CHAPTER FOUR

▪ Refer to attractive forces between

molecules that influence their physical
properties and behavior.
▪ The forces are significantly weaker than
intramolecular forces which hold atoms
together in a molecule, yet they play a
crucial role in determining states of matter
and molecular interactions.
▪ It is essential in various fields including
chemistry and biology.
▪ It determine the melting and boiling points
of substances, influence solubility, and are
central to the formation of biological
structures such as proteins and nucleic
acids.
▪ Are forces that occur between molecules
without the sharing of electrons which
distinguishes them from covalent bonds.
▪ Instead of creating a strong permanent
bond like covalent or ionic bonds, these
forces are relatively weaker and more
transient.
▪ These are weak forces that facilitate various
chemical processes including molecular
recognition, stability, and assembly.
▪ Hydrogen Bonds
▪ Dipole-Dipole Interactions
▪ Van der Waals Forces
▪ Ion-Dipole Interactions
TYPE:
▪ Hydrogen Bonds
▪ A type of non-covalent intermolecular
force that occurs when a hydrogen atom,
which is covalently bonded to a highly
electronegative atom like nitrogen (N),
oxygen (O), or fluorine (F), interacts with
another electronegative atom nearby.
▪ It happens when the slightly positive
hydrogen atom in one molecule is attracted
to the slightly negative atom (like oxygen,
nitrogen, or fluorine) in a different
molecule, or sometimes within the same
molecule if it's folded in a certain way.
EXAMPLE:
▪ Hydrogen Bonds:WATER
▪ Each water molecule has a bent shape
where the oxygen atom is more
electronegative than the hydrogen atoms.
▪ This means oxygen pulls the shared
electrons closer to itself, making it slightly
negative (δ⁻) and leaving the hydrogens
slightly positive (δ⁺).
▪ Because of these partial charges, the
hydrogen atom of one water molecule is
strongly attracted to the oxygen atom of
a neighboring water molecule.
EXAMPLE:
▪ Hydrogen Bonds:WATER
▪ Why it matters:
▪ Hydrogen bonding in water explains why
water has a relatively high boiling point,
surface tension, and ability to dissolve
many substances — all critical for life on
Earth.
TYPES:
▪ Dipole-Dipole Interactions
▪ An interactions occur between polar
molecules where the positive end of one
molecule is attracted to the negative end
of another.
▪ These forces contribute to the overall
stability and reactivity of molecular
compounds in various solvents.
EXAMPLE:
▪ Dipole-Dipole Interactions: HYDROGEN
CHLORIDE (HCl) MOLECULES
▪ In an HCl molecule, chlorine (Cl) is much more
electronegative than hydrogen (H). As a result,
chlorine pulls the shared electrons closer to itself,
making the chlorine end slightly negative (δ⁻) and
the hydrogen end slightly positive (δ⁺).
▪ When several HCl molecules are near each other,
the positive end (H, δ⁺) of one molecule is attracted
to the negative end (Cl, δ⁻) of another molecule.
This attraction between the partial charges of
different polar molecules result to a dipole-dipole
interaction.
EXAMPLE:
▪ Dipole-Dipole Interactions: HYDROGEN
CHLORIDE (HCl) MOLECULES
▪ Why it matters:
▪ Dipole-dipole interactions explain why
polar substances like HCl have higher
boiling points compared to nonpolar
substances of similar size.
TYPES:
▪ Van der Waals Forces
▪ Also called London dispersion forces.
▪ Weak attractions that occur due to
temporary fluctuations in electron
distribution in molecules or atoms,
inducing momentary dipoles even in
nonpolar substances.
▪ These weak attractions are significant in
non-polar substances and play a role in
the physical state of matter at low
temperature.
 EXAMPLE:
▪ Van der Waals Forces: NITROGEN GAS (N₂)
▪ Nitrogen gas (N₂) is made of two identical
nitrogen atoms thus, the molecule is nonpolar —
it has no permanent positive or negative ends.
▪ However, electrons are constantly moving
around the molecule. At any moment, there
might be a slight imbalance — a temporary
uneven distribution of electrons — creating a
tiny temporary dipole.
