Dr.

/ Abdelhady Ghanem

Electrical Measurements
ELE243
Prepared by Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem
Presented by Dr./ Mohamed Elgohary

Lec. №: (4)
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Chapter (4)

Electrical Measurement and Instrumentation

 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Indicating Instruments
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

➢ An indicating instrument essentially consists of a moving system and a

stationary system.

➢ A pointer is attached to the moving system, which indicates the electrical

quantity to be measured, on a graduated scale.

➢ In order to ensure the proper operation of the indicating instruments, the

following torques are required:
❑ Deflecting or operating torque.
❑ Controlling or restoring torque.
❑ Damping torque.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

❑ Deflecting or operating torque.

➢ It acts on the moving system of the instrument to give the required deflection and
indicates the corresponding electrical quantity to be measured on a graduated scale.

➢ It exists as long as the instrument is connected to the supply.

➢ It is produced by any one of the following effects:

o Magnetic effect.
o Thermal effect.
o Electrostatic effect.
o Induction effect.
o Hall effect.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

❑ Deflecting or operating torque.

o Magnetic effect: When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic
field, it experiences a force, which causes the conductor to move. Example: moving-iron
attraction and repulsion type, permanent-magnet moving-coil instrument.

o Thermal effect: When the current to be measured is allowed to flow through a small
element, heat gets generated, which causes rise in temperature and it is then converted to
an emf. Example: hot-wire instrument, thermocouple instrument.

o Electrostatic effect: When two charged plates are placed together, a force is exerted
between them, which makes any one plate to move.

o Induction effect: When a non-magnetic conducting disc is placed in a magnetic field

produced by an electromagnet, an emf gets induced in it. Eddy current ALIMUNIUM

o Hall effect: If a current-carrying bar of semiconducting material is placed in a uniform

magnetic field, an emf is produced between the two edges of conductor.‫فرق جهد‬
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

❑ Controlling Torque
➢ The controlling torque is produced by a spring or gravity, which opposes the
deflecting torque.

➢ The pointer comes to rest at a particular position corresponding to the electrical

quantity to be measured, when these two torques are equal.

➢ This torque is always present in the instrument whether it is connected to the

supply or not.

➢ The controlling torque increases with the deflection of the moving system.
Deflecting torque

➢ The controlling torque is also essential to bring back the moving system to its
initial or rest or zero position, once the instrument is disconnected from the supply.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

❑ Controlling Torque ➢ Spring Control

➢ Two helical springs of rectangular cross-

sections are connected to the spindle of the
moving system, as shown in the figure.

➢ With the movement of the pointer, the

springs get twisted in the opposite
direction, which affects the moving
system.

➢ In spring-controlled instruments, the

scale is linear if the deflecting torque is
proportional to the quantity being
measured.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

❑ Controlling Torque ➢ Gravity Control

➢ Small weights which can be adjusted are added to the

moving system as shown in the figure.
➢ When the pointer deflects, this weight also takes a deflected
position.
➢ The required controlling torque is produced by the
gravitational force, which is acting on the moving weight.
➢ The instrument using this method of producing controlling
torque has the following disadvantages:
❖ Non-uniform scale=non linear will be present in the
instruments i.e., the scale will be crowded near the minimum
limit and uniform near the maximum limit.
❖ The instrument can be used only in the vertical position.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

❑ Controlling Torque ➢ Gravity Control

In the deflected position, the controlling

torque will be Wl sin