CHAPTER 18

HUMAN REPRODUCTION To ensure successful development, organisms must

ensure that no more than one sperm fertilizes the egg.

Ernest Everett
18.2 DEVELOPMENT & ORGANOGENESIS
- Demonstrated several mechanisms at work
at different rates.
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to: o The fast reaction included what Just
• Explain how the embryo forms from the zygote called “wave of negativity.”
• Discuss the role of cleavage and gastrulation in ▪ “wave of negativity” – the
animal development membrane potential of the
• Describe organogenesis egg cell altered quickly.

The development of multi-cellular organisms begins from

Early Embryonic Development
this single-celled zygote, which undergoes rapid cell
division, called cleavage, to form a hollow ball of cells
Fertilization – is the process in which gametes (an egg
called a blastula.
and sperm) fuse to form a zygote.

- Only one sperm must fuse the egg to ensure

that the offspring has only one complete
diploid set of chromosomes.

Zona pellucida – in mammals, it is a layer that

protects the egg.

Acrosome – a structure like lysosome at the tip of the

head of the sperm cell, which contains enzymes.

Acrosomal reaction
- this is a series of events that takes place
when the sperm binds to the zona pellucida.
- These reactions, involving enzymes from the
acrosome, allow the sperm plasma
membrane to fuse with the egg plasma
membrane and permit the sperm nucleus to
transfer into the ovum.
- The nuclear membranes of the egg and
sperm break down and the two haploid nuclei In mammal development, the blastula forms the
fuse to form a diploid nucleus or genome. blastocyst. It has two layers:

- The inner cell – forms the embryo

- Trophoblast – the outer layer which
secretes enzymes and helps implant
the blastocyst in the uterus. This
layer also forms the placenta and
nourish the embryo.

Then after which, the gastrulation takes place.

- The blastula folds in on itself and

cells migrate to form the three layers
of cells in a structure, the gastrula,
with a hollow space that will become
a digestive tract.
- Each layers of cells is called a germ
layer and will differentiate into
different organ systems.
 HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY

- Male Reproductive Anatomy

Sperm – immobile at body temperature; the testes

are external to the body so that a correct temperature
is maintained for motility.

Testes

- in land mammals, the pair of testes must be

suspended outside the body, so the
environment of the sperm is about 2 °C lower
The three Germ layers: than the body temperature to produce viable
sperm.
1. Ectoderm – nervous system & epidermis - A pair of gonads that produce sperm &
2. Mesoderm – muscle cells & connective tissue reproductive hormones.
3. Endoderm – gut & many internal organs - Each testis is approx. 2.5 by 3.8 cm (1.5 by 1
inch) in size
- Divided into wedge-shaped lobes by septa
ORGANOGENESIS - Coiled in each wedge are seminiferous
tubules that produces sperm
- The process when the formation of
Scrotum
the germ layers give rise during
- houses the testicles or testes (singular; testis)
further development to the different
organs in the animal body. - provides passage for blood vessels, nerves,
and muscles related to testicular function.
Organs develop from the germ layers through the process
of differentiation. Penis
- drains urine from the urinary bladder
Differentiation - copulating organ during intercourse
- the embryonic stem cells express - contains three tubes of erectile tissue that
specific sets of genes that will become engorged with blood (making the
determine their ultimate cell type. penis erect) in preparation for intercourse
- Regulated by location-specific - the organ is inserted into the vagina
chemical signals from the cell’s culminating with an ejaculation.
embryonic environment that sets in - Orgasm triggers glands connected to the
play a cascade of events that testes to release semen containing sperm
regulate gene expression. into the urethra, expelled through muscular
contractions. Afterwards, the penis returns to
its flaccid state as blood drains from the
erectile tissue.
18.3 HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Semen
Learning Objectives - A mixture of sperm an fluids from accessory
By the end of this section, you will be able to: glands that contribute most of the semen’s
• Describe human testicular and ovarian volume.
reproductive anatomies
- Semen is mainly made up of fluids from
• Describe spermatogenesis and oogenesis and
glands, with only about five percent being
discuss their differences and similarities
sperm.
• Describe the role of hormones in human
reproduction - Sperm are cells with a tail for movement,
• Describe the roles of reproductive hormones energy-producing parts in the neck, and
genetic material in the head.
The adaptation for reproduction in humans are complex - The head has an acrosome (acrosomal
than animals. vesicle) that holds enzymes enabling the
sperm to penetrate the egg. Each ejaculation
has 2-5 milliliters of fluid and 50-120 million
sperm per milliliter.
Sperm develops within coiled seminiferous - Female Reproductive Anatomy
tubules in the testes. These tubules contain walls
where sperm cells grow, with less developed
sperm on the outer edge and fully developed
sperm closer to the center. Sertoli cells support
and nourish the sperm's growth. Additionally,
Leydig interstitial cells, found between the
tubule walls, produce testosterone during
adolescence.

