolerance. Too little
hills, valleys, and new ecosystems in their wake. The disturbance, on the other hand, often lends itself to having
glaciers never reached as far south as the equator, leaving one single-dominant species that happens to be a superior
the rainforests undisturbed and intact. As a result, the competitor, to the detriment of other species and
rain- forests have a longer historical legacy for the many biodiversity.
species that live and flourish today. The millions of
different species found throughout this biome have had Why Protect Biodiversity
time to evolve and adapt, undisturbed by glaciers. • One cannot deny the economic value of biodiversity.
• Biodiversity provides us with wood for our homes and
C. Hot spots such as the tropical rainforests are often paper to write on. It provides us with recreation, clean
massive in size. Large land mass as well as large amounts water, clean air, clothing, shoes, jobs, perfume,
of biomass provide more habitats for species to live and emollients, aesthetics, and medicine. In fact, some species
adapt. They also provide more places to hide from contain chemicals that are anti-inflammatory, antiviral,
predators or competitors. The result is a lower extinction and antimicrobial. And some have chemicals that act as
rate. The tropical rainforest trees grow extremely tall painkillers!
(some up to 80 meters high!), providing niches in which • Biodiversity also provides ecological value. It provides us
other species can live. In the canopies one finds epiphytes with protection from storms and floods. It moderates
(plants that live on the tops of trees), along with the many climate, provides wildlife habitats, acts as a carbon
different rainforest tree frogs and insects. Among the storehouse, creates food-webs, recycles waste, and
understory live many different snakes, birds, lizards, and maintains an overall balance to the biosphere.
even large cats such as jaguars! • It provides us with a means for eco-tourism in which we
travel to exotic destinations and educate ourselves on
D. There are some places on earth where evolution seems to endemic flora, fauna, and ecological systems.
speed up and create an explosion of biodiversity. In such • Biodiversity provides us with scientific value. It offers
areas, species venture into new niches and become areas in which scientists can go, undisturbed by urban
uniquely and specifically adapted to each niche. An noise and distraction, and conduct field research. This
example of this is the finches that Charles Darwin inevitably provides us with a wealth of knowledge and
inspiration relevant to all aspects of society.
 GEEE
MIDTERM

• all life on earth possesses its own intrinsic value—an

innate integrity and unique place in the biotic world. But
it appears as though our approach (stemming from our Climate Change
materials economy based on extraction) has morphed o global temperatures have increased 1°C in the last
into treating biodiversity as though it is fungible—easily 100 years.
replaced or substituted over time. Not only is this o This has devastating effects on biodiversity. Flowers
approach unrealistic and unsustainable, but it devalues are blooming before their pollinators can
biodiversity and denies its intrinsic value. successfully access them. Species are forced to
• Furthermore, there are cultural reasons to protect migrate to the poles to find more amenable
biodiversity. There is a positive link between biodiversity temperature ranges.
and cultural and societal diversity, as well as the diversity
of languages. If we lose our biodiversity, we lose the Overexploitation
others linked to it, and cultural knowledge associated o Our economy and many others are built on
with it. So making efforts to preserve biodiversity and live extraction—taking vital goods and resources from
more sustainably ultimately protects many other the earth. This leads to the excess use of vital goods
cultures, their native languages, and knowledge and resources taken from the earth faster than they
surrounding biodiversity. are able to replenish naturally. Over-fishing, over-
hunting and over-collecting of species can quickly
result in a loss of biodiversity.
Threats to Biodiversity o Biodiversity and habitat loss can cause some species
Habitat loss to be considered formally endan- gered. Endangered
o Habitat loss is the number one cause for extinction. species are species with such low abundance that
o Our growing human population needs homes, they are at high risk of becoming extinct.
schools, paved roads, and other resources. o MVP (minimal viable population) is the minimum
o unsustainable agriculture. number of individuals that must be present in a
o Climate change and other major environmental species population for it to be considered at low
shifts (in pH, salinity, oxygen concentration, water extinction risk. For most land animals, this number is
temperature, etc.) can also directly or indirectly lead at least 500. Approximately 20,000 members of a
to habitat loss. population must be present for biological evolution
to occur.
Invasive species o A threatened species has a good chance of
o Invasive (sometimes called exotic) species are becoming endangered in the near future. A sensitive
species from other parts of the world introduced to a species is a species that is vulnerable to habitat loss;
new habitat. therefore, conserving habitats should be a top
o Some exotic species prey on or outcompete native priority in order to preserve the species.
species which severely compromises biodiversity. So
it should not come as a surprise that the Protecting Biodiversity
introduction of invasive species is a major cause for Drafted in 1992 and enforced in December of 1993, the
the extinction of native species. United Nations created an international treaty called The
Convention on Biological Diversity, often referred to by its
Population acronym CBD. Its mission is:
o All other threats to biodiversity can be traced back to 1. The conservation of biological diversity,
overpopulation. 2. The sustainable use of the components of biological
o Having over 7 billion people on earth means our diversity, and
resources are exhausted—from land to minerals to 3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising
freshwater, the earth simply does not have enough out of the uses of genetic resources
bounty to effectively distribute its goods to such a
large and growing population. Evolution
o Chemicals and toxic waste from our labs, factories, • the change in gene frequency of a given population over
and urban areas leach into our soil and our water time. It is important to note that populations evolve, not
supply and accumulate in the atmosphere. the individuals within a population.
o Wealthy nations have the resources and technology • In 1831 Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, embarked
to purify water and air, but what about those living on the British ship H.M.S. Beagle to study the biodiversity
in developing nations that do not have access to of the Galapagos Islands of the South Pacific. He noticed
clean water or air? Almost 1 billion people that the tortoises were much larger than they were on the
worldwide are without clean water and that number mainland. He also thoroughly examined the Galapagos
is expected to increase. finches for their unusual morphological diversity.
 GEEE
MIDTERM

