Political Theory: Meaning and Significance

"Political theory is useful for the ‘conduct’ of politics as well as for the ‘study’ of
politics." - W. T. Bloom

Hello Friends,
I am Dr Ashwini Kumar Sharma, Professor and Head, Department of Public
Administration and Political Science, Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee Government Arts and
Commerce College, Indore.

Political theory, is one of the simplest, as well as the most complex concepts in political
science.
Each person himself and with the help of others, constructs a theory and works on its
basis.
It means that every person observes some, objects, beings, groups, events and draws
some assumptions, conclusions, rules about them.
After observing two to four times, these assumptions, conclusions become firm.
The entire human society works on the basis of such general presumption.
This ‘presumption making’ is known as “Theory-building”.

MEANING OF POLITICAL THEORIES

For understanding ‘political theory’ first we have to understand the meaning of these
words.
The word “political” means - 'the subject of public interest' and “Theory” means - ‘The
instrument of progress of civilised mankind.'
The word theory is derived from the Greek word “Theoria”, which means "vision to
understand".

Literally, the word "Theory" means, such a body of knowledge, which is obtained from
‘Factual facts’ and gives them the meaning and importance, which otherwise they would
not get. ‘Theory’ is like an analytical tool, with the help of which, facts can be explained
and predictions can be made about them. In short, we can say, a theory is a well-
organised set of generalised or explanatory rules, which are capable of explaining an
area of knowledge.
Although there are different types of theories, but here 'political theory' refers to that
general theory of political activities or political system, which explains all the facts,
hypotheses, generalisations , related to them. These theories are created by description,
classification, hypothesis-testing of political facts and establishment of norms, in
relation to political behaviour. It is justified in the context of observational experience
and objective data.

Definitionof political theory

Polsavi said, "Scientific theory is in the form of a deductive web of generalisations, that
make it possible, to explain or predict certain types of known phenomena."

According to Isaac, “political theory is a ‘set of generalisations.’ In this, we find concepts

that are directly familiar and operationally defined. In addition to them, there are also
more important theoretical concepts, which, although not directly related to
supervision, but are linked to these concepts.”

In the words of Meehan, “Theory is basically a ‘Thought Tool’. It organises and

systematises the facts of political life. It brings together seemingly disparate observable
phenomena in a systematic manner."

Morris Debugger observed political theory as, "It unifies the results of observation,
experiment and comparison and expresses in a coherent and coordinated manner."

According to Karl J. Popper, “Theory is a kind of trap by which the world can be caught,
so that it can be understood.”

In the words of Hanson, “Theory is an intelligible, systematic and conceptual model of

observed material."

By analysing these definitions, it can be said that political governance, its forms and
functions, are not studied as absolute elements. But when people's needs, aspirations
and opinions are taken into consideration, then it is said to be ‘political’.

Scope / Area of political theory

The field of political theory can be divided into two parts-

(1) Traditional Approach:

On the basis of classical political theory, the traditional approach gives a major place to
‘values and goals’. Along with this, the study of origin, development, organisation, types,
political parties, political ideologies of governments and constitutions, international
relations, national administration etc. is also studied in this.

(2) Modern Approach-

According to the modern approach, the area of political theory is very wide. In 1967,
according to the 'American Political Science Association', “In the United States of
America, in place of six sub-fields, 27 sub-fields were developed.”
The subject matters are like -
1. Political man and his behaviour
2. Groups
3. Institutions
4. Administration
5. International political theory
6. Ideology
7. Research methods
8. Statistics
9. Survey etc.

