BUILDING A BRIGHTER FUTURE,

ONE MIND AT A TIME

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Reflection and Refraction
Reflection

Reflection occurs when a wave encounters a plane surface and bounces back into the
original medium through which it was travelling.

Laws of Reflection

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.

2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

i=r

Plane (Flat) Mirrors

A plane mirror is a flat piece of glass with a silvered back surface. The silver reflects nearly
all the incident light, and the glass is made thin to prevent unwanted refraction.

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Properties of an Image in a Plane Mirror:

- Virtual – Formed by the apparent divergence of light rays; cannot be projected onto a
screen.

- Upright – Maintains the same orientation as the object.

- Same Size – The image is the same size as the object (ho=hi).

- Laterally Inverted – Left and right appear reversed.

- Equidistant – Image is at the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front
(do=di)

Refraction

Refraction is the bending of waves as they pass through media of different optical densities,
caused by a change in wave speed.

When a wave travels from a less optically dense medium (like air) into a more optically
dense medium (like glass), it slows down and bends towards the normal (a). If the wave
travels from an optically more dense medium to an optically less dense medium, it speeds
up and bends away from the normal (b)

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 (a). (b).

Laws of Refraction

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane.

2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is
constant for two given media.

sin(i) / sin(r) = n (constant)

Where:

i = angle of incidence

r = angle of refraction

n₁ and n₂ = refractive index of the two mediums

This is known as Snell’s Law.

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Refractive Index and Wave Speed

The refractive index can also be expressed as a ratio of wave speeds:

n = v₁ / v₂ where:

v₁ = speed of light in the first medium

v₂ = speed of light in the second medium

Alternatively, relative to a vacuum:

n=c/v where:

c = speed of light in vacuum (≈ 3.0 × 10⁸ m/s)

v = speed of light in the medium

Partial Reflection

At the boundary between two media, some of the light is reflected, and some is refracted:

Total Energy Conservation:

Incident Intensity = Reflected Intensity + Refracted Intensity

Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection

When light travels from a denser to a less dense medium it is refracted and bend away from
the normal at an angle known as angle of refraction:

As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction increases.

At a certain angle, called the critical angle (c), the refracted ray travels along the boundary
(angle of refraction = 90°).

If the angle of incidence exceeds this angle, Total Internal Reflection occurs — all the light is
reflected back into the denser medium.

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The critical angle is the maximum angle of incidence at which light, travelling from a more
optically dense medium to a less optically dense medium, is refracted along the boundary,
forming an angle of refraction of 90°.

Total Internal Reflection (TIR) occurs when a light ray traveling from a more optically
dense medium (e.g., glass or water) to a less optically dense medium (e.g., air) is completely
reflected back into the denser medium instead of being refracted, provided that:

1. The light is incident at the boundary from the denser to the less dense medium.

2. The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.

In this case, no refracted ray is produced — the entire light ray reflects internally, obeying
the laws of reflection.

Critical Angle Formula:

Snell’s Law relates the angles of incidence and refraction between two media:

n₁ × sin(i) = n₂ × sin(r)

When the angle of incidence equals the critical angle (c), the angle of refraction is 90°, so:

n₁ × sin(c) = n₂ × sin(90°)

n₁ × sin(c) = n₂

sin(c) = n₂ / n₁

(applies only when n₁ > n₂ — i.e., when light travels from a denser to a rarer medium)

If light moves from an optically dense medium into air (where n₂ ≈ 1), the formula
simplifies to:

sin(c) = 1 / n where:

c is the critical angle

n = n₁, the refractive index of the denser medium

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Applications of Total Internal Reflection

Optical Fibres

An optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fibre made of glass or plastic that transmits
information as light pulses using the principle of total internal reflection (TIR)

Working Principle

Information is transmitted through transparent optical fibres as light pulses introduced at

angles greater than the critical angle, so they undergo continuous (repeated) total internal
reflection along the fibre, with minimal energy loss, until the pulses are received at the
other end.

Structure:

Core

Made of high refractive index glass, the core carries light pulses by confined Total Internal
Reflection (TIR).

It prevents pulses from escaping by using small angles of incidence, allowing multiple
reflections, which:

 Reduce pulse broadening

 Minimize dispersion

 Maintain signal intensity and clarity

 Maximize data transfer rate

Cladding
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Made of a lower refractive index material than the core.

It enables Total Internal Reflection by forming a refractive boundary, which:

 Prevents light leakage from the core

 Maintains signal integrity

 Reduces modal dispersion (especially in multimode fibres)

 Prevents signal crossover, ensuring secure and accurate transmission

Without cladding, light would escape or scatter, causing signal degradation or interference.

Protective Outer Coating

A tough polymer layer that shields the fibre from mechanical damage such as scratches,
stretching, or breakage.

It preserves the structural integrity of the fibre, prevents signal loss or light leakage, and is
especially important in harsh environments where physical stress is common.

Uses in Medicine (Endoscopy):

To examine the stomach, oesophagus, or colon.

Uses two fibres: one to illuminate the target, and another to transmit the image back.

Non-invasive and avoids unnecessary surgery.

Advantages of Optical Fibres over Copper Cables:

High Data Transmission Capacity: Optical fibres can carry large amounts of information at
very high speeds due to the high frequency of light waves.