Sperm mature in the epididymis, a structure

near the testes. From there, they travel through
the vas deferens, combining with fluids from
glands like the seminal vesicles, prostate, and
bulbourethral gland. These gland secretions
provide nutrients, regulate pH, and contain
elements affecting sperm movement. During a
vasectomy, a part of the vas deferens is
removed, preventing sperm but not gland
secretions from being released during
ejaculation, thus preventing fertilization.

External Structures:
Breasts
- Comprise mammary glands and fat.
- Each gland consists of lobes with
ducts delivering nutrient- and
antibody-rich milk to the nursing child
via the nipple.
Internal Structures:
Ovaries
- Hold in place by ligaments in the
abdominal cavity.
- Follicles contain egg and follicular
cells; release eggs during ovulation.
- Corpus luteum forms after
ovulation, secretes hormones for
uterine lining during pregnancy.
Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes)
- Extend from uterus to ovaries.
 - Fimbrae help eggs enter tubes; - Spermatids mature into sperm cells at the
ciliated epithelium and muscle move tubule's lumen
Result:
eggs toward uterus. - Four sperm cells produced from each
- Fertilization often occurs here; primary spermatocyte after meiosis.
embryo travels to the uterus over
about a week.
Uterus
- Muscular, lined with blood-rich
endometrium.
- Supports embryo/fetus during
gestation.
- Contracts during labor; sheds lining if
no fertilization.
Vagina
- Muscular tube with multiple
functions.
- Allows menstrual flow, receives penis
during intercourse, serves as birth
canal.
Oogenesis – formation of egg cells
Location
- Occurs in the outer layers of ovaries.
- Starts with an oogonium (a germ cell where
oogenesis starts) during embryological
development, forming about 1-2 million
oocytes by birth.
Process:
- Oogonium undergoes mitosis to become a
primary oocyte.
- Primary oocytes pause in prophase 1 before
birth.
- After puberty, meiosis continues monthly,
forming a secondary oocyte and a polar
body (second cell).
- At ovulation, the secondary oocyte is
released into the oviduct.
- If fertilized, meiosis completes, forming a
fertilized egg (zygote) with 46
chromosomes.
GAMETOGENESIS Developmental stage:
- Meiotic division pauses at prophase I at
- The production of sperm and eggs, involves birth.
the process of meiosis. - Hormones prompt follicle development in
Spermatogenesis – formation of sperm cells adolescence, allowing some oocytes to
Location: Occurs in seminiferous tubules. complete meiosis I.
Cell Development: Result:
- Spermatogonia (stem cells) undergo mitosis. - secondary oocyte (carrying most cytoplasm)
and a polar body.
- Primary spermatocytes (from
spermatogonia) go through meiosis I. - Meiosis pauses again at metaphase II until
ovulation.
- Secondary spermatocytes (from meiosis I)
divide to form spermatids.
 o Inhibits GnRH, LH, and FSH
Fertilization: production.
- If fertilized, the secondary oocyte undergoes
- Sertoli cells release inhibin:
meiosis II, forming a second polar body and
a haploid egg.
o High sperm count triggers inhibin
- Fusion with sperm forms a fertilized egg release, slowing spermatogenesis.
(zygote) with 46 chromosomes. o Low sperm count halts inhibin
release, increasing sperm count.
Negative Feedback System
- Rising testosterone levels inhibit GnRH, FSH,
HORMONAL CONTROL OF REPRODUCTION and LH release.
- Inhibin regulates sperm count: high count
Hypothalamus & Anterior pituitary
- Hormone production slows production, low count increases it.
- Monitors and causes the release of
hormones from the anterior pituitary gland.
- Hypothalamus triggers hormone release in
anterior pituitary.

