ECE214: Electronic 1 (Electronic Devices

and Circuits)
Module

Ma. Aimee F. Yabao

Instructor

College of Engineering and Architecture

BSECE
2024
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VISION
A provide of relevant and quality education
to a society where citizens are competent,
skilled, dignified and community- oriented.

MISSION
An academic institution providing
technological, professional, research and
extension programs to form principled men
and women of competencies and skills
responsive to local and global development
needs.

QUALITY POLICY
Northwest Samar State University commits
to provide quality outcomes-based
education, research, extension and
production through continual improvement
of all its programs, thereby producing world
class professionals.

CORE VALUES
Resilience. Integrity. Service. Excellence.

INSTITUTIONAL GRADUATE OUTCOMES

Creative and critical thinkers
Life-long learners
Effective communicators
Morally and socially upright individuals

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Module 5

Module Title: Special Diodes

Module Description:
Rectifier diodes are the most common type of diode. They are used in power supplies to convert
ac voltage to dc voltage. But rectification is not all that a diode can do. Now we will discuss
diodes used in other applications. The module covers optoelectronic diodes, including light-
emitting diodes (LEDs), Schottky diodes, varactors, and other diodes

Module Requirements:

At the end of this module, the students will be assessed by a long quiz/exam through
moodle/google classroom.

Learning Plan
Lesson no.: 1

Lesson Title: Light-Emitting Diodes

Let’s Read (Discussion):

Optoelectronics is the technology that combines optics and electronics. This field includes
many devices based on the action of a pn junction. Examples of optoelectronic devices are
light-emitting diodes (LEDs), photodiodes, optocouplers, and laser diodes. Our discussion
begins with the LED.

Light-Emitting Diode

 LEDs have replaced incandescent lamps in many applications due to lower energy
consumption, smaller size, faster switching, and longer lifespan.
 LEDs have an anode and a cathode, and proper biasing is required for operation.
 The flat spot on the plastic casing typically indicates the cathode side.
 The semiconductor material used in the LED determines its characteristics.
 When forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction, falling into holes, and release
energy in the form of photons, producing light (electroluminescence).
 In ordinary diodes, this energy is radiated as heat, but in LEDs, it is emitted as light.
 The color of the emitted light depends on the energy band gap of the semiconductor
materials, which can be manipulated using elements like gallium, arsenic, and
phosphorus to produce different colors (e.g., red, green, yellow, blue, orange).

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LED Voltage and Current

 A current-limiting resistor is used in LED circuits to prevent the current from exceeding
the diode’s maximum rating.

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 The voltage across the resistor is the difference between the supply voltage (V S) and
the LED voltage (VD), following Ohm’s law.

 For most low-power LEDs, the voltage drop typically ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 V for
currents between 10 and 50 mA.
 The exact voltage drop depends on factors like LED current, color, and tolerance.
 A nominal voltage drop of 2 V is often used when analyzing or troubleshooting low-
power LED circuits.
 LED housings are designed to help radiate the corresponding color of the emitted light.

LED Brightness

 LED brightness depends on the current flowing through it.

 Brightness is measured as luminous intensity (IV), rated in candelas (cd) or
millicandelas (mcd) for low-power LEDs.
 Example: The TLDR5400 red LED has a forward voltage drop of 1.8 V and a luminous
intensity of 70 mcd at 20 mA, dropping to 3 mcd at 1 mA.
 When the supply voltage (VS) is much greater than the LED voltage (VD), the brightness
remains almost constant.
 If VS is only slightly greater than VD, the LED brightness may vary between circuits.
 The most effective way to control brightness is by using a current source, ensuring a
constant brightness with a constant current.

