Cybersecurity

It involves safeguarding information systems and data from cyber threats.

Key components include firewalls, encryption, and multi-factor
authentication. Organizations employ advanced techniques like machine
learning for threat detection and automated response systems for rapid
reaction to stay ahead of cyberattacks.
Multi-factor authentication (MFA) is increasingly used to protect systems in
educational institutions and government portals. Firewalls and encryption
protocols are also being implemented in public sector systems to prevent
unauthorized access and ensure that sensitive data, such as healthcare
and education records, remains secure.

Cybersecurity provides a structured approach to identify, access and

manage cybersecurity risks. Key components of cybersecurity:

1. Firewalls
A security system that monitors and controls network traffic based on
predefined security rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal
network and untrusted external networks, such as the internet.
Function:

• act as barrier between trusted and untrusted networks

• controlling incoming and outgoing traffic based on predetermined
security rules.
Types of firewalls:

Network firewalls Application firewalls Next-generation firewalls (NGFW)

protect entire protect specific apps or combine traditional firewalls with
network websites advanced security features like intrusion
detection and application control.
 Why firewalls are important?
Block malicious traffic and unauthorized access, prevent cyberattacks like
malware infections and denial-of0service (DoS) attacks, and help enforce
security policies for organizations and individuals.

2. Encryption

Process of converting readable data into an unreadable format (ciphertext)

to protect it from unauthorized access. Only authorized users with the
correct decryption key can convert it back to its original form.

Function: Protects data by converting it into an unreadable coded format

w/o the appropriate decryption key.
Types of encryptions:

Symmetric encryption Asymmetric encryption Hashing (ex: SHA-256)

(ex: AES) (ex: RSA)

Why encryptions are important?

▪ Protects sensitive data from hackers and unauthorized attacks
▪ Ensures confidentiality and data integrity
▪ Used in online banking, messaging apps, VPNs and secure
communications
 3. Multi-factor authentication (MFA)

A security system that requires users to verify their identity using two or
more authentication factors before granting access. This adds an extra
layer of protection beyond just a password.

Types of authentication factors:

Something u know Something u have Something u are

▪ Passwords ▪ One-time password (OTP) Biometrics like retina
▪ PINs sent via SMS / email scans, facial recognition
▪ Security ▪ Security tokens and fingerptints
questions ▪ Smart cards

Why MFA is important?

▪ Reduces the risk of unauthorized access even if passwords are
stolen.
▪ Protects online accounts, banking services, and sensitive systems
▪ Helps prevent identity theft and phishing attacks.

Monitoring tools

Cybersecurity monitoring tools are essential for detecting, analyzing, and

responding to security threats in real-time. These tools help organizations
identify vulnerabilities, track suspicious activities, and prevent
cyberattacks before they cause harm.
Function: continuously observe network and system activities to detect
and respond to suspicious behaviour.
 Types of monitoring tools

Intrusion detection systems (IDS) Security information and extend

management (SIEM)
detect when someone tries to get in help analyze all the data to spot
without permission potential threat

▪ Provides real-time alerts & ▪ Prevent unauthorized access to

automated response networks
▪ Detect unusual behaviour ▪ Identifies attacks like malware
▪ Aggregates logs from multiple infections and brute force
sources attempts

Threat detection and response

Cyber threats are always changing, so it’s important to detect and stop
them as quickly as possible. If an attack is spotted right away, action can
be taken before it causes serious damage. Real-time threat detection
means noticing a cyberattack as soon as it happens and responding
immediately to prevent harm.