In the International Encyclopaedia of Social Science, (1968), Arnold Brecht, enumerated

the units under the heading 'Political Theory' are as follows —
(i) Group,
(ii) Balance,
(iii) Power, Control and Influence,
(iv) Action,
(v) Special / Privileged Class or Elite,
(vi) Selection and decision process,
(vii) Anticipated process,
(vii) Work.
Along with these, some other concepts are also developed which are not related to any
sub-field but are related to all social sciences; Like- Political institutions, government,
justice, freedom, equality etc.
Indian universities have included some new concepts like socialisation, political culture,
political development, political communication etc. under sociological influence. Some
of the more developed universities and departments have also included methodology
and research trends in the curriculum of Political Theory.
At present, more emphasis is given on ‘scientificity’, so that the study can be objective,
interpersonal, communicable, reliable and verifiable.
After going through the traditional and modern approach of political theory we can
understand that why the following subjects is included in political theory -
So, the area of political theory includes-

(1) Study of State and Government-

In the modern era, some scholars consider political theory to be only the study of the
state and according to some, it is only the study of the government.
Bluntschli has written, "Political science is the science, that deals with the state, which
tries to understand the basic conditions of the state, its nature, its various forms and the
development of the state.”
Garner says, "The beginning and end of political science, Happens with the state.”

In both these definitions, only the emphasis is on the state, nothing has been said about
the government.

(2) Study of Human Behaviour-

Traditional Political theory tells us about the study of institutions, but modern political
theory studies the political behaviour of human beings. In this view, human behaviour is
like a ‘driving force’. The study of human behaviour, away from the state, is also
necessary for the study of the real form of politics. This gift has been received through
the pragmatic revolution. From this point of view, it can be said that in the present
times the field of political theory has become very wide. Now not only its value is
studied, but the political behaviour of the person is also studied.

(3) Study of Problems and Conflicts

There is no limit to human desires and needs, but the means of their fulfilment are very
few. Therefore, different types of problems and conflicts keep arising in the society.
Lipson has written, "Politics is a process of continuous disputes.”
‘Power’ and ‘Organisations’ are needed to resolve these conflicts and problems. The
thinkers of modern political theory, gain knowledge about power and organisation, to
resolve these conflicts.

(4) Study of Social Values-

Modern political theories have no values, but now a days, it is being thought of, to give
recognition to social values. Later behaviouralists have taken steps towards making
political theory useful by giving place to values in their study.

(5) Study of Political Process-

Politics is not just an institution or organisation, but a process. In Political theory, the
process which is seen in the functioning, is also studied.
In this, general elections, making of law, functioning of parties, mutual relations of
officials, are also studied.

(6) Study of Policies-

In modern times, Dahl, Easton and Lasswell are specially named among political
scientists. These scholars have seen political theory as the study of ‘power and action’.
As a result, the area of this subject has changed at a rapid pace.

(7) Study of Power-

Scholars of medieval political theory have accepted power as the central concept of
politics.
Robert Dahl has noted, "Politics is the quest for power."
Max Weber has said, "Politics is the struggle to participate in or influence the division of
power, whether between states or between groups within states."
Lasswell has said, "Politics is the study of the making and sharing of power."
Catlin has also held that, “Power is only an 'operational hypothesis’”.

(8) New Sub-fields of Political Theory —

In a way, the old era of national politics, has come to an end. Now its place has been
taken by functional subjects. For example, along with the study of the executive,
political leadership is also studied. Similarly, along with Judiciary, Legislature and
Governance, knowledge is also obtained about the behaviour of these areas. Now in
relation to the study of national politics and governance, new subjects related to
different types of behaviours, have become part of political theory.

A similar change has taken place in the theoretical field, related to international politics.
Initially, the study of some international organisations, foreign policies of countries,
politics, etc. was done under this field. But now under the influence of ‘pragmatism’, the
concept of ‘International political system’ has developed. Hans J Morgenthau has
analysed ‘International Politics’ through ‘power’. In the words of Morgenthau,
“International Politics, like all other politics, is struggle for Power.”
Thus, modern international politics, studies its broad aspects, with the help of several
examples and lesions.

Importance or Utility of political theory

Eugene J. Meehan has written about the importance of political theory, "Theory in its
ideal form, is a process of construction and a work of art. Good theories are objects of
beauty and the value of beauty is - Fertile, Thought-provoking, simple, productive and
satisfying.”
Theories are of utmost importance in human life, because the general details that man
formulates to complete his tasks, those details are arranged by Theories.