▪ This temporary dipole can cause a nearby N₂
molecule to also develop a temporary dipole,
and the two molecules will attract each other
weakly.
 EXAMPLE:
▪ Van der Waals Forces: NITROGEN GAS (N₂)
▪ Why it matters:
▪ Even though van der Waals forces are very weak
compared to hydrogen bonds or dipole-dipole
interactions still are important.
▪ They explain why nonpolar substances like
nitrogen gas, oxygen gas, and noble gases like
helium can still condense into liquids at very
low temperatures.
TYPES:
▪ Ion-Dipole Interactions
▪ Arise between charged ions and polar
molecules which play a crucial role in the
solubility of ionic compounds in polar
solvents.
▪ The strength of these interactions is
essential for processes such as hydration
of ions in solutions.
EXAMPLE:
▪ Ion-Dipole Interactions: TABLE SALT (NACl)
DISSOLVES IN WATER
▪ HAPPENS: When NaCl is added to water, it
separates into ions: Na⁺ (sodium ion) and Cl⁻
(chloride ion). Water is a polar molecule — the
oxygen atom is slightly negative (δ⁻), and the
hydrogen atoms are slightly positive (δ⁺)
▪ RESULTS: The Na⁺ ion is strongly attracted to the
oxygen (δ⁻) side of nearby water molecules. The
Cl⁻ ion is strongly attracted to the hydrogen (δ⁺)
sides of nearby water molecules.
EXAMPLE:
▪ Ion-Dipole Interactions: TABLE SALT (NACl)
DISSOLVES IN WATER
▪ Why it matters:
▪ Ion-dipole interactions are crucial
because they explain how salts dissolve
in water — something essential for
biological systems, chemistry, and even
everyday life.
▪ These interactions such as hydrogen bonding
and van der Waals forces are essential for
maintaining the integrity of biological
structures and materials.
▪ They are crucial for many physical properties of
substances, like boiling and melting points,
solubility, and the structure and function of large
biological molecules like proteins and DNA.
▪ Non-covalent interaction is relatively weak
compared to a covalent bond, collectively, they
can strongly influence the behavior and
stability of complex systems, especially in
biology and materials science.
▪ Strengthen and Energy Forces
▪ The strength of intermolecular forces
varies significantly ranging from weak Van
der Waals forces to strong hydrogen
bonds.
▪ The energy required to break these
interactions directly affects a substance’s
boiling and melting points establishing a
connection forces and physical properties.
▪ Factors Influencing Intermolecular
Forces
▪ Molecular size, polarity and shape
significantly influence the strength of
intermolecular forces.
▪ Larger molecules tend to have stronger
forces due to increased surface area while
polar molecules exhibit stronger
interactions than nonpolar ones due to
dipole moments.
▪ Measurement Techniques
▪ Intermolecular forces can be
characterized using techniques like
spectroscopy, calorimetry, and
crystallography.
▪ These methods allow scientist to observe
molecular interactions, energy changes,
and structural configurations providing
insights into the nature of forces present.
▪ Boiling Point
▪ The boiling point of a substance is
influenced by strength of its
intermolecular forces.
▪ Stronger forces results higher boiling
points as more energy is required to
separate molecules from one another,
▪ Melting Point
▪ It is influenced by intermolecular
forces.
▪ Substances with stronger
intermolecular forces have higher
melting points since grater amount of
heat energy is necessary to break these
interactions and allow solid to melt.
▪ Solubility
▪ The solubility of a substance is largely
determined by the nature and strength
of its intermolecular forces.
▪ Polar solvents tend to dissolve polar
solutes due to similar intermolecular
interactions while non-polar solvents
dissolve non-polar solutes.
▪ Viscosity
▪ Viscosity or fluid’s resistance to flow is
affected by intermolecular forces.
▪ Liquids with stronger intermolecular
forces tend to have higher viscosities as
molecules are ore tightly held together
and resist movement.
▪ Non-covalent forces are weak forces compared to covalent bonds
that hold molecules together, shape biological structures like
proteins, and influence reactivity.
▪ These forces govern how molecules stick, fold, interact, and even
react.
TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Van der Waals (London Weak attractions caused by Between hexane molecules
dispersion) temporary dipoles. (C₆H₁₄)
Attraction between Between acetone molecules
Dipole-dipole interactions
permanent dipoles. (CH₃COCH₃)
Special strong dipole
Between ethanol (CH₃CH₂OH)
Hydrogen bonding attraction involving H
molecules
attached to N, O, or F.
Attraction between an ion and Na⁺ ions attracted to water
Ion-dipole interactions
a polar molecule. molecules (H₂O)
▪ Role in Biological Systems
▪ Intermolecular forces such as
hydrogen bonding and Van der Waals
forces are essential in maintaining the
structure of biomolecules like
proteins and nucleic acids influencing
their functions and interactions within
living organisms.
▪ Importance in Industrial Processes
▪ In industries, understanding
intermolecular forces aids in the
development of products ranging
from plastics to pharmaceuticals,
optimizing processes such as
separation, purification and
formulation for better efficiency and
effectiveness.
▪ Applications in Materials Science
▪ Intermolecular forces influence
material properties like strength,
elasticity and conductivity.
▪ Understanding these forces allows
scientists to design novel materials
including polymers and
nanomaterials with targeted
applications.
▪ Intermolecular Forces and Weather
Phenomena
▪ In meteorology, intermolecular forces
govern processes like evaporation
and condensation thereby influencing
weather patterns and climate.
▪ For example: the formation of clouds
relies on the balance of these forces
in atmospheric moisture.
▪ A reactive site is a specific part of an
organic molecule where chemical
reactions are most likely to occur.
Often, this is where there is:
▪ Charge separation (δ⁺ or δ⁻)
▪ Electron-rich regions (nucleophilic
sites)
▪ Electron-poor regions (electrophilic
sites)
▪ Strain (in rings or unstable groups)
▪ Weak bonds (easy to break)
▪ Common reactive sites:
REACTIVE SITE FEATURE EXAMPLE
Areas of high electron Alkenes (C=C) or alkynes
Double or triple bonds
density (π bonds) (C≡C)
Polarized bond (C is δ⁺, O is
Carbonyl groups (C=O) Ketones, aldehydes, esters
δ⁻)
Halogenated carbons (C– Carbon bonded to
Alkyl halides (R–Cl, R–Br)
X) electronegative atom
π-electron clouds can react
Aromatic systems Benzene rings
with electrophiles
Lone pair on N acts as
Amine groups (–NH₂) Amines
nucleophile
Polar; can donate H⁺ or act as
Alcohol groups (–OH) Alcohols
nucleophile
▪ These forces can either stabilize reaction
intermediates or favor certain paths for
reactions.
▪ NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION (SN1,
SN2)
▪ A type of chemical reaction where a
nucleophile (an electron-rich species)
replaces a leaving group (an atom or group
of atoms) attached to a carbon atom.
▪ Site: Alkyl halides (R–X)
▪ Intermolecular Influence:
Polar solvents (hydrogen bonding) can
stabilize ions formed during SN1.
▪ ELECTROPHILIC ADDITION
▪A type of chemical reaction where an
electrophile (an electron-poor species) reacts
with a compound that has a region of high
electron density, usually a π bond (like in
alkenes or alkynes).
The π bond breaks and two new single bonds
are formed.
▪ Site: Alkenes, Alkynes
▪ Intermolecular Influence:
π-bonds are weakly held (delocalized
electrons) and attracted to strong
electrophiles.
▪ ELIMINATION REACTIONS (E1, E2)
▪ Are a class of organic reactions where
elements are removed (eliminated)
from a molecule, typically resulting in
the formation of a double bond (an
alkene) or sometimes a triple bond
(an alkyne).
▪ ELIMINATION REACTIONS (E1, E2)
▪ In elimination:
▪ A leaving group (like a halide or -OH)
departs.
▪ A hydrogen atom is removed from a
neighboring carbon.
▪ A π bond (double bond) is created
between the two carbons.
▪ Site: Alkyl halides, Alcohols
▪ Intermolecular Influence:
Hydrogen bonding or solvent polarity can
stabilize the base or leaving group.
▪ ELECTROPHILIC AROMATIC SUBSTITUTION
▪ A type of chemical reaction in which an
electrophile replaces a hydrogen atom on an
aromatic ring such as benzene.
