GET 101: Engineer in Society (1 Unit C: LH 15)
Course Contents
History, evolution and philosophy of science. engineering and technology. The engineering
profession – engineering family (engineers, technologists, technicians and craftsmen),
professional bodies and societies. Engineers' code of conduct and ethics, and engineering
literacy. Sustainable development goals (SDGs), innovation, infrastructures and nation building -
economy, politics, business. Safety and risk analysis in engineering practice.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this course, the students should be able to:
1. differentiate between science, engineering and technology, and relate them to innovation;
2. distinguish between the different cadres of engineering – engineers, technologists,
technicians and craftsmen and their respective roles and competencies;
3. identify and distinguish between the relevant professional bodies in engineering;
4. categorize the goals of global development or sustainable development goals (SDGs);
and
5. identify and evaluate safety and risk in engineering practice.
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MODULE 1
EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGY
The early development of technology represents humanity's journey from simple survival to the
complex societies we see today. Technology, in its essence, is the application of knowledge to
solve practical problems, improving the quality of life and expanding human capabilities. Early
humans began this journey by creating simple tools and mastering fire, which transformed their
ability to hunt, gather, and protect themselves. Over thousands of years, these basic innovations
evolved, leading to agriculture, metalworking, and construction.
As humans learned to cultivate crops and domesticate animals, they shifted from nomadic
lifestyles to forming settled communities, giving rise to the first civilizations. This Agricultural
Revolution marked a pivotal shift where technology started to impact not just survival but
societal structure, trade, and economic growth. The discovery of metals, such as bronze and iron,
led to stronger tools and weapons, fostering advancements in construction and warfare. This
allowed civilizations, like those of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, to build monumental
structures and complex infrastructure, setting the foundation for engineering principles still
relevant today.
The journey of early technology development reflects humanity’s innate drive to innovate and
adapt. These advancements not only improved day-to-day life but also reshaped human societies
and laid the groundwork for the more sophisticated technologies that followed in later centuries.
Understanding this progression helps us appreciate the profound role that technology has played
in shaping human history and society.
1.1 SERVICE
Service can be defined as an act or series of actions performed to meet the needs or fulfill the
requirements of others, often involving the provision of intangible benefits or assistance. Unlike
goods, which are physical items, services are experiences or activities provided to a customer,
client, or end-user. Services can encompass a wide range of fields, including healthcare,
education, transportation, consulting, and hospitality, where the value is derived from the
expertise, effort, or time provided rather than a physical product.
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In engineering and business contexts, a service may involve maintenance, support, consultation,
or any professional assistance that adds value by addressing specific client needs or solving
particular problems.
1.2 ENGINEERING
Engineering is the application of scientific, mathematical, and practical knowledge to design,
build, and maintain structures, machines, devices, systems, and processes that solve real-world
problems and meet societal needs. It combines creativity with analytical skills to develop
innovative solutions that improve efficiency, functionality, and sustainability in various fields,
including civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical, and environmental engineering.
Engineers use principles of physics, chemistry, mathematics, and technology to address
challenges across industries, from constructing infrastructure to developing medical devices,
ensuring that their solutions are safe, reliable, and optimized for specific purposes.
1.3 TECHNOLOGY
Technology is broadly defined as the systematic application of knowledge, tools, and techniques
to solve problems, enhance efficiency, and extend human capabilities. It encompasses both
tangible inventions and intangible processes that influence our way of living and working.
Focuses on the end products and solutions that arise from applying scientific knowledge. It
includes innovations and advancements in various fields such as information
1.3.1 Views of scholars of Peter Drucker, George Genron and Donald Schön
a. Peter Drucker: emphasizes technology as a means of achieving productivity and efficiency
in both individual and organizational contexts. He views technology as instrumental in
innovation and economic growth, helping to organize resources and enhance output across
industries.
b.George Genron: extends this by framing technology as a powerful societal tool that shapes
human experiences, interactions, and culture. Genron highlights technology’s role in redefining
communication, knowledge dissemination, and even social values, implying that its impact goes
beyond productivity to influence how we view and connect with the world.
c. Donald Schön: describes technology as a reflective practice. He argues that technology’s
development is a process of trial, error, and learning, where practitioners adapt and evolve tools
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based on contextual challenges. For Schön, technology is not only a product but also a
continuous, adaptive process shaped by problem-solving and innovation.
Together, these perspectives underline that technology is both a practical toolkit and a
transformative force, evolving through human ingenuity to shape societies, economies, and
personal experiences. Technology, therefore, is not merely a collection of tools and machines but
a dynamic field that influences and is influenced by the needs, values, and creativity of society.