The framework of an ideal society is created by political Theories. That is why, political
Theories are very important in every sphere of life. Political theory is capable of solving
political, economic, social and other problems before the state. In this regard G. D. H.
Cole has said, "We may not care about politics, but politics definitely cares about us.
Many of the political theories and beliefs, that have developed in the modern period,
have completely demolished the traditional political ideas."

In this way, the importance of political theory can be studied in the following form-

(1) Knowledge of Reality-

Through political theory, we get information about ‘Reality’. These theories, through
their scientific object, develop uniformity and relatedness in the discipline. By this
process, the level of the discipline becomes high. By the help of this, we can choose and
understand, multiple facts and events.

(2) Scientific Effort-

There is scientificity in the theory, due to which it generalises political science. Tries to
bring it into political practice. Makes new discoveries for him. Creates new theories.
Predictions are made regarding scientific events on the basis of these theories.

(3) Maintaining Discipline -

Integration of political science, division of research etc. remains dependent on political
theory, because it helps in maintaining discipline in behaviour.

(4) Conceptual Feeling -

Political theory provides inspiration and direction to fact-collection and research. Easton
has explained the importance of theory as a conceptual framework.

Easton wrote about the spirit of the concept of political theory, “The collection and
research of the conceptual thinking of political theory inspires to find the ‘fact’. It gets a
new direction. It remains useful as a sieve to select observable facts. It not only gives
direction like a compass, but also throws light, on the stage of development in the form
of a measure.”

(5) Helpful in the Human Progress -

In today's time, more attention is paid towards the progress of science. From this point
of view, the importance of political theory has increased a lot, because on its basis, it
helps to summarise the experiences and anticipate the problems ahead. On the
importance of political theory in the modern era, Hans J. Morgenthau has noted, "The
control of power in the nuclear age is guided by empirical principles."

Thus, it is true that political theory provides essential help in political progress,
constitutional and legal progress and social progress of human society.

(6) Equilibrium maker-

Political theory establishes balance in political realities, events, methods of study and
human values. It produces Equilibrium amongst Political Incidents and Human Methods.
It also clarifies related questions.

(7) Importance to Politicians and Administrators–

Political theory, puts all forms of real politics, in full view of everyone. For this reason, it
has special importance for politicians, diplomats, statesmen, administrators and citizens.
Politicians, who say that political theory is pompous and false, in reality, they do not use
any political theory at all. They make assumptions about politics and reformulate them
by imagination.

(8) To Solve the Problems-

Political theories solve the problems related to politics. Man can be controlled only
when the theories of sovereignty, nationalism, war etc. are correct. If we have to select
the essential facts, then there is a great need for theories.

(9) To prove Legitimacy-

In the eyes of the public, theories are an important tool in justifying the rulers and the
system of governance, whether in the name of nationalism or political development or
socialism. The elite classes often use this tool to maintain their dominance.

(10) Functions of the Political Theory-

Robert A. Dahl has given many political, psychological and ethical functions of political
theories. From the political point of view, they provide justification to the governance
systems, but from the psychological point of view, they have great importance for the
person. They provide normative, Projective, cognitive and moral directions to the
individual. A person moves forward with the help of these and starts doing
extraordinary things.
Regarding political theory, Mayo has written, "Political theory should be an analysis of
functional and human characteristics of the entire system.”
The matter of fact is that, the framework of political theory, should be such, that it can
achieve complete success in reliable interpretation of facts and events, related to
politics.

Types Of Political Theory

1. Traditional Political Theory

2. Modern Political Theory

1. Traditional Political Theory

In the western world, the group of beliefs and concepts, which have been prevalent
before the Second World War, is given the name of traditional political theory.

Many political thinkers have contributed in the creation and development of traditional
political theory; Like-Plato, Aristotle, St. Thomas Aquinas, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau,
Montesquieu, Kant, Hegel etc.

The influence of "philosophy" is seen on the traditional political theory.