LED Specifications and Characteristics

 TLDR5400 5-mm T-13⁄4 red LED is a thru-hole LED used in various applications.
 Maximum forward current (IF): 50 mA.
 Maximum reverse voltage: 6 V.
 Maximum power rating: 100 mW at 25°C, with derating required at higher
temperatures.
 Luminous intensity (IV): 70 mcd at 20 mA, dropping to 3 mcd at 1 mA.
 Dominant wavelength: 648 nanometers (red light).
 Light intensity decreases by about 50% when viewed at a 30° angle.
 Relative Luminous Intensity vs. Forward Current graph shows how brightness changes
with current.
 Relative Luminous Intensity vs. Wavelength graph shows peak luminous intensity
around 650 nm.

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What happens when the ambient temperature of the LED increases or decreases? The
graph of Relative Luminous Intensity versus Ambient Temperature shows that an increase in
ambient temperature has a substantial negative effect on the LED’s light output. This becomes
important when LEDs are used in applications with large temperature variations.

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High-Power LEDs

Typical power dissipation levels of the LEDs

discussed up to this point are in the low-milliwatt
range. As an example, the TLDR5400 LED has a
maximum power rating of 100 mW and generally
operates at approximately 20 mA with a typical
forward voltage drop of 1.8 V. This results in a
power dissipation of 36 mW.

High-power LEDs are now available with

continuous power ratings of 1 W and above. These
LEDs can operate in the hundreds of mAs to over 1
A of current. An increasing array of applications are
being developed, including automotive interior,

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exterior, and forward lighting; architectural indoor and outdoor area lighting; and digital
imaging and display backlighting.

Figure 5-26 shows an example of a high-power LED emitter that has the benefit of high
luminance for directional applications such as downlights and indoor area lighting. LEDs such
as this use much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Because this
device will need to dissipate over 1 W of power, it is critical to use proper mounting techniques
to a heat sink. Otherwise, the LED will fail within a short period.

Efficiency of a light source is an essential factor in most applications. Because an LED

produces both light and heat, it is important to understand how much electrical power is used
to produce the light output. A term used to describe this is called luminous efficacy. Luminous
efficacy of a source is the ratio of output luminous flux (lm) to electrical power (W) given in
lm/W. Figure 5-27 shows a partial table for LUXEON TX high-power LED emitters giving
their typical performance characteristics. Notice that the performance characteristics are rated
at 350 mA, 700 mA, and 1000 mA. With a test current of 700 mA, the LIT2-3070000000000
emitter has a typical luminous flux output of 245 lm. At this forward current level, the typical
forward voltage drop is 2.80 V. Therefore, the amount of power dissipated is PD = IF × VF =
700 mA × 2.80 V = 1.96 W. The efficacy value for this emitter would be found by:

As a comparison, the luminous efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb is 16 lm/W and

a compact fluorescent bulb has a typical rating of 60 lm/W. When looking at the overall
efficiency of these types of LEDs, it is important to note that electronic circuits, called drivers,
are required to control the LED’s current and light output. Since these drivers also use electrical
power, the overall system efficiency is reduced.

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Lesson no.: 2

Lesson Title: Other Optoelectronic Devices

Let’s Read (Discussion):

Besides standard low-power through high-power LEDs, there are many other optoelectronic
devices that are based on the photonic action of a pn junction. These devices are used to source,
detect, and control light in an enormous variety of electronic applications.

Seven-Segment Display
 A seven-segment display consists of seven rectangular LEDs (labeled A through G),
each representing a segment of a character.
 By grounding specific segments, digits from 0 to 9 can be displayed (e.g., grounding
A, B, and C shows a 7; grounding A, B, C, D, and G shows a 3).
 It can also display letters such as A, C, E, F, and lowercase b and d.
 Microprocessor trainers often use seven-segment displays to show digits 0-9 and letters
A, b, C, d, E, and F.
 The common-anode type has all anodes connected together, while the common-cathode
type connects all cathodes together.
 An actual seven-segment display includes pins for socket fitting or soldering to a PCB
and may have an extra segment for a decimal point.