• Darwin observed that each distinct species of finch has its

own unique adaptations, making it undeniably separate HUMAN POPULATION
and different from other birds on the island. At the same
time, however, morphologically they appeared very
Population
similar, and so one could not deny a common ancestor.
• the whole number of inhabitants occupying an area (such
• In 1859 Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in
as a country or the world) and continually being modified
which he describes the evolution of species through
by increases (births and immigrations) and losses (deaths
natural selection. According to Darwin, the theory of
and emigrations).
natural selection is based on several observations:
• the size of a human population is limited by the supply of
1. There is observed variation in every species
food, the effect of diseases, and other environmental
population,
factors. Human populations are further affected by social
2. Within the population, some members of the species
customs governing reproduction and by the technological
will have beneficial variations that will ensure better
developments, especially in medicine and public health,
likelihood of survival,
that have reduced mortality and extended the life span.
3. The members of a population with the beneficial
• Between 1960 and 1999, Earth's population doubled from
variations will leave the most offspring, and
three billion to six billion people.
4. The beneficial traits are heritable and passed on to
• In many ways, this reflected good news for humanity: child
future generations.
mortality rates plummeted, life expectancy increased, and
• Speciation is the process through which a new species
people were on average healthier and better nourished
arises as a result of adaptation to an ever- changing
than at any time in history.
environment.
• However, during the same period, changes in the global
• Allopatric speciation is speciation occurring in the
environment began to accelerate: pollution heightened,
presence of a physical barrier, such as a moun- tain range
resource depletion continued, and the threat of rising sea
or a river, etc. In such a case, gene flow is blocked, and
levels increased
evolutionary agents work on the now-isolated population,
resulting in new species.
Demography
• Sympatric speciation is speciation occurring without the
• The study of human populations
presence of a physical barrier. Often the reason for lack of
• a discipline with intellectual origins stretching back to the
gene flow between populations is behavioral. In the case
18th century, when it was first recognized that human
of plants, speciation may be the result of self- or cross-
mortality could be examined as a phenomenon with
pollination, as is the case with plants. Plants have a higher
statistical regularities.
threshold for abnormal chromosome number than
• synthesizes current knowledge about the influence of
humans, and so hybrid- ization is a common occurrence in
population dynamics on the environment. Specifically, her
the Kingdom Plantae. This is an example of sympatric
report examines the following:
speciation.
o The relationship between demographic factors
• Adaptations are structures or behaviors that increase
— population size, distribution, and composition
the livelihood or fitness of an individual. Over time,
— and environmental change.
structures and genetic frequencies shift so profoundly
o The mediating factors that influence this
that a new species forms
relationship: technological, institutional, policy,
and cultural forces

