FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OYE-EKITI
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Second Semester 2024/2025 Session
CVE 204 LECTURE NOTE: STRENGTH OF MATERIALS I
B.Eng. (Civil Engineering) Degree
Course Title: Strength of Materials I
Course Code: CVE 204
Credit Units: 2
Level: 200L
Prepared by:
Engr. O.J. Omolayo
SYNOPSIS
Force equilibrium - free body diagrams.
Concept of stress, strain; Tensile test.
Young's moduli and other strength factors.
Axially loaded bars, composite bars, temperature stresses.
Bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams for simple cases.
Simple indeterminate problems.
Hoop stresses in cylinders and rings.
Simple torsion and application.
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Table of Contents
SYNOPSIS ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 2
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ..................................................... 4
Importance of Strength of Materials in Engineering ............................................................... 4
Relevance to Engineering Applications .................................................................................. 4
Key Concepts in Strength of Materials.................................................................................... 4
FORCE EQUILIBRIUM AND FREE BODY DIAGRAM ........................................................ 5
Types of Support Reactions..................................................................................................... 5
Types and Resolution of Forces .............................................................................................. 5
FORCE EQUILIBRIUM............................................................................................................. 6
Types of Equilibrium ............................................................................................................... 6
Conditions for Equilibrium...................................................................................................... 6
Free Body Diagram (FBD) .......................................................................................................... 7
Steps to Draw a Free Body Diagram ....................................................................................... 7
Example of a Free Body Diagram ........................................................................................... 7
More Examples ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.0 CONCEPT OF STRESS, STRAIN & OTHER STRENGTH FACTORS .......................... 9
ANALYSIS OF BARS OF VARYING SECTIONS ................................................................ 20
Principle of Superposition ..................................................................................................... 24
ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING CIRCULAR ROD ............................................. 28
ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING RECTANGULAR BAR ................................... 30
ANALYSIS OF BARS OF COMPOSITE SECTIONS ............................................................ 33
THERMAL STRESSES ............................................................................................................ 41
THERMAL STRESSES IN COMPOSITE BARS ................................................................... 43
ELONGATION OF A BAR DUE TO ITS OWN WEIGHT .................................................... 47
ANALYSIS OF BAR OF UNIFORM STRENGTH ................................................................ 48
HIGHLIGHTS ....................................................................................................................... 50
EXERCISES .......................................................................................................................... 51
3.0 BENDING MOMENT, SHEAR FORCE FOR SIMPLE CASES .................................... 53
Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram for A Simply Supported Beam Carrying a
Uniformly Varying Load From Zero at Each Ends to w Per Unit Length at the Centre .......... 77
EXERCISES .......................................................................................................................... 79
4.0 SIMPLE INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS...................................................................... 81
Background Concept ................................................................................................................. 81
Statical Indeterminacy of Beams............................................................................................... 82
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Statical Indeterminacy of External Forces in plane frames....................................................... 83
Statical Indeterminacy of Internal Forces in plane frames ........................................................ 84
Statical Indeterminacy of Internal Forces in Trusses ................................................................ 84
5.0 HOOP STRESSES IN CYLINDERS AND RINGS ......................................................... 85
Stress in Thin Cylinders ............................................................................................................ 85
Stresses in Thick Cylinders ....................................................................................................... 92
6.0 SIMPLE TORSION AND APPLICATION .................................................................... 106
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1.0 INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Strength of Materials, also known as Mechanics of Materials, is a fundamental subject /branch of
engineering that examines how solid materials respond to applied forces, loads, and
deformations. It is essential in understanding the mechanical behavior of materials used in
structures, machines, and electrical components etc., ensuring they can withstand various stresses
(forces & loads) without failure. It focuses on how materials deform, break or fail when subjected
to stresses and strains. This knowledge helps engineers design safe and efficient structures,
machines and components that can withstand different forces without excessive deformation or
failure.
Importance of Strength of Materials in Engineering
The study of Strength of Materials is crucial across multiple engineering disciplines:
Civil Engineering: Ensures that structures such as bridges, buildings, and roads can support loads
safely without excessive deformation or failure.
Mechatronics Engineering: Assists in designing mechanical components in robotics, actuators,
and automated systems that must endure operational stresses.
Electrical Engineering: Plays a role in structural design for electrical enclosures, transmission
towers, and materials used in power cables to prevent mechanical failure.
Relevance to Engineering Applications
Structural Integrity: Ensures that buildings, bridges, and electrical towers are designed to handle
expected loads.
Material Selection: Engineers must choose materials with appropriate mechanical properties for
various applications, from aircraft frames to electrical insulators.
Failure Prevention: Understanding failure mechanisms allows engineers to design safer and more
durable components.
Optimized Design: Efficient use of materials reduces cost while maintaining strength and
performance in engineering structures and devices.