Photodiode

 Reverse current in a diode includes the flow of

minority carriers, which are generated by
thermal energy dislodging valence electrons.
 Minority carriers have a short lifetime but
contribute to reverse current while they exist.

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 Light energy can increase reverse current by dislodging valence electrons, with more
light producing a larger reverse current.
 A photodiode is optimized for light sensitivity, allowing light to pass through a window
to the pn junction, generating free electrons and holes.
 The stronger the light, the more minority carriers are produced, increasing the reverse
current.
 Photodiodes are typically reverse-biased with a source and series resistor.
 As light intensity increases, the reverse current increases, typically in the range of tens
of microamperes.
 The schematic symbol of a photodiode includes arrows representing incoming light.

Optocoupler

 An optocoupler (or optoisolator) integrates an LED and a photodiode in a single

package.
 It has an LED on the input side and a photodiode on the output side.
 A current through the LED (set by the left source voltage and series resistor) generates
light that strikes the photodiode, creating a reverse current in the output circuit.
 This reverse current produces a voltage across the output resistor, with the output
voltage equal to the output supply voltage minus the voltage across the resistor.
 As the input voltage varies, the light output fluctuates, causing the output voltage to
vary in sync with the input.
 The combination of LED and photodiode allows for signal coupling between input and
output circuits.
 Other optocoupler types may use phototransistors, photothyristors, and other
photodevices, which will be covered in later chapters.
 A key advantage of optocouplers is electrical isolation between input and output
circuits, achieved through a beam of light, allowing for very high insulation resistance
(thousands of megohms).
 This isolation is particularly useful in high-voltage applications where circuit potentials
may differ by several thousand volts.

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Laser Diode

 In an LED, free electrons radiate light by falling from higher to lower energy levels,
resulting in noncoherent light (light waves in all phases between 0 and 360°).
 A laser diode produces coherent light, where all light waves are in phase with each
other.
 Laser diodes utilize a mirrored resonant chamber to reinforce light emission at a single
frequency, producing a narrow, intense, and focused beam.
 Laser diodes are also known as semiconductor lasers and can emit visible light (red,
green, blue) and invisible light (infrared).
 Applications for laser diodes include:
 Telecommunications
 Data communications
 Broadband access
 Industrial uses
 Aerospace
 Test and measurement
 Medical and defense industries
 Laser printers
 Consumer products (e.g., CD and DVD players)
 In broadband communication, laser diodes enhance the speed of the Internet using fiber-
optic cables.
 Fiber-optic cables consist of thin, flexible glass or plastic fibers that transmit light
beams, allowing for more information transfer than copper cables.

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Lesson no.: 3

Lesson Title: The Schottky Diodes

Let’s Read (Discussion):

As frequency increases, the action of small-signal rectifier diodes begins to deteriorate. They
are no longer able to switch off fast enough to produce a well-defined half-wave signal. The
solution to this problem is the Schottky diode. Before describing this special-purpose diode, let
us look at the problem that arises with ordinary small-signal diodes.

Charge Storage

 Diode Structure:
 Figure 5-32a shows a small-signal diode; Figure 5-32b illustrates energy bands.
 Charge Movement:
 Electrons: Diffuse across the junction into the p region (Path A) before
recombining.
 Holes: Cross into the n region before recombination (Path B).
 Charge Lifetime:
 Greater charge lifetime allows charges to travel further before recombination.
 Example: With a lifetime of 1 µs, charges exist for an average of 1 µs before
recombining.
 Charge Penetration:
 Free electrons penetrate deep into the p region and are temporarily stored in a
higher energy band.
 Holes penetrate deep into the n region and are temporarily stored in a lower
energy band.
 Current Influence:
 Greater forward current leads to a larger number of charges crossing the
junction.

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 Longer charge lifetime results in deeper penetration and longer storage time in
energy bands.
 Charge Storage Concept:
 Temporary storage of free electrons in the upper energy band and holes in the
lower energy band is termed charge storage.