1.4 HISTORY OF ENGINEERING FROM EARLY EGYPTIAN, GREEK AND ROMAN
CIVILIZATIONS
The history of engineering spans back thousands of years, with early engineering practices
visible in the achievements of ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman civilizations. Each
civilization developed unique engineering techniques that laid the groundwork for modern
engineering principles and greatly influenced society.
1.4.1 Egyptian Engineering (circa 3000 BCE)
a. Architecture and Construction
The Egyptians are known for their monumental structures, such as the Pyramids of Giza and
temples of Karnak. These projects required advanced knowledge of geometry and construction
techniques. Egyptians used basic tools, such as chisels and hammers, and primitive cranes and
ramps to move massive stone blocks.
Fig. 1.1 Pyramids of Giza Egypt
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Fig 1.2 Temples of Karnak Egypt
b. Irrigation and Agriculture
To manage the seasonal flooding of the Nile River, Egyptians developed sophisticated irrigation
systems and water management practices. They dug canals and used levees to control water
flow, increasing agricultural productivity and supporting a large population.
c. Materials Engineering
Egyptians experimented with materials such as limestone, sandstone, and granite, applying basic
chemistry in their mortar to secure stones in place.
1.4.2 Greek Engineering (circa 800–146 BCE)
a. Mathematics and Mechanics
Greek engineers and mathematicians, like Archimedes and Euclid, laid down fundamental
principles of geometry, mechanics, and hydraulics. Archimedes’ discoveries in lever mechanics,
the concept of buoyancy, and the Archimedean screw for water lifting were groundbreaking.
b. Temple and Stadium Construction
The Greeks built large temples, such as the Parthenon in Athens, with an eye for aesthetics and
precision. The Stadium at Olympia and Greek theaters demonstrated their knowledge of
acoustics, symmetry, and structural stability.
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1.3 Parthenon in Athens Greece
c. Military Engineering
Greeks invented siege towers, catapults, and other war machines that relied on mechanical
principles. Greek triremes (warships) featured advances in shipbuilding that allowed for faster
and more maneuverable vessels.
1.4 Greek triremes (warships)
1.4.3 Roman Engineering (circa 500 BCE–476 CE)
a. Roads and Infrastructure
The Romans built an extensive network of roads, totaling over 250,000 miles across Europe,
which facilitated trade, communication, and military movement. These roads were meticulously
constructed with layers of materials for durability, many of which remain today.
b. Aqueducts and Water Supply
Roman engineers developed a sophisticated system of aqueducts to transport water across vast
distances to supply cities, bathhouses, and fountains. The Pont du Gard in France is a well-
preserved example, showcasing the Romans' use of arches and gravity in water transportation.
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1.5 Pont du Gard in France
c. Public Buildings and Monuments
The Romans built large public buildings, such as the Colosseum and the Pantheon, using
concrete and arches. Roman concrete, a durable mixture of lime and volcanic ash, allowed for
the construction of structures on an unprecedented scale.
1.6 Colosseum Rome 1.7 Pantheon Rome
d. Sanitation and Urban Planning
Romans developed sewage systems like the Cloaca Maxima in Rome, as well as efficient urban
layouts, complete with public baths, markets, and theaters. Their engineering in city planning
was unparalleled and influenced future urban designs.
e. Significance and Influence
Each of these civilizations contributed distinct techniques and principles that became
foundational to engineering. The Egyptians introduced structural and material concepts through
monumental architecture; the Greeks contributed mathematics and scientific reasoning, and the
Romans perfected infrastructure and construction techniques that remain influential. These
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ancient achievements reflect the ingenuity of early engineers and laid the groundwork for
modern engineering practices, from civil engineering to mechanics and materials science.
1.5 CONTRIBUTION AND PROBLEMS OF EARLY TECHNOLOGY
The contributions of early technology were transformative, providing humanity with tools and
methods to enhance survival, efficiency, and societal growth. However, these early
advancements also introduced significant problems and challenges, some of which persist to this
day. Here is an evaluation of both the positive contributions and the problems posed by early
technology:
1.5.1 Contributions of Early Technology
a. Improved Survival and Quality of Life
Early technologies like fire control and basic tool-making significantly enhanced human
survival by providing warmth, protection, and better food sources. Tools made from stone, bone,
and later metal enabled humans to hunt, prepare food, and build shelters more effectively,
directly improving their quality of life.
b. Agricultural Development
The Agricultural Revolution allowed humans to settle and form stable communities,
transforming societies from nomadic to agrarian. This shift increased food production, supported
larger populations, and led to the formation of the first civilizations.
Technologies like irrigation systems and plows made farming more efficient, leading to food
surpluses, which in turn led to trade, specialized labor, and economic complexity.
c. Advancements in Architecture and Infrastructure
Early civilizations, such as the Egyptians and Romans, developed engineering techniques that
allowed for the construction of monumental architecture (e.g., pyramids, aqueducts, roads).