Threat Detection Threat Response

The system identifies a cyber threat The system takes action to stop or
(unusual login attempts, malware, reduce the damage. Ex: Automated
or unauthorized access) Response Mechanisms

Automated response mechanisms

pre-programmed security actions that take place without human
intervention when a threat is detected.
Function: automatically take predefined actions when a threat is detected
such as isolating affected systems or blocking malicious IP addresses
 Examples of Automated Responses:
• Blocking an IP Address – If an attacker is trying to hack into a
system, the security tool can automatically block their IP to prevent
access.
• Shutting Down an Infected Device – If malware is found on a
computer, the system can immediately disconnect it from the
network to stop the spread.
• Resetting a Compromised Password – If a suspicious login attempt
is detected, the system can force a password reset to protect the
account.
Advantages

Reduces response Minimizes human Stop threats before they

time. No need to wait interventions spread. Prevents small
for humans to act, security issues from
reducing damage. becoming big attacks

Vulnerability management

the process of finding, fixing, and monitoring weaknesses in computer

systems to prevent cyberattacks. It helps organizations stay secure by
constantly checking for security flaws and fixing them before hackers can
exploit them.

1. Identification
Goal: discover security gaps that hackers could be used to attack the
system
✔ How it’s done:

Use tools like vulnerability scanners and penetration testing to discover

weak points in computer systems. Regularly check your systems to find any
flaws that hackers might try to exploit.
Example: A scanner finds that a company’s software is outdated and has a
security flaw that hackers could use to steal data.

2. Mitigation – fixing weaknesses

Goal: eliminate or reduce risks by fixing vulnerabilities

✔ How it’s done:

• Applying Patches: Installing updates that fix known security issues.
• Configuration Management: Adjusting system settings to make them
more secure.
• Adding Extra Security Features: Using firewalls, multi-factor
authentication (MFA), and access controls to strengthen security.
Example: A company updates its outdated software and blocks
unauthorized access to prevent hackers from exploiting the weakness.

3. Continuous monitoring (staying secure 🔄)

Goal: keep the system safe by constantly checking for new threats

✔ How it’s done:

• Regular scanning: Running vulnerability scans frequently to catch

new risks.
• Threat intelligence: Using security data to predict and prevent
attacks.
• Automated alerts: Setting up security systems to notify IT teams
when new threats appear.
 Example: A company’s security system automatically scans for new threats
every day and alerts the IT team when a new vulnerability is found.

Data privacy and compliance

Importance of data privacy: protecting personal and sensitive information

is legally required to maintain customer trust and organizational reputation

Global data protection regulations

Law / regulations Scope Key provisions

General Data Protection Applies to organizations ▪ Data subject rights
Regulation (GDPR) operating within the EU or ▪ Data breach notifications
handling data of EU ▪ Data protection by design
citizens. and default

California Consumer Applies to business ▪ Right to know

Privacy Act (CCPA) collecting personal data of ▪ Delete
California residents ▪ Opt-out of data selling

Other regulations: The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act

(HIPAA) and the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS)

Compliance strategies for protecting personal data

To keep personal data safe and follow laws like the Personal Data
Protection Act (PDPA) in Malaysia, organizations use several strategies:

1. Data Mapping – "Know Where Your Data Is"

Identifies where personal data is stored, processed, and shared in the
organization. Ex: organizing your phone files and knowing which apps have
access to your photos or contacts.
2. Privacy Impact Assessments (PIA) – "Check How Data is Used"

Reviews how data processing affects people's privacy and ensures

compliance with laws. Ex: checking your phone’s privacy settings to see if
apps are tracking your location or accessing your camera.

3. Training and Awareness – "Educate Employees on Data Privacy"

Ensures that employees understand data privacy rules and follow best
practices. Ex: like learning how to use security features on your phone,
employees need training on how to handle sensitive data safely.

4. Regular Audits – "Check if Security Rules are Followed"

Reviews security policies and identifies areas for improvement.
Ex: updating your phone’s software regularly to fix bugs and improve
security.

Zero trust architecture

Means never automatically trusting anyone or anything without verification.
This approach treats every user and device as a potential threat, ensuring
that access is granted only to those who need it. It also involves dividing
networks into smaller sections to limit the impact of possible attacks and
continuously checking who is accessing the system. Implementing a Zero
Trust model enhances security, helps organizations comply with laws like
the PDPA, and streamlines operational processes.