Charge Storage Produces Reverse Current

 Switching Diodes:
o Switching a diode from on to off can be problematic due to charge storage.
 Reverse Bias Effect:
o Sudden reverse bias causes stored charges to flow in the reverse direction
temporarily.
 Lifetime Impact:
o Longer charge lifetime allows stored charges to contribute to reverse current for
a longer duration.
 Forward to Reverse Transition:
o Example: A forward-biased diode suddenly reverse biased leads to a large
reverse current due to stored charges.
 Current Duration:
o Reverse current continues until stored charges either cross the junction or
recombine.

Reverse Recovery Time (trr)

 Reverse recovery time (trr) is the time required to turn off a forward-biased diode.
 Measurement conditions for trr can vary by manufacturer.

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 trr is typically defined as the time it takes for reverse current to drop to 10% of the
forward current.
 Example: The 1N4148 diode has a trr of 4 ns.
 With a forward current of 10 mA, it takes about 4 ns for the reverse current to decrease
to 1 mA.
 Reverse recovery time is generally negligible at frequencies below 10 MHz.
 trr becomes significant only at frequencies well above 10 MHz.

Poor Rectification at High Frequencies

 Half-wave rectifier outputs a half-wave rectified signal at low frequencies.

 As frequency increases into the megahertz range, the output signal deviates from the
ideal half-wave shape.
 Notable reverse conduction (referred to as "tails") appears at the beginning of the
reverse half-cycle.
 Reverse recovery time (trr) can become a significant portion of the signal period.
 Example: If trr = 4 ns and the period = 50 ns, the early reverse half-cycle will exhibit
tails.
 As frequency continues to rise, the rectifier may become ineffective due to increased
reverse recovery effects.

Eliminating Charge Storage

 Schottky diodes are special-purpose devices designed to eliminate charge storage,

addressing the issue of "tails."
 They consist of a metal (such as gold, silver, or platinum) on one side of the junction
and doped silicon (typically n-type) on the other side.
 The presence of metal prevents the formation of a depletion layer, meaning there are
no stored charges at the junction.
 When unbiased, free electrons on the n side have smaller orbit sizes than those on the
metal side, creating a Schottky barrier of approximately 0.25 V.

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 When forward biased, free electrons on the n side gain enough energy to move to larger
orbits, allowing them to cross the junction and enter the metal, resulting in a large
forward current.
 The absence of holes in the metal side means there is no charge storage and no reverse
recovery time.

Hot-Carrier Diode

 The Schottky diode is also known as a hot-carrier diode.

 The name arises because forward bias raises the energy of electrons on the n side above
that of electrons on the metal side of the junction.
 The high-energy electrons on the n side are referred to as hot carriers.
 When these high-energy electrons cross the junction, they fall into the metal, which has
a lower-energy conduction band.

High-Speed Turnoff

 The Schottky diode has minimal charge storage, allowing it to switch off faster than
ordinary diodes.
 It can rectify frequencies above 300 MHz with ease.
 In a circuit, the Schottky diode produces a perfect half-wave signal even at frequencies
exceeding 300 MHz.
 The schematic symbol for a Schottky diode features a cathode side resembling a
rectangular S, which stands for Schottky, making it easier to remember.

Applications

 The primary application of Schottky diodes is in digital computers.

 Computer speed relies on the rapid switching of diodes and transistors, making
Schottky diodes essential.
 Schottky diodes have no charge storage, serving as the backbone for low-power
Schottky TTLs, widely used digital devices.
 With a barrier potential of only 0.25 V, Schottky diodes are also used in low-voltage
bridge rectifiers, reducing voltage drop compared to the usual 0.7 V for standard diodes.
 This lower voltage drop is beneficial in low-voltage supply applications.