Key Concepts in Strength of Materials
Stress and Strain: Fundamental properties that define how materials respond to external forces.
Types of Loads: Includes tensile, compressive, shear, bending, and torsional loads encountered in
engineering applications.
Elasticity and Plasticity: Determines whether a material returns to its original shape after
deformation or undergoes permanent change.
Failure Theories: Helps predict material failure under complex loading conditions.
Beam and Column Analysis: Essential in civil and structural engineering for evaluating load-
bearing elements.
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FORCE EQUILIBRIUM AND FREE BODY DIAGRAM
Force: Load that a structure is expected to carry. The loads that constitute/produce force can be
broadly classified into three which are:
i. Dead load: permanent load e.g., weight of the structure, cladding, finishes etc.
ii. Imposed loads: movable loads e.g., furniture, equipment, occupants etc.
iii. Wind load: invisible and moving load
iv. Seismic/impact loads: load due to earthquake.
Types of Support Reactions
When a structure is supported, it develops reactions to maintain equilibrium:
i. Fixed Support: Restrains all translations and rotations, providing three reaction
components.
ii. Pinned Support: Restrains translations but allows rotation, providing two reactions.
iii. Hinged Connection: Allows rotation but resists horizontal and vertical movement.
iv. Roller Support: Restrains only vertical movement, providing one reaction ().
v. Cable or Rope: Provides only a tensile force along its length.
Types and Resolution of Forces
1. Coplanar Forces: Forces that act in the same plane. For instance, forces acting on a bridge
deck. It can be Solved using vector algebra or equilibrium equations: ∑ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟎; ∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎
2. Resultant Force: A single force that has the same effect as multiple forces acting together.
2 2
𝑹 = √(∑ 𝐹𝑥 + ∑ 𝐹𝑦 )
3. Concurrent Forces: Forces whose lines of action meet at a common point. For example,
forces acting at the top of a tower where cables are attached.
4. Parallel Forces: Forces that have the same or opposite direction and remain parallel. E.g., the
upward forces exerted by supports of a simply supported beam.
𝑹 = 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐
5. Component of a Force: The projection of a force along coordinate axes. A given force can
be replaced by two forces (components) which meet at the point of application of the given
force. When the angle between the two forces is at right angle, the components are called
rectangular components. It is resolved using:
• For Horizontal component of force, 𝑭𝒙 = 𝑭𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
• For Vertical component of force, 𝑭𝒚 = 𝑭𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
6. Triangle of Forces: If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, they can be represented
by the sides of a triangle. E.g., the forces acting on a signboard hung by two cables. It is
resolve using Sine rule.
𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐 𝑭𝟑
= =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜸
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7. Polygon of Forces: When multiple forces act at a point, they form a closed polygon if in
equilibrium. The Resultant force is zero in equilibrium.
∑𝑭 = 𝟎
8. Parallelogram Law of Forces: states that if two forces acting simultaneously at a point
are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then
the diagonal of the parallelogram represents the resultant force in both magnitude and
direction. For instance, the forces exerted by two ropes pulling an object at different angles.
The resultant force is given by:
𝑹𝒚 𝑭𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝑹 = √(𝐅𝟏 𝟐 + 𝐅𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐅𝟏 𝐅𝟐 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝛉); 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜶 = =
𝑹𝒙 𝑭𝟏 +𝑭𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽
FORCE EQUILIBRIUM
Force equilibrium occurs when all the forces acting on a body or a system result in no net force or
moment. This means the object remains at rest (static equilibrium) or moves with constant velocity
(dynamic equilibrium).
Types of Equilibrium
i. Static Equilibrium: The object remains at rest (e.g., a bridge, a beam, or a transmission
tower).
ii. Dynamic Equilibrium: The object moves at a constant velocity with no acceleration (e.g.,
a robot arm moving at a steady speed).
Conditions for Equilibrium
Mathematically, a body is in equilibrium if the sum of all forces and the sum of all moments acting
on it are equal to zero. A body in translational equilibrium must satisfy:
∑ 𝑯 = 𝟎; ∑ 𝑽 = 𝟎; ∑ 𝑴 = 𝟎
where:
∑ 𝐻 = 𝟎; represent the sum of forces in the horizontal
∑ 𝑉 = 𝟎; represent the sum of forces in the vertical
∑ 𝑀 = 𝟎; represent the sum of moments about a point.
For example, in civil engineering, structures such as beams and columns must be designed to be
in static equilibrium under applied loads. In mechatronics, robotic arms must maintain equilibrium
to function efficiently. In electrical engineering, structures like transmission poles must withstand
forces such as wind loads while remaining stable.
Moment of Forces: This is a turning effect of a force. It is usually considered in relation to a
turning point (real or imaginary). This is also defined as the product of a force and distance
measured from the turning point to where it cuts the line of action of the force at right angles.
𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
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Free Body Diagram (FBD)
A Free Body Diagram (FBD) is a simplified line sketch of a structure or a body, showing, position,
direction and point of application of all external applied forces and moments acting on the
structure. The concept of free body diagram is very useful in solving problems where internal
forces in members of a structure are required to be determined.
It helps in analyzing force equilibrium by isolating a component from its surroundings and
representing the applied forces clearly.
Steps to Draw a Free Body Diagram
• Identify the Object of Interest – Choose the part of the structure or system to analyze.
• Isolate the Object – Remove the surrounding elements and consider only the forces acting
on the body.
• Identify and Represent Forces – Draw all forces acting on the object, including:
• Applied Forces (external loads, weights, etc.)
• Reaction Forces (support reactions at fixed or pinned supports)
• Frictional Forces (if applicable)
• Tension or Compression in members
• Label the Forces and Moments – Indicate force magnitudes and directions where known.
Example of a Free Body Diagram
Example 1: Beam Supported by Two Supports
A beam of length is supported at both ends and subjected to a load at the center.
The free body diagram consists of:
• The beam as a single entity.
• The reaction forces at the two supports (assume 𝑹𝑨 & 𝑹𝑩 ).
• The applied force (P) at the center.
∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎 ≡ 𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑩 − 𝑷 = 𝟎
𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑩 = 𝑷
Example 2: A Hanging Mass
A block of weight is suspended by a rope.
The free body diagram shows:
• The block as a single entity.
• The downward gravitational force (W).
• The tension force (T) in the rope acting upward.
∑ 𝑭𝒚 = 𝟎 ≡ 𝑻 − 𝑾 = 𝟎
𝑻=𝑾
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More Examples
Example 1: A horizontal beam of length 4 m is supported at both ends. A force of 10 kN is applied
at the midpoint. Determine the reaction forces at the supports.
Example 2: A 5 m long simply supported beam carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 kN/m.
Draw the free body diagram and determine the support reactions.
Example 3: A cantilever beam carries a point load at its free end. Determine the support reactions
and draw the FBD.
Example 4: A frame consisting of two members is subjected to external forces. Identify the
support reactions using FBDs.
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2.0 CONCEPT OF STRESS, STRAIN & OTHER STRENGTH FACTORS
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ANALYSIS OF BARS OF VARYING SECTIONS
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Principle of Superposition
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ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING CIRCULAR ROD
A bar uniformly tapering from a diameter D1 at one end to a diameter D2 at the other end is
shown in Fig. 1.13.
Let; P= Axial tensile load on the bar
L= Total length of the bar
E= Youngs modulus.
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ANALYSIS OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING RECTANGULAR BAR
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ANALYSIS OF BARS OF COMPOSITE SECTIONS
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THERMAL STRESSES
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THERMAL STRESSES IN COMPOSITE BARS
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ELONGATION OF A BAR DUE TO ITS OWN WEIGHT
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ANALYSIS OF BAR OF UNIFORM STRENGTH
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HIGHLIGHTS
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EXERCISES
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3.0 BENDING MOMENT, SHEAR FORCE FOR SIMPLE CASES
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Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram for A Simply Supported Beam Carrying a
Uniformly Varying Load From Zero at Each Ends to w Per Unit Length at the Centre
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EXERCISES
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4.0 SIMPLE INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS
Background Concept
As discussed previously, the support reactions and internal forces of Statically Determinate structures can be
determined from the equations of equilibrium. The three equations of equilibrium are:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0; ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0; ∑𝑀 = 0
A Statically Indeterminate structure has more unknown reactions or internal forces than the number of
available equilibrium equations.
The degree of indeterminacy is given for both Beam/Frame, & Trusses as:
• Beam/Frame: 𝐷𝑒 = 𝑅 − 𝑁
• Trusses: 𝐷𝑒 = (𝑅 + 𝑚) − 2𝑗
where:
𝑫𝒆 = Static degree of indeterminacy
𝑹 = Total unknown reactions
𝒎 = Number of members
𝑵 = Static Equation of Equilibrium (N = 3)
• if reaction R < 3; a structure is statically unstable.
• if reaction R = 3 (static equation of equilibrium) i.e. if R=3 i.e. It is possible to solve for 3 independent
reactions components. The structure is said to be statically determinate.
• if reaction R > 3; a structure is statically indeterminate.
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Statical Indeterminacy of Beams
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Statical Indeterminacy of External Forces in plane frames
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Statical Indeterminacy of Internal Forces in plane frames
Statical Indeterminacy of Internal Forces in Trusses
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5.0 HOOP STRESSES IN CYLINDERS AND RINGS
Stress in Thin Cylinders
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Stresses in Thick Cylinders
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6.0 SIMPLE TORSION AND APPLICATION
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