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF SPECIFIC

POPULATION
Population Size
o as global population continues to grow, limits on such
global resources as arable land, potable water,
forests, and fisheries have come into sharper focus.
o In the second half of the twentieth century,
decreasing farmland contributed to growing concern
of the limits to global food production. Assuming
constant rates of production, per capita land
requirements for food production will near the limits
of arable land over the course of the twenty-first
century.
o continued population growth occurs in the context of
an accelerating demand for water: Global water
 GEEE
MIDTERM

consumption rose sixfold between 1900 and 1995, • Furthermore, higher levels of income tend to correlate
more than double the rate of population growth. with disproportionate consumption of energy and
production of waste.
Population Distribution
o Continued high fertility in many developing regions, Mediating Factors
coupled with low fertility in more-developed regions, 1. Technology
means that 80 percent of the global population now • The technological changes that have most
lives in less-developed nations. affected environmental conditions relate to
o human migration is at an all-time high: the net flow of energy use.
international migrants is approximately 2 million to 4 • The consumption of oil, natural gas, and coal
million per year and, in 1996, 125 million people lived increased dramatically during the twentieth
outside their country of birth. century
o Much of this migration follows a rural-to-urban 2. Policy Context
pattern, and, as a result, the Earth's population is also • Policy actions can ameliorate environmental
increasingly urbanized. decline
o By 1999, the percentage had increased to nearly half •
(47 percent). This trend is expected to continue well 3. Cultural Factors
into the twenty-first century. • influence how populations affect the
o The distribution of people around the globe has three environment.
main implications for the environment. • cultural variations in attitudes toward wildlife
→ as less-developed regions cope with a growing and conservation influence environmental
share of population, pressures intensify on conservation strategies, because public support
already dwindling resources within these areas. for various policy interventions will reflect
→ migration shifts relative pressures exerted on societal values.
local environments, easing the strain in some
areas and increasing it in others. urbanization,
particularly in less-developed regions, frequently TWO SPECIFIC ARES OF POPULATION – ENVIRONMENT
outpaces the development of infrastructure and INTERACTION
environmental regulations, often resulting in 1. LAND USE
high levels of pollution • Fulfilling the resource requirements of a growing
population ultimately requires some form of
Population Composition land-use change--to provide for the expansion of
• Composition can also have an effect on the environment food production through forest clearing, to
because different population subgroups behave intensify production on already cultivated land,
differently. or to develop the infrastructure necessary to
• As a result, given the relatively large younger generation, support increasing human numbers
we might anticipate increasing levels of migration and • During the past three centuries, the amount of
urbanization, and therefore, intensified urban Earth's cultivated land has grown by more than
environmental concerns. 450 percent, increasing from 2.65 million square
• Other aspects of population composition are also kilometers to 15 million square kilometers.
important: Income is especially relevant to environmental • A related process, deforestation, is also critically
conditions. apparent: A net decline in forest cover of 180
• the least-developed nations, because of low levels of million acres took place during the 15-year
industrial activity, are likely to exert relatively lower levels interval 1980–1995, although changes in forest
of environmental pressure. At highly advanced cover vary greatly across regions
development stages, environmental pressures may • Whereas developing countries experienced a net
subside because of improved technologies and energy loss of 200 million acres, developed countries
efficiency. actually experienced a net increase, of 20 million
• Within countries and across households, however, the acres
relationship between income and environmental pressure
is different. 2. GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
• Environmental pressures can be greatest at the lowest • Recent years have been among the warmest on
and highest income levels. record.
• Poverty can contribute to unsustainable levels of resource • Research suggests that temperatures have been
use as a means of meeting short-term subsistence needs. influenced by growing concentrations of
greenhouse gases, which absorb solar radiation
and warm the atmosphere.
 GEEE
MIDTERM

• Research also suggests that many changes in Why so many species?