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Lesson no.: 4

Lesson Title: The Varactor

Let’s Read (Discussion):

The varactor (also called the voltage-variable capacitance, varicap, epicap, and tuning diode)
is widely used in television receivers, FM receivers, and other communications equipment
because it can be used for electronic tuning.

Basic Idea

In Fig. 5-36a, the depletion layer is between the p

region and the n region. The p and n regions are like
the plates of a capacitor, and the depletion layer is
like the dielectric. When a diode is reverse biased, the
width of the depletion layer increases with the reverse
voltage. Since the depletion layer gets wider with
more reverse voltage, the capacitance becomes
smaller. It’s as though you moved apart the plates of
a capacitor. The key idea is that capacitance is
controlled by reverse voltage.

Equivalent Circuit and Symbol

 In a diode, the depletion layer exists between

the p region and the n region.

 The p and n regions function like the plates of

a capacitor, while the depletion layer acts as
the dielectric.

 When a diode is reverse biased, the width of

the depletion layer increases with the reverse
voltage.

 As the depletion layer widens, the

capacitance decreases, similar to moving
apart the plates of a capacitor.

 The main concept is that capacitance is

controlled by reverse voltage.

Capacitance Decreases at Higher Reverse

Voltages

Figure 5-36d shows how the capacitance varies with

reverse voltage. This graph shows that the
capacitance gets smaller when the reverse voltage
gets larger. The really important idea here is that reverse dc voltage controls capacitance. How
is a varactor used? It is connected in parallel with an inductor to form a parallel resonant circuit.

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This circuit has only one frequency at which maximum impedance occurs. This frequency is
called the resonant frequency. If the dc reverse voltage to the varactor is changed, the resonant
frequency is also changed. This is the principle behind tunable matching networks and
amplifiers used in electronic communications systems.

Varactor Characteristics

 Varactors have replaced mechanically tuned capacitors in many applications due to

their voltage-controlled capacitance.
 Data sheets for varactors provide a reference capacitance value measured at a specific
reverse voltage, typically between **–3 V to –4 V**.
 For example, the MV209 varactor diode has a reference capacitance of 29 pF at –3 V.
 Data sheets also list a capacitance ratio (CR), indicating the tuning range over a
specified voltage range.
 The MV209 has a minimum capacitance ratio of 5:1, where capacitance decreases from
29 pF to 6 pF when voltage changes from –3 V to –25 V.
 The tuning range of a varactor depends on its doping level; an abrupt-junction diode
typically has a tuning range of 3:1 to 4:1.
 Hyperabrupt junction varactors have a doping profile where doping increases as it
approaches the junction, resulting in a tuning range of about 10:1.
 This larger tuning range allows tuning of an AM radio across frequencies from 535 to
1605 kHz, as the resonant frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of
capacitance.

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Lesson no.: 5

Lesson Title: Other Diodes

Let’s Read (Discussion):

Besides the special-purpose diodes discussed so far, there are others you should know about.
Because they are so specialized, only a brief description follows.

Varistors
Lightning, power-line faults, and transients can pollute the ac line voltage by superimposing
dips and spikes on the normal 120 V rms. Dips are severe voltage drops lasting microseconds
or less. Spikes are very brief overvoltages up to 2000 V or more. In some equipment, filters are
used between the power line and the primary of the transformer to eliminate the problems
caused by ac line transients.

One of the devices used for line filtering is the varistor (also called a transient
suppressor). This semiconductor device is like two back-to-back zener diodes with a high
breakdown voltage in both directions. Varistors are commercially available with breakdown
voltages from 10 to 1000 V. They can handle peak transient currents in the hundreds or
thousands of amperes.
For instance, a V130LA2 is a varistor with a breakdown voltage of 184 V (equivalent
to 130 V rms) and a peak current rating of 400 A. Connect one of these across the primary

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winding as shown in Fig. 5-40a, and you don’t have to worry about spikes. The varistor will
clip all spikes at the 184-V level and protect your power supply.