Concept: a security model that operates on the principle of "never trust,

always verify." It assumes that threats can originate outside and inside the
network, thus requiring continuous verification of user and device
identities
 Core principles of zero trust

Least Privilege Access 🎟️ – "Only Give Access When Needed"

Users and devices should only have the minimum access necessary to
perform their tasks.
Why its important:
• Reduces risk: Even if a hacker gains access to an employee’s
account, they can’t access everything.
• Prevents data leaks: If employees don’t need sensitive information,
they shouldn’t have access to it.

Implementation

Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC)

Access is given based on job roles Access is granted based on specific conditions
like location, job title, or time of day.
Ex: marketing employee doesn’t Ex: your school has a computer lab with special
need access to financial records software that only science students need to
just like in a group project, where use. If you're a science student, you get access.
the presenter can edit slides, but But if you're studying history, you can't use that
researchers only share their notes. software because you don’t need it.

Blockchain

a special type of database that securely stores information in a way that

cannot be changed or deleted. It is used to record transactions, track data,
and improve security in many industries, including banking, farming, and
healthcare. Benefits:

No single person or If someone tries to hack or Everyone can verify that

company can control or edit it, the system will the information is correct.
change the data. detect it immediately.
 Example

Banking Farming Voting

When you send money If a farmer sells used to store votes
online, blockchain vegetables, blockchain securely, so elections
records the transaction tracks where the food cannot be cheated.
safely so that no one can comes from, so buyers
change or fake it. know it is fresh and real.

Key features of blockchain

Decentralized – No single company or person controls it.

Secure – Information cannot be changed or erased.
Transparent – Everyone can see the records and check if they are
correct.
1. Discuss the importance of employee training in mitigating cybersecurity
risks
Employee training is a critical factor in reducing cybersecurity risks within
an organization. Cyber threats such as phishing, malware, and social
engineering attacks often exploit human errors rather than technical
weaknesses. Therefore, educating employees on cybersecurity best
practices helps strengthen an organization's overall security posture.
Firstly, awareness training ensures that employees recognize potential
threats like phishing emails, suspicious links, and social engineering
tactics. This reduces the likelihood of them falling victim to cyberattacks.
Secondly, password security training teaches employees how to create
strong passwords and use multi-factor authentication, preventing
unauthorized access to sensitive data.
Furthermore, training on data handling and compliance helps employees
understand how to protect confidential information and follow industry
regulations. This minimizes the risk of data breaches and legal
consequences. Additionally, incident response training prepares
employees to react appropriately if a cyberattack occurs, ensuring a faster
and more effective containment of threats.
Regular cybersecurity training sessions also help organizations stay ahead
of emerging threats by keeping employees updated on new attack
methods. Without proper training, even the most advanced security
systems can be compromised due to human mistakes.
In conclusion, employee training plays a vital role in mitigating
cybersecurity risks by improving awareness, strengthening security
practices, and ensuring quick responses to threats. Organizations that
prioritize cybersecurity education create a more resilient defense against
cyberattacks.
2. Discuss the role of firewalls in preventing unauthorized access to MIS
A firewall is a critical security component that protects Management
Information Systems (MIS) from unauthorized access by monitoring and
controlling incoming and outgoing network traffic. It acts as a barrier
between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks, such
as the internet.

Firewalls analyze data packets based on predefined security rules. They

allow legitimate traffic while blocking potentially harmful or unauthorized
connections. This helps prevent cyber threats such as hacking attempts,
malware infiltration, and data breaches.

By enforcing access control policies, firewalls ensure that only authorized

users and devices can interact with the MIS. They block unauthorized IP
addresses and restrict access to sensitive data, reducing the risk of
external attacks.

Firewalls protect MIS from cyber threats like Denial-of-Service (DoS)

attacks, which can overload and crash the system. They also detect
suspicious activities, such as multiple failed login attempts, and take
preventive actions.

Firewalls keep logs of network activity, allowing administrators to track

security incidents and analyze attack patterns. This helps in identifying
potential threats and strengthening security measures.