atmospheric gas are human-induced. o there are between 5 million and 30 million species on
• The demographic influence appears primarily in the planet.
three areas. o Different species are well-adapted to live and survive
o contributions related to industrial in many different types of environments. As
production and energy consumption lead to environments change over time, organisms must
carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel use constantly adapt to those environments. Diversity of
o and-use changes, such as deforestation, species increases the chance that at least some
affect the exchange of carbon dioxide organisms adapt and survive any major changes in the
between the Earth and the atmosphere environment.
o some agricultural processes, such as paddy-
rice cultivation and livestock production, are Evolution Acts on The Phenotype
responsible for greenhouse gas releases into o Natural selection acts on the phenotype (the traits or
the atmosphere, especially methane. characteristics) of an individual
• According to one estimate, population growth o does not act on the underlying genotype (the genetic
will account for 35 percent of the global increase makeup) of an individual.
in CO2 emissions between 1985 and 2100 and 48 o the mating of two heterozygous individuals can
percent of the increase in developing nations produce homozygous recessive (aa) individuals.
during that period. However, natural selection can and does differentiate
• Both attention to demographic issues and the between dominant and recessive phenotypes.
development of sustainable production and
consumption processes are central responses to Carriers
the processes involved in global warming. o meaning that the a allele could be passed down to
offspring.
o People who are carriers do not express the recessive
NATURAL SELECTION phenotype, as they have a dominant allele. This allele
is said to be kept in the population's gene pool.
The gene pool is the complete set of genes
Natural Selection and alleles within a population.
• The theory of evolution by natural selection means that
the inherited traits of a population change over
Species Interaction and Population control
time. Inherited traits are features that are passed from
• Most species compete with one another for certain
one generation to the next. For example, your eye color is
resources.
an inherited trait. You inherited your eye color from your
• There are five basic types of interaction between species
parents. Inherited traits are different from acquired traits,
when they share limited resources
or traits that organisms develop over a lifetime, such as
strong muscles from working out
1. Interspecific competition – when two or more
• Natural Selection explains how organisms in
species interact to gain access to the same limited
a population develop traits that allow them to survive and
resources.
reproduce. Natural selection means that traits that offer
o most common interaction between species.
an advantage will most likely be passed on to offspring;
o When two species use the same resource,
individuals with those traits have a better chance of
their niches overlap.
surviving. Evolution occurs by natural selection.
o Resource partitioning occurs when species
• Every plant and animal depends on its traits to survive.
competing for similar scarce resources
Survival may include getting food, building homes, and
evolve specialized traits that allow them to
attracting mates. Traits that allow a plant, animal, or other
use shared resources at different times, in
organism to survive and reproduce in its environment are
different ways, or in different places.
called adaptations.
2. Predation – when a member of one species
• Natural Selection occurs when:
(predator) feeds directly on all or part of a member of
1. There is some variation in the inherited traits of
another species (prey).
organisms within a species. Without this variation,
o “If it is small and strikingly beautiful, it is
natural selection would not be possible.
probably poisonous. If it is strikingly beautiful
2. Some of these traits will give individuals an advantage
and easy to catch, it is probably deadly.” -
over others in surviving and reproducing.
E.O Wilson
3. These individuals will be likely to have more offspring.
o Avoiding and defending against predators
▪ Escape
▪ Senses
 GEEE
MIDTERM

▪ Armor
▪ Camouflage
▪ Chemical Warfare
▪ Warning Coloration
▪ Mimicry
▪ Behavior Strategies
▪ Safety in Numbers
3. Symbiosis – close, long-term association of 2 or more
species
a. Parasitism
o +-
o Hosts
o Parasite
o Inside or outside of hosts
o Harmful effects on hosts
b. Mutualism
o ++
o Both species benefit
o Pollination
o Benefits include nutrition and protection
c. Commensalism
o Species interaction that benefits one and has
little or no effect on the other

Factors Affecting Population Size

a. Population change = (births + immigration) – (deaths
+ emigration)
b. Age structure (stages)
c. Age and population stability

What limits the growth of population?

• Biotic potential (capacity for growth)
• Intrinsic rate of increase (r) (assumes unlimited resources)
• No indefinite population growth
• Environmental resistance= all the factors that limit
population growth
• Carrying capacity (K) - determined by biotic potential &
enviro resistance
 GEE

and include the savanna and temperate

grasslands.
BIOME • Forests
• is an area with similar populations of organisms. o are dominated by trees and other woody
• This can easily be seen with a community of plants vegetation and are classified based on
and animals. their latitude. Forests include tropical,
• Large geographical region that has a particular type temperate, and boreal forests
of climax community • Deserts
o cover about one fifth of the Earth’s surface
and occur where rainfall is less than 50 cm
Abiotic Factors affecting distribution of species (about 20 inches) each year
• Tundra
• Temperature (0 – 45 degrees Celsius) o is the coldest of all the biomes.
• Water o is characterized for its frost-molded
• Sunlight landscapes, extremely low temperatures,
• Wind (increases heat and water loss) little precipitation, poor nutrients, and
• Rocks and soil short growing seasons
• Amount of oxygen in the water o Arctic and Alpine tundras.