Low Signal Loss: Light pulses can travel long distances with minimal attenuation, reducing
the need for signal boosters or repeaters.

Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Unlike metal wires, fibres do not pick up
electromagnetic noise, ensuring clearer and more reliable communication.

Enhanced Security and Privacy:It is extremely difficult to tap into a fibre optic cable
undetected, providing strong protection against eavesdropping or bugging.

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Smaller Size and Weight: Optical fibres are thinner and lighter than copper cables, making
them easier to install, especially in tight spaces.

Cost-Effective Over Long Distances: While initial installation may be expensive, the
operational and maintenance costs are lower in long-distance and high-bandwidth
networks.

No Cross-Talk: Multiple signals can travel in adjacent fibres without interference, enabling
high-density communication systems.

Resistant to Environmental Damage: Optical fibres withstand moisture, chemicals,

temperature changes, and harsh conditions, making them ideal for underground or
underwater use.

Periscopes

A periscope is an optical device that enables an observer to see over, around, or through an
obstacle using the reflection of light.

Working Principle:

Periscopes work by redirecting light using mirrors or more efficiently, right-angled prisms.

Mirrors reflect light at 45° angles.

Prisms use Total Internal Reflection (TIR), which:

Gives brighter, clearer, and undistorted images.

Is more durable and precise than mirrors.

In a simple periscope with prisms:

Light enters the top,

Is reflected twice through 90°,

And exits at eye level,

Resulting in an upright, laterally inverted image.

Applications of Periscopes:

Submarines:To see above the surface of water while remaining submerged.

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Trenches / Battlefields: Allows soldiers to observe the battlefield without exposing
themselves

Prisms

A prism is a transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces (usually triangular in
cross-section), designed to refract light.

It has a uniform cross-section and is commonly made from glass or plastic.

Ray Path Through a Prism

When a monochromatic ray of light enters a prism:

 It slows down and bends towards the normal at the first face (refraction).

 It bends again at the second face, emerging into air away from the normal.

 The net effect is that the ray is deviated towards the base of the prism.

i₁ = angle of incidence at the first face PQ

r₁: angle of refraction at the first face (inside prism).

i₂ = angle of incidence at the second face QR

r₂ (or e) = angle of emergence (refraction as it exits).

A = angle of the prism (refracting angle).

D = sngle of deviation – the angle between the original direction of the incident ray and the
final direction of the emergent ray.

Geometry of prism (Angle of prism):

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A = (r1 + r2)

2. Angle of Deviation:

D = (i1 + i2)– (r1 + r2)

Since from geometry:

D = (i1 + i2) - A

Questions

A prism of refractive 1.53 and refractive angle 60⁰ has an angle of refraction of 28° on the
1stface. Determine

i. angle of incidence 𝑖

ii. Angle of refraction at face 2 (r₂)

iii. Angle of emergence (e)

iv. Angle of deviation (D)

Explain why the emergent ray is deviated towards the base of the prism.

Solution

a. Finding angles

i. Finding angle of incidence i₁ at first face

Using Snell's Law at first face (air to prism): n₁ sin i₁ = n₂ sin r₁

Where: n₁ = 1 (air), n₂ = 1.53, r₁ = 28°

sin i₁ = n₂ sin r₁ = 1.53 × sin 28°

sin i₁ = 1.53 × 0.4695 = 0.7178

i₁ = sin⁻¹(0.7178) ≈ 44.7°

ii. Finding r₂ (angle of refraction at second face)

From prism geometry: A = r₁ + r₂

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 r₂ = 60° - 28° = 32°

iii. Find angle of emergence i₂ at second face

Using Snell's Law from prism to air: n₂ sin r₂ = n₁ sin i₂

1.53 × sin 32° = 1 × sin i₂

sin i₂ = 1.53 × 0.5299 = 0.8105

i₂ = sin⁻¹(0.8105) ≈ 52.64°

iv. Finding angle of deviation D

D = (i₁ + i₂) - A

= (44.7° + 52.64°) - 60°

= 97.34° - 60°

= 37.34°

b. The emergent ray is deviated towards the base of the prism because the light bends
towards the normal when entering the prism (denser medium), and bends away
from the normal when leaving the prism (less dense medium). This causes the
overall path of the ray to shift towards the thicker part (base) of the prism.

Question

A ray of light enters a 60° triangular prism and is just totally internally reflected when it
meets the opposite face of the prism as shown bellow.

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 a. State the law of refraction relating the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction.

b. Given that the refractive index of the prism is 1.5, calculate the angle of incidence of
the ray of light on the first face.

Solution

a. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is
constant for two given media.

sin(i) / sin(r) = n

b. Given

Refractive index of glass: 1.5

Prism angle : 60

The ray just undergoes total internal reflection (TIR) at the second face ⇒ the angle
inside the prism at the second face equals the critical angle

sin(c) =1/n

c = sin-1(1/n)

c = sin-1(1/1.5)

c = 41.8°

r1 + r2 = A = 60

r1 = 60 –41.8= 18.2

Using Snell's law

sin(i) / sin(r) = n
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sin(i) = 1.5sin(18.2)

i = sin-1[1.5sin(18.2)]

i= 27.9°

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