Organizations can configure firewalls to block access to malicious

websites, restrict the use of certain applications, and enforce cybersecurity
policies. This reduces the risk of insider threats and unintentional security
breaches.
3. How can businesses balance usability and security in MIS
implementations?

Implement user-friendly authentication methods. Strong authentication is

necessary, but businesses should opt for multi-factor authentication (MFA)
methods that are easy to use, such as biometrics or authentication apps,
rather than complex, frequently changing passwords.

Instead of restricting access unnecessarily, businesses can implement

RBAC, where employees only access the data and features they need for
their roles. This enhances security while ensuring usability.

Employees should receive cybersecurity training that is simple and

practical. Interactive simulations and concise guidelines help them
understand security risks without overwhelming them with complex
policies.

To reduce the burden on users, businesses can use automatic security

updates, encryption, and intrusion detection systems. This ensures
security without requiring frequent manual intervention from employees.

SSO allows users to log in once and access multiple applications securely,
reducing password fatigue while maintaining strong authentication.

Businesses should conduct regular security assessments to identify

vulnerabilities while also gathering user feedback to improve the system’s
ease of use.
4. How do distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks affect e-commerce
systems?
DDoS attack is a cyberattack where multiple devices flood a website or
online service with excessive traffic, overwhelming its servers and making it
unavailable to users. E-commerce systems are prime targets for DDoS
attacks bcs they rely on continuous online availability to serve customers.

DDoS attacks can affect e-commerce because it can crash e-commerce

websites, preventing customers from browsing products, making
purchases, or accessing their accounts. Every minute of downtime leads to
significant financial losses due to missed transactions, refund claims, and
potential compensation costs.

Customers expect fast and reliable service from e-commerce platforms. A

prolonged DDoS attack can cause frustration, leading to negative reviews,
loss of customer trust, and a shift to competitors. Businesses may struggle
to regain their reputation even after the issue is resolved

If a website is repeatedly inaccessible due to DDoS attacks, search engines

may lower its ranking, reducing visibility and organic traffic. This can have
long-term negative effects on the business’s online presence.

While a DDoS attack itself does not steal data, it can serve as a distraction
while hackers attempt to exploit vulnerabilities in the system. Attackers
may try to gain unauthorized access to sensitive customer information,
such as payment details.

DDoS attacks severely impact e-commerce systems by causing downtime,

financial losses, reputational damage, increased costs, security risks, and
SEO penalties.
 5.How do encryption protocols differ between symmetric and asymmetric
encryption?
Encryption is a crucial technique for securing data, and it is broadly
classified into symmetric encryption and asymmetric encryption based on
how encryption keys are used.

Aspect Symmetric Asymmetric

Number of keys Uses a single key for both Uses two keys, a public key for
encryption and decryption. encryption and a private key for
This means the same key decryption. The private key is kept
must be shared between secret, while the public key is
the sender and receiver. shared openly.

Speed and Faster because it uses Slower due to complex

performance simpler mathematical mathematical computations,
operations, making it ideal making it better suited for
for encrypting large encrypting small amounts of data,
amounts of data. such as securing login credentials
or digital signatures.

Security & key Less secure because the More secure as the private key is
distribution same key must be shared, never shared, reducing the risk of
creating a risk of unauthorized access. However, it
interception. is computationally more
demanding.
Example ▪ AES (Advanced ▪ Diffie-Hellman
Encryption Standard) ▪ RSA
▪ DES (Data Encryption
Shared)

Symmetric encryption is faster but less secure due to key-sharing risks,

while asymmetric encryption is slower but provides better security by using
a public-private key pair.
6.How does endpoint security contribute to overall information system
protection?
Endpoint security refers to protecting individual devices such as
computers, smartphones, and servers from cyber threats. Since these
endpoints are entry points for attackers, securing them strengthens the
entire information system.

1. Endpoint security solutions include antivirus software, firewalls, and

real-time threat detection that prevent malware, ransomware, and other
malicious software from infecting devices. This stops attacks before they
can spread through the entire network, ensuring business continuity.