Two Types of Biomes

Terrestrial Biome and Climate Change
1. Terrestrial – is an area of land with a similar
• Climate - average weather in an area over a long
climate that includes similar communities of
period of time.
plants and animals
• Weather - to the conditions of the atmosphere
2. Aquatic – Water is the common link among the from day to day
aquatic biomes, and they make up the largest • Temperature falls from the equator to the poles.
part of the biosphere, covering nearly 75% of • major temperature zones are based on latitude.
the Earth’s surface • include tropical, temperate, and arctic zones

Aquatic regions house numerous species of

plants and animals, both large and small. Climate and Plant Growth

• Plants are the major producers in terrestrial

Terrestrial Biome biomes. They have five basic needs: air, warmth,
sunlight, water, and nutrients.
Factors that affect biome type • How well these needs are met in a given location
depends on the growing season and soil quality,
• Latitude means how far a biome is from the
both of which are determined mainly by climate.
equator.
• Humidity is the amount of water in the air. Air with
a high concentration of water will be called humid.
Climate and Biodiversity
• Elevation measures how high land is above sea
level. It gets colder as you go higher above sea • Because climate determines plant growth, it also
level, which is why you see snow-capped influences the number and variety of other
mountains. organisms in a terrestrial biome. Biodiversity
generally increases from the poles to the equator.
It is also usually greater in more humid climates
Examples:

• Grasslands
o are characterized as lands dominated by
grasses rather than large shrubs or trees
 GEE

- benthic zone - area below the pelagic

zone
Aquatic Biome
- abyssal zone - deep ocean
• Coral Reefs
Freshwater – defined as having a low salt o widely distributed in warm shallow waters.
concentration – usually less than 1% o the dominant organisms in coral reefs are
corals
• Ponds and lakes • Hypothermal Vent
o Many ponds are seasonal, lasting just a o the most unusual ecosystems on Earth
couple of months since they are dependent on
o lakes may exist for hundreds of years or chemosynthetic organisms at the base of
more. the food web
o Ponds and lakes may have limited species
diversity
• Streams and Rivers
Estuarine
o These are bodies of flowing water moving
in one direction. • Estuaries are areas where freshwater streams or
o Streams and rivers can be found rivers merge with the ocean.
everywhere • This mixing of waters with such different salt
o Starts at headwaters, which may be concentrations creates a very interesting and
springs, snowmelt or even lakes, and unique ecosystem.
o then travel all the way to their mouths,
usually another water channel or the
ocean. Aquatic Biomes and Sunlight
• Wetlands
o wetland is an area that is saturated with • Photic Zone
water or covered by water for at least one o extends to a maximum depth of 200
season of the year. meters (656 feet) below the surface of the
o water may be freshwater or saltwater water.
o They store excess water from floods. o This is where enough sunlight penetrates
o They slow down runoff and help prevent for photosynthesis to occur.
erosion. o Algae and other photosynthetic organisms
o they remove excess nutrients from runoff can make food and support food webs
before it empties into rivers or lakes. • Aphotic Zone
o They provide a unique habitat that certain o deeper than 200 meters.
communities of plants need to survive. o This is where too little sunlight penetrates
o They provide a safe, lush habitat for many for photosynthesis to occur.
species of animals, so they have high o food must be made by chemosynthesis or
biodiversity. else drift down from the water above.

Marine – Marine regions cover about three-fourths of

the Earth’s surface and include oceans, coral reefs, and Aquatic Biomes and Dissolved Substances
estuaries.
Water in lakes and the ocean also varies in the amount
• Oceans of dissolved oxygen and nutrients it contains:
o very large bodies of water that dominate
the Earth’s surface. 1. Water near the surface of lakes and the ocean
o four zones usually has more dissolved oxygen than does deeper
- Intertidal zone where the ocean meets water. This is because surface water absorbs oxygen
the land from the air above it.
- pelagic zone includes those waters 2. Water near shore generally has more dissolved
further from the land, basically the nutrients than water farther from shore. This is
open ocean because most nutrients enter the water from land.
 GEE

They are carried by runoff, streams, and rivers that

empty into a body of water.

3. Water near the bottom of lakes and the ocean may

contain more nutrients than water closer to the
surface. When aquatic organisms die, they sink to the
bottom. Decomposers near the bottom of the water
break down the dead organisms and release their
nutrients back into the water

Aquatic Organisms

• Plankton
o are tiny aquatic organisms that cannot
move on their own.
o They live in the photic zone
― PHYTOPLANKTON - are bacteria and
algae that use sunlight to make food.
― ZOOPLANKTON are tiny animals that
feed on phytoplankton.
• Nekton
o They may live in the photic or aphotic zone.
o They feed on plankton or other nekton.
• Benthos
o organisms that crawl in sediments at the
bottom of a body of water.
o Many are decomposers