Main characteristics of traditional political theories

We can say that, the main features of traditional political theories can be covered
under such headings:

(1) Traditional in subject matter -

In traditional political theory, the conservatism of subject matter is found. In this

principle, almost all the thinkers have made the subject area of their separate study.
Under this, the state government, political institutions, the goals of the state, justice,
public welfare, the establishment of the origin of the state and the removal of the evils
of the society, are told. There is neither any difference nor innovation in it. From Hume
to Burke, all have expressed their views on these subjects, but in modern times the
study of all types of politics is considered.
(2) Lack of subjectivity —

It is very difficult to divide the subject matter written in different texts : For example, we
can take the 'Republic' written by Plato. It is very difficult to draw a conclusion about
this book, under which subject it should be kept. The main reason for this is that, all the
subjects, tasks and events of life have been described in this book. This is the reason
why Republic is considered to be an excellent creation of subjects like Political Science,
Economics, Education, Psychology and Ethics etc. That is why, it is said that political
theory lacks autonomy and specificity.

(3) Lack of Using the Scientific Method–

The scientific method of mathematical measurement has not been used in various parts
of traditional political theories. This whole method is based on experience. Although
Aristotle's method of study is called psychological, but it has been considered, based on
the accumulated experience of the past along with the comparative method. This is the
reason, that it also lacks the same scientific system, as in the modern era.

(4) Use of Logical and Deductive Method -

In traditional theories, scholars have used deductive logical method. Although Plato
followed both inductive and deductive methods from time to time, but it was only the
deductive method verified by his logic. Aristotle did use the scientific method at one
point, but the method he used was actually deductive. In this way, from the point of
view of the subject matter, the thinkers of all the above theories have taken the support
of conservatism only.

2. Modern Political Theory

The emergence of modern political theory clearly dates back to the Second World War.
However, its initial signs were found only in the beginning of the 20th century.

Modern political theory is dominated by "facts and science".

Scholars like David Easton, Robert Dahl, Catlin, Laswell etc. have studied New directions
on political theory in America, from new perspectives. As a result of which new
ideologies have emerged in the modern era. Because of these, there has been
considerable help in understanding the development of political theory. Another
advocate of this school of thought is J. W. Burgess, Jeremy Bentham, John Austin, etc.
They have placed political science in the category of ethics. They also played an
important role in the formation and development of modern political theory.

Main trends and nature of modern political theory

Based on the development of modern political theory, its nature and trends can be
studied in the following form-

(1) Study of Power —

Study of power is given prominence in the study of political science.
Laswell has written, "Political science as an empirical system studies, ‘power’ and
‘consumption’.”
Baker has written that, “politics without power is futile”.
Catlin has called politics the ‘science of power’.
Biersted has written in this regard, “Power is the support of the basic order of society.
Wherever order is observed, there must be an existence of power. Power is behind
every organisation and power is maintaining every structure. Without power there can
be no organisation and without power there can be no order.

(2) Based on Experiences —

Modern political theory is realistic and emphasises on adopting practical approach.
Most of the study books are descriptive and experiential. They are based on techniques
like observation, measurement, reasoning etc. Objectivity has taken the place of
subjectivity.

(3) To adopt Political Approach—

In the modern era, political approach is adopted for the study of political science. Under
this, all social institutions, powers and traditional bonds are studied. In this regard,
scholars say that all types of political facilities are closely related to the internal activities
of social forces, that is why political approach is adopted.

(4) Realistic Science -

The science of modern political theory is realistic. The students of Political Science now
study by leaving the traditional boundaries. For this, they study political facts and
events, wherever they are available. whether it is in the subject of sociology, economics,
theology etc or related to individual, family, nation and the world. Even the political
tendencies developed in childhood, youth etc. at the individual and collective level, have
also been made the subject of survey and research. The student of political science has
this feeling that the real situations should be studied and they should be made the basis
of the concepts.

(5) Store of Complete Knowledge -

Modern political theory gives complete knowledge of political events and institutions. In
this, complete study of all types of political events is done. Nowadays new situations
keep standing in front of man. Modern political science presents the study of those
circumstances step by step.