Current-Regulator Diodes
These are diodes that work in a way exactly opposite to the way zener diodes work. Instead of
holding the voltage constant, these diodes hold the current constant. Known as current-
regulator diodes (or constant-current diodes), these devices keep the current through them fixed
when the voltage changes. For example, the 1N5305 is a constant-current diode with a typical
current of 2 mA over a voltage range of 2 to 100 V. Figure 5-40b shows the schematic symbol
of a current-regulator diode. In Fig. 5-40b, the diode will hold the load current constant at 2
mA even though the load resistance varies from 1 to 49 kΩ.

Step-Recovery Diodes
The step-recovery diode has the unusual doping profile shown in Fig. 5-41a. This graph
indicates that the density of carriers decreases near the junction. This unusual distribution of
carriers causes a phenomenon called reverse snap-off.
Figure 5-41b shows the schematic symbol for a step-recovery diode. During the positive
half-cycle, the diode conducts like any silicon diode. But during the negative half-cycle, reverse
current exists for a while because of the stored charges and then suddenly drops to zero.
Figure 5-41c shows the output voltage. It’s as though the diode conducts reverse current
for a while and then suddenly snaps open. This is why the step-recovery diode is also known
as a snap diode. The sudden step in current is rich in harmonics and can be filtered to produce
a sine wave of a higher frequency. (Harmonics are multiples of the input frequency like 2f in,
3fin, and 4fin.) Because of this, step-recovery diodes are useful in frequency multipliers, circuits
whose output frequency is a multiple of the input frequency

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Back Diodes
Zener diodes normally have breakdown voltages greater than 2 V. By increasing the doping
level, we can get the zener effect to occur near zero. Forward conduction still occurs around
0.7 V, but now reverse conduction (breakdown) starts at approximately −0.1 V.
A diode with a graph like Fig. 5-42a is called a back diode because it conducts better
in the reverse than in the forward direction. Figure 5-42b shows a sine wave with a peak of 0.5
V driving a back diode and a load resistor. (Notice that the zener symbol is used for the back
diode.) The 0.5 V is not enough to turn on the diode in the forward direction, but it is enough
to break down the diode in the reverse direction. For this reason, the output is a half-wave
signal with a peak of 0.4 V, as shown in Fig. 5-42b.
Back diodes are occasionally used to rectify weak signals with peak amplitudes
between 0.1 and 0.7 V. diodes is useful in high-frequency circuits called oscillators. These
circuits are able to generate a sinusoidal signal, similar to that produced by an ac generator.
But unlike the ac generator that converts mechanical energy to a sinusoidal signal, an oscillator
converts dc energy to a sinusoidal signal. Later chapters will show you how to build oscillators.

PIN Diodes
A PIN diode is a semiconductor device that operates as a variable resistor at RF and microwave
frequencies. Figure 5-44a shows its construction. It consists of an intrinsic (pure)
semiconductor material sandwiched between p-type and n-type materials. Figure 5-44b shows
the schematic symbol for the PIN diode. When the diode is forward biased, it acts like a current-
controlled resistance. Figure 5-44c shows how the PIN diode’s series resistance RS decreases

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as its forward current increases. When reverse biased, the PIN diode acts like a fixed capacitor.
The PIN diode is widely used in modulator circuits for RF and microwave applications.

Table of Devices
Summary Table 5-3 lists all the special-purpose devices in this chapter. The zener diode is
useful in voltage regulators, the LED as a dc or an ac indicator, the seven-segment indicator in
measuring instruments, and so on. You should study the table and remember the ideas it
contains.

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Seatwork no. 2
1. What is the current through the LED of Fig. 5-47?
2. If the supply voltage of Fig. 5-47 increases to 40 V, what is the LED current?
3. If the resistor is decreased to 1 kΩ, what is the LED current in Fig. 5-47?
4. The resistor of Fig. 5-47 is decreased until the LED current equals 13 mA. What is the
value of the resistance?

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