Hormones
- Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
o Signals the anterior pituitary
- Follicle Stimulating Hormones (FSH); and
- Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
o Released by anterior pituitary
o Present in both sexes, control
reproduction

Male hormones
Puberty Onset Female hormones
The control of reproduction in females is more complex.
- Hypothalamus triggers FSH and LH release
- Divided into ovarian and menstrual cycles.
into the male system. - Ovarian cycle - prepares endocrine
- FSH targets testes' Sertoli cells, initiating tissues and releases eggs.
spermatogenesis. - Menstrual cycle - Prepares and
- LH stimulates Leydig cells, releasing maintains the uterine lining.
testosterone into testes and bloodstream. Hormonal Regulation
- Estrogen and progesterone released from
Testosterone
developing follicles.
- Stimulates spermatogenesis. Estrogen
- During adolescence: - Responsible for female secondary sexual
o Deepens voice. characteristics; includes
o Promotes growth of facial, axillary, - breast development,
and pubic hair. - hip flaring, and
- bone growth regulation.
o Increases muscle mass.
o Initiates sex drive.
Ovarian Cycle and Menstrual Cycle
Hormonal Control Follicular Phase
- Hypothalamus releases GnRH, prompting - FSH causes follicle growth and estrogen
anterior pituitary to release LH and FSH. release.
- FSH aids Sertoli cells in spermatogenesis - Initiates endometrium regrowth post-
and inhibin secretion. menstruation.
Ovulation (Around Day 14):
- LH triggers Leydig cells to produce
- High estrogen prompts LH surge, leading to egg
testosterone. release.
Testosterone Luteal and Secretory Phases (Day 15-28):
- Stimulates spermatogenesis via Sertoli cells. - Corpus luteum produces estrogen and
progesterone.
 - Prepares uterus for potential fertilization. - Organs begin development; vulnerability to
toxins is high.
Cycle Continuation or Menstruation Fetal Development
- If no fertilization occurs - First trimester - Basic organ formation by eight
- Corpus luteum degenerates. weeks.
- Estrogen and progesterone levels - Second trimester - Fetus grows to about 30
drop. cm, becomes active.
- Endometrium degenerates, initiating - Third trimester - Rapid growth to 3–4 kg and 50
a new cycle. cm long.
- Hypothalamus releases GnRH, Labor and Birth
restarting cycles. - Estrogen triggers oxytocin receptors;
contractions begin.
- Three stages of labor
- cervical dilation,
- birth,
- placenta expulsion
- Synthetic oxytocin (Pitocin) aids stalled labor
if necessary.

GESTATION (Pregnancy)
Pregnancy begins with the fertilization of
an egg and continues through to the birth of the
individual.

Beginning of Pregnancy
- Starts with fertilization, lasts until birth.
- Human gestation: 266 days, akin to other great
apes.
Early Stages
- Within 24 hours of fertilization, the zygote forms.
- Implantation into the uterine wall within seven
days is crucial.
- β-HCG hormone maintains the endometrium for
embryo support.
Trimesters of Gestation
Three trimesters: distinct periods of development.
- Placenta formation in the first trimester takes
over nutrient exchange.