(6) Basis of Reliable Sources –

The work is done on the basis of reliable sources for all the facts that are collected for
modern political theory. For this construction of small units is also beneficial.

(7) Study of Human Behaviour:

In the modern era, the field of political science has become very wide, due to which
along with formal organisations, human nature and behaviour is also studied. Human
behaviour is considered the driver of power in political theory. To understand the real
nature of politics, it also requires the study of human behaviour, beyond the state. In
short, the political behaviour of human beings in the modern era is considered an
essential subject of political science.

(8) Basis of Scientific Vocabulary-

Now a days, knowledge of political science is being based on the scientific methods.
That’s why - scientific words, procedures, results have become fixed. During studies, the
scholar feels that, they are doing some research work of pure science.

(9) Developing Stage —

Modern theory under political science is still in the developing stage. Truthfulness is
gradually being given a place in it. This will bring maturity in political theory.

(10) Researcher's Attitude -

In the study of modern political theory, the researcher presents his point of view
without any bias and partiality. He treats and conducts impartially. He does not pay
attention to concepts and values.

(11) Continued Experiments -

In the theory of modern political science, the work of testing is done again and again.
From this point of view, the process of examination remains continuous, due to which
credibility remains in modern political theories. Their usefulness also does not decrease,
thus, the work of testing for new discoveries goes on continuously.
(12) Autonomous Discipline —
Nowadays, while studying the principles of political science, politicians take full care of
facts, conclusions and discipline, so that autonomous discipline can be acquired.

(13) Use of Creative Idea - In the scientific study of modern politics, creative imagination
is used to make the study pure.

(14) Formation of Hypothesis – Nowadays, when the study of political science is done
from scientific and theoretical point of view, the researcher already creates ideological
hypothesis, so that the assumption does not turn out to be wrong.

(15) Formation of Theory -

For the scientific study of political science, mutual relation is established between
experiment, research, analysis, result, conclusion etc. so that there is no difficulty while
interpreting.

Aims of modern political theory

According to politicians, the objectives of modern political theory can be shown in the
following form-

(1) To Instigate the Society for Self-discipline -

It is an important goal of modern political theory, to show the way to the self-changing
society to be transformed in such a way that the society, small and big, Inspire more
independence and self-discipline

(2) To Strengthen the Developing Route of Developing Countries -

One of the important objectives of the study of modern political science is to create
such theories which can pave the way for the developing countries of the world. There
are many problems in these developing countries; Such as corruption, anarchy and
deadlock. They have to struggle with these problems on a daily basis. Therefore, there is
a need for such a complete theory, according to which these countries can solve their
problems successfully.

(3) To establish peace -

One of the aims of modern political theory is to establish peace in the world. By this
political science can be made capable, so that it directs the best paths. With these
guidelines, various classes, groups, species etc. of the society get opportunities to
survive by fulfilling their basic needs.
(4) Other Aims -
There are some other aims of modern political theory; For example, working for the
welfare of the society, paying attention to human welfare, trying to remove poverty,
disability, etc. For these purposes, a complete picture of the political system is
presented by Political Science.

Different Dimensions of Theory Making

By discussing the process of theory building, the following dimensions of this process
can be described-

(1) Validity—
It means that every concept must have properties in empirical forms.

(2) Generality:
The comprehensiveness of the theories means that the theory must have the
characteristics of clarifying the relationship between objects, phenomena, general
mutual relations, etc.. As soon as the work of moving forward from ‘facts’ starts, the
interpretation of theories also keeps on increasing. In this way, as the process
progresses towards perfection, the quality of explanation is found more in the theory.

(3) Testability -
In the process of theory, testability means that the object, event or process should be
of such a type that it can be known directly or indirectly. Along with this, the
characteristics of its qualities can also be detected. Thus the property of testability is
very important in this dimension.

(4) Conceptual Framework-

The use of conceptual framework from the process of theory is essential for ‘theory-
building’. This makes it easy to select events, activities, objects, etc. The choice made,
on the basis of this is very important. In this way, the process of ‘theory building’
progresses by engaging with different dimensions.