2. With the rise of remote work, employees often access company systems
from personal devices and unsecured networks. Endpoint security
enforces virtual private networks (VPNs), mobile device management
(MDM), and encryption to protect data even when accessed from outside
the office.

3. Endpoints are common targets for unauthorized access attempts.

Security measures like multi-factor authentication (MFA), biometric
authentication, and endpoint detection and response (EDR) help prevent
hackers from gaining control of devices and compromising sensitive data.

4. Employees may accidentally download malicious files or use weak

passwords. Endpoint security includes user behavior monitoring, access
control policies, and automated security alerts to detect and prevent
accidental or intentional security breaches.
5. Many industries, such as healthcare and finance, must comply with
regulations like GDPR, HIPAA, and ISO 27001. Endpoint security enforces
data encryption, device monitoring, and regular security updates to ensure
compliance and avoid legal penalties.

Endpoint security plays a critical role in overall information system

protection by preventing malware attacks, securing remote work, blocking
unauthorized access, reducing insider threats, and ensuring compliance. A
strong endpoint security strategy helps organizations maintain data
integrity, confidentiality, and availability in an evolving cyber threat
landscape.
7.How does real-time threat monitoring improve system resilience?
Real-time threat monitoring enhances system resilience by continuously
detecting, analyzing, and responding to cyber threats before they cause
major damage. It helps organizations proactively defend against attacks,
ensuring operational stability and data security.

Real-time monitoring helps identify suspicious activities, such as

unauthorized access attempts, malware infections, and unusual network
traffic. By detecting threats early, organizations can prevent potential
breaches before they escalate into serious incidents.

Automated security systems analyze threats in real-time and trigger instant

alerts to security teams. This rapid response minimizes downtime, reduces
data loss, and prevents attackers from gaining deeper access to the
system.

By identifying and mitigating threats immediately, real-time monitoring

helps maintain system uptime and ensures that businesses continue to
operate smoothly without interruptions caused by cyberattacks or system
failures.

Cyber threats evolve constantly, and real-time monitoring tools use AI,
machine learning, and behavioral analysis to adapt to new attack patterns.
This proactive approach strengthens system resilience by preparing
organizations for emerging cyber risks.

Many industries require strict compliance with cybersecurity regulations.

Real-time monitoring helps organizations track security incidents, generate
audit logs, and ensure compliance, reducing legal and financial risks.
8. What are the advantages of multi-factor authentication in securing MIS?

i. Passwords alone are vulnerable to attacks such as brute force,

phishing, and credential theft. MFA adds an extra layer of security
by requiring additional verification methods, such as a one-time
password (OTP), fingerprint scan, or security token, making it
significantly harder for attackers to gain access.

ii. MFA protect remote and work from home employee from
cyberattacks. Employee can access MIS from personal devices,
public Wi-Fi and different locations. MFA ensures that only real
employee can log in even from unauthorized networks. Since only
employee that will get OTP.

iii. Sometimes security risks come inside the organization itself the
organization itself like unauthorized staff trying to access
restricted data. MFA ensures that only authorized staff can access
on specific company information. This help maintain data integrity

iv. Many industries, such as finance, healthcare, and government,

require organizations to implement strong security measures to
protect sensitive data. MFA helps businesses comply with
regulations like GDPR, HIPAA, and ISO 27001, reducing the risk of
penalties and legal issues.

v. If an attacker steals a user’s password, they still cannot access

the system without the second authentication factor. This greatly
reduces the chances of successful account takeovers, preventing
major security incidents.

MFA is a crucial security measure for MIS, providing stronger access

control, data protection, secure remote access, regulatory compliance,
and reduced risk of credential-based attacks
9. What are the implications of not updating intrusion detection systems
(IDS) regularly?
IDS is designed to monitor network traffic and detect suspicious activities
or security breaches. However, failing to update IDS regularly can lead to
serious security vulnerabilities.

1. Increased Risk of Undetected Cyber Threats

Cybercriminals continuously develop new attack methods, such as zero-
day exploits, advanced malware, and sophisticated phishing attacks. If an
IDS is not updated, it may fail to detect these new threats, leaving the
system vulnerable to cyberattacks.