These structures were not only functional but also symbolic of cultural identity and achievement.
Infrastructure improvements, such as the Roman road networks and Egyptian irrigation systems,
facilitated trade, communication, and urban development, connecting societies over long
distances.
d. Foundation for Science and Mathematics
The development of early technology spurred intellectual growth, particularly in mathematics
and science. Greek mathematicians, like Euclid, advanced geometry to meet architectural needs,
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and inventors like Archimedes studied mechanics to create machines. The integration of science
and technology established early scientific methods, setting
The contributions of early technology were transformative, providing humanity with tools and
methods to enhance survival, efficiency, and societal growth. However, these early
advancements also introduced significant problems and challenges, some of which persist to this
day. Here is an evaluation of both the positive contributions and the problems posed by early
technology:
1.5.2 Contributions of Early Technology
a. Improved Survival and Quality of Life
Early technologies like fire control and basic tool-making significantly enhanced human
survival by providing warmth, protection, and better food sources. Tools made from stone, bone,
and later metal enabled humans to hunt, prepare food, and build shelters more effectively,
directly improving their quality of life.
b. Agricultural Development
The Agricultural Revolution allowed humans to settle and form stable communities,
transforming societies from nomadic to agrarian. This shift increased food production, supported
larger populations, and led to the formation of the first civilizations. Technologies like irrigation
systems and plows made farming more efficient, leading to food surpluses, which in turn led to
trade, specialized labor, and economic complexity.
c. Advancements in Architecture and Infrastructure
Early civilizations, such as the Egyptians and Romans, developed engineering techniques that
allowed for the construction of monumental architecture (e.g., pyramids, aqueducts, roads).
These structures were not only functional but also symbolic of cultural identity and achievement.
Infrastructure improvements, such as the Roman road networks and Egyptian irrigation
systemsfacilitated trade, communication, and urban development, connecting societies over long
distances.
d. Foundation for Science and Mathematics
The development of early technology spurred intellectual growth, particularly in mathematics
and science. Greek mathematicians, like Euclid, advanced geometry to meet architectural needs,
and inventors like Archimedes studied mechanics to create machines. The integration of science
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and technology established early scientific methods, setting a foundation for modern engineering
and scientific disciplines.
1.5.3 Problems and Challenges of Early Technology
a. Environmental Impact
Early agricultural and deforestation practices had adverse environmental effects. For instance,
deforestation for agriculture or building materials led to soil degradation and erosion in areas
such as the Fertile Crescent. Irrigation without adequate drainage led to salinization of soil,
reducing agricultural productivity over time and contributing to the decline of some early
civilizations.
b. Increased Warfare and Conflict
Advances in weaponry, such as metalworking for swords, spears, and siege equipment, made
warfare more destructive. The increased efficiency of war technologies led to larger-scale
conflicts, conquest, and the expansion of empires, often at the expense of smaller communities.
This arms race set a precedent for technological advancement being driven by military needs, a
trend that continues today.
c. Social Stratification and Inequality
Technological advancements enabled the accumulation of wealth and power, leading to the
emergence of hierarchies and social stratification. For instance, specialized labor and the ability
to store surplus food resulted in distinct social classes, often with significant inequality. The
benefits of technology were not evenly distributed, often concentrating power and resources in
the hands of a few while creating disparities that disadvantaged the broader population.
d. Health Risks and Limited Safety
Early technological practices lacked the safety measures we have today, exposing workers to
harsh conditions and risks. Quarrying stones for pyramids, smelting metals, or constructing
aqueducts posed serious health and safety risks, with injuries and fatalities being common.
Additionally, without an understanding of sanitation and hygiene, early urbanization led to
public health problems. For example, lack of proper sewage management in densely populated
areas caused disease outbreaks.
e. Dependency and Vulnerability
Early societies often became heavily dependent on their technology, especially in agriculture
and water management. This dependence meant that environmental changes or resource scarcity
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could severely impact them. For instance, Mesopotamian societies faced crop failures when
irrigation systems were damaged or soils became too saline.
These dependencies exposed early civilizations to vulnerabilities, where technological
disruptions or environmental degradation could lead to societal collapse.
The early development of technology was crucial in shaping human society, enabling the
transition from survival-based communities to complex civilizations. However, these
advancements also introduced long-standing issues, including environmental degradation, social
inequality, and increased warfare, which are challenges that still resonate in the modern world.
The history of early technology reflects both the transformative potential of human innovation
and the importance of considering its long-term impacts.
ASSIGNMENT 1
1. Define service and differentiate between engineering and technology
2. Explain the history of engineering in early Egyptian, Greek, and Roman civilizations.
3. Discuss the contributions and problems of early technology on society
4. Define technology in the views of Drucker, Genron, and Schon. And how they contribute
to a broader understanding of technology’s role in society.
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