▪ The aromatic ring acts like a nucleophile
(electron-rich).
▪ It attacks an incoming electrophile.
▪ A hydrogen atom is lost and replaced by the
electrophile, restoring aromaticity.
▪ Site: Benzene rings.
▪ Intermolecular Influence:
Stabilized by delocalized π-electron cloud
(non-covalent stabilization of transition states).
▪ HYDROGEN BONDING REACTIONS
▪ Important in biological systems.
▪A special type of intermolecular
(between molecules) or intramolecular
(within the same molecule) attractive
force.
▪ Hydrogen (H) bonded to O, N, or F
becomes slightly positive (δ⁺).
▪ It is attracted to a lone pair of electrons
(δ⁻) on another O, N, or F atom.
▪ HYDROGEN BONDING REACTIONS
▪ It occurs when a hydrogen atom
covalently bonded to a highly
electronegative atom (like oxygen,
nitrogen, or fluorine) experiences an
attraction to another electronegative atom
in a nearby molecule or within the same
molecule.
▪ Site: Alcohols, Amines, Carboxylic acids.
▪ Intermolecular Influence:
Hydrogen bonds pre-organize molecules
for better reaction efficiency.
▪ Chemists have developed several theories to
explain the behavior of acids and bases.
▪ The three most important models are the:
▪ Arrhenius;
▪ Brønsted-Lowry and;
▪ Lewis concepts.
▪ ARRHENIUS CONCEPT (1884)
▪ Acid: A substance that increases the
concentration of H⁺ ions (protons) in
aqueous solution.
▪ Base: A substance that increases the
concentration of OH⁻ ions (hydroxide ions)
in aqueous solution.
▪ Key points:
▪ This theory is limited to aqueous
solutions.
▪ Focuses on the production of H⁺ and OH⁻
ions.
▪ ARRHENIUS CONCEPT (1884)
▪ Examples:

▪ Limitations:
▪ Only applies to aqueous solutions.
▪ Cannot explain acid-base behavior
outside water e.g., in gases or non-
aqueous solvents.
▪ BRØNSTED-LOWRY CONCEPT (1923)
▪ Acid: A proton (H⁺) donor.
▪ Base: A proton (H⁺) acceptor.
▪ Key points:
▪ Extends beyond aqueous solutions —
works in gas phase or in other solvents.
▪ Focuses on the transfer of protons.
▪ Every Brønsted-Lowry acid has a
conjugate base, and every base has a
conjugate acid.
▪ BRØNSTED-LOWRY CONCEPT (1923)
▪ Examples:

▪ Conjugate pairs:
▪ In the second example: NH₃ (base) ⇌ NH₄⁺
(conjugate acid).
▪ Limitations:
▪ Still focuses mainly on proton transfer —
doesn’t explain reactions where no H⁺ is
involved (like metal ion reactions).
▪ LEWIS CONCEPT (1923)
▪ Acid: An electron pair acceptor.
▪ Base: An electron pair donor.
▪ Key points:
▪ Broadest of all definitions — does not
require protons.
▪ Explains many acid-base reactions,
including coordination complexes, that are
outside the scope of the other two
theories.
▪ Focuses on the movement of electron
pairs, not protons.
▪ LEWIS CONCEPT (1923)
▪ Examples:

▪ Limitations:
▪ Very broad — sometimes too general to
easily predict acid-base strength or
behavior.
 BRØNSTED-
FEATURE ARRHENIUS LEWIS
LOWRY
Produces H⁺ in Donates a proton Accepts an electron
Acid Definition
water (H⁺) pair
Produces OH⁻ in Accepts a proton Donates an electron
Base Definition
water (H⁺) pair
Any solvent (or
Medium Required Water only Any medium
even gas phase)
Examples
HCl / NaOH NH₄⁺ / NH₃ BF₃ / NH₃
(Acid/Base)
Only aqueous Needs proton Very broad, less
Limitation
systems transfer predictive
▪ Arrhenius focused only on aqueous proton
or hydroxide ion production.
▪ Brønsted-Lowry extended the idea to any
proton donor/acceptor system.
▪ Lewis opened the concept to any electron
pair donor/acceptor — making it useful even
when no proton transfer happens.