2. False Positives and False Negatives

An outdated IDS may generate too many false positives (incorrect alerts) or
false negatives (missed attacks). This can overwhelm security teams with
unnecessary alerts or, worse, allow real threats to go undetected, leading
to data breaches.

3. Compliance and Legal Issues

Many industries require businesses to maintain up-to-date security
systems to comply with regulations such as GDPR, HIPAA, and ISO 27001.
An outdated IDS could result in non-compliance, leading to legal penalties,
fines, and reputational damage.

4. Higher Chances of System Downtime and Financial Losses

If an IDS fails to detect an intrusion, cybercriminals can launch attacks
such as ransomware, DDoS attacks, or data theft, which can cause
significant financial losses and business disruptions. Updating IDS helps
prevent such incidents by ensuring that threats are detected and mitigated
early.
5. Weak Incident Response and Recovery
An outdated IDS may lack the latest threat intelligence and fail to provide
accurate alerts to security teams. This delays incident response efforts,
making it harder to contain and recover from cyberattacks, potentially
leading to severe data loss and long-term security issues.

Conclusion, regularly updating an Intrusion Detection System is essential

for identifying new threats, reducing false alerts, ensuring compliance,
preventing financial losses, and improving incident response. A well-
maintained IDS strengthens an organization’s cyber defense and overall
security posture.
10. What is the role of machine learning in proactive cybersecurity
defense?
Machine learning (ML) plays a crucial role in proactive cybersecurity
defense by enabling systems to detect, analyze, and respond to threats in
real-time before they cause harm.

ML algorithms analyze vast amounts of network traffic and system activity

to identify suspicious patterns. By detecting anomalous behavior, such as
unusual login attempts or data access patterns, ML helps prevent
cyberattacks before they escalate.

ML models can analyze historical attack data to predict potential threats.

By recognizing early indicators of cyberattacks, security teams can
implement preventative measures, reducing the risk of security breaches.

ML enhances Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) systems

by automating threat detection and response. It enables security tools to
take immediate action, such as blocking malicious IP addresses or
isolating compromised devices, minimizing potential damage.

ML-powered security tools analyze email content, URLs, and file

attachments to detect phishing attempts and malware. By identifying
subtle patterns that indicate malicious intent, ML helps prevent users from
falling victim to cyber scams.

Traditional security systems often generate a high number of false alerts,

overwhelming security teams. ML filters and prioritizes alerts based on
threat severity, ensuring that cybersecurity professionals focus on real
threats rather than unnecessary notifications.
11. How do intrusion prevention systems (IPS) and intrusion detection
systems (IDS) protect government offices in Sabah?
Government offices in Sabah handle sensitive data, critical infrastructure,
and public services, making them prime targets for cyber threats. Intrusion
Detection Systems (IDS) and Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS) play a vital
role in securing their networks and data.

▪ An IDS continuously monitors network traffic and system activities to

detect unauthorized access, malware infections, and suspicious
behavior. In government offices, this ensures that data leaks or
hacking attempts are identified early before they cause damage.

▪ Unlike IDS, an IPS actively blocks threats before they infiltrate the
system. For example, if an attacker tries to exploit a security
vulnerability in a Sabah government website, IPS immediately
identifies and blocks the malicious request, preventing a potential
breach.

▪ Government offices are often targeted by sophisticated

cybercriminals or foreign state-sponsored hackers. IDS detects
unusual patterns in network activity, while IPS blocks repeated
unauthorized access attempts, protecting classified government
information.

▪ Many government services, such as Sabah’s e-government

platforms, online tax systems, and public databases, rely on secure
digital operations. IDS and IPS help prevent disruptions caused by
DDoS attacks, ransomware, and website defacements, ensuring
uninterrupted public access to essential services.

▪ The Malaysian government enforces cybersecurity frameworks to

protect national infrastructure. IDS and IPS help Sabah government
offices comply with national security guidelines by logging security
incidents, enforcing policies, and reducing cyber risks.
12. Why is encryption vital for Labuan’s offshore financial institutions?
Labuan, as an offshore financial center, hosts numerous banks, investment
firms, and trust companies that manage high-value transactions and
sensitive financial data. Encryption plays a critical role in ensuring the
security, confidentiality, and integrity of financial information.

Offshore banks handle confidential client information, transaction records,

and corporate financial data. Encryption ensures that even if data is
intercepted, it remains unreadable to unauthorized parties, preventing
fraud and identity theft.

Cybercriminals target offshore institutions for money laundering, hacking,

and data breaches. Encryption safeguards digital transactions and
communications, making it difficult for hackers to steal or manipulate
financial records.

Offshore banks in Labuan process large international transactions, making

them vulnerable to interception. Encryption secures SWIFT transactions,
online banking, and digital payments, ensuring that funds are transferred
safely between financial entities.

High-net-worth individuals and corporations choose offshore banking for

privacy and security. Strong encryption measures assure clients that their
financial assets and personal information remain protected from cyber
threats and unauthorized access.

Hackers sometimes try to alter banking data to steal money or create fake
transactions. Encryption helps prevent fraud by ensuring that all data is
tamper-proof, meaning no one can change financial records without
detection.
13. How is blockchain technology used in Sabah’s agriculture and finance
sectors?
Blockchain technology is helping Sabah’s farming and banking industries
by making processes more secure, transparent, and efficient. This
technology stores information in a safe and unchangeable system, making
it difficult for anyone to cheat, alter records, or commit fraud.
Farmers and food businesses in Sabah use blockchain to keep track of
where their products come from and how they are transported. This
ensures that buyers and consumers can trust that the food is fresh,
organic, or grown using safe methods.
Blockchain creates permanent and secure records of contracts, sales, and
payments. This stop cheating and unfair deals because the details cannot
be changed or erased once recorded. Smart contracts (automatic digital
agreements) also ensure that farmers get paid on time when they deliver
their crops.
Many rural farmers in Sabah do not have access to banks, making it hard to
save money or get loans. Blockchain-based digital banking systems let
farmers store money safely and borrow funds without needing a traditional
bank, helping them expand their farms.
In Sabah’s banking sector, blockchain protects online payments and
reduces the risk of fraud. It helps banks process faster, safer, and cheaper
transactions, especially for businesses and individuals who need to send
money internationally.
Blockchain helps keep accurate records of food production, which is useful
for finding the source of contamination if there is a problem. This means
fewer health risks for consumers and higher-quality food for both local and
international markets.
Blockchain allows farmers to prove that they are using environmentally
friendly methods. Farmers who use sustainable techniques can earn
rewards, such as carbon credits, which they can sell to companies that
need them, promoting green farming.
 14. Discuss the implications of cybersecurity threats for MIS in urban and
rural contexts.
MIS helps businesses, governments, and organizations store, process, and
manage data. However, cybersecurity threats pose serious risks to MIS in
both urban and rural areas.
Urban areas Rural areas
Have more businesses, banks, and Rural MIS often uses older computers,
government offices, making them major outdated software, and slow internet
targets for hackers, ransomware, and connections. These outdated systems are
phishing attacks. A cyberattack on an more vulnerable to hacking and data
urban MIS can disrupt financial breaches compared to urban systems.
transactions, leak sensitive data, or shut
down critical services like hospitals and
transportation.

Urban businesses and government Many rural businesses, schools, and

agencies handle large volumes of digital hospitals lack proper training in
transactions. A cyberattack can lead to cybersecurity. Employees may fall victim
huge financial losses, legal penalties, and to phishing scams or malware attacks,
damage to reputation. leading to data loss or financial fraud.

Urban MIS systems rely on cloud Rural areas depend on MIS for healthcare,
computing, IoT devices, and artificial agriculture, and education.
intelligence. A single security vulnerability A cybersecurity breach could shut down
can create multiple weak points, making telemedicine services, disrupt supply
cyber defense more challenging. chains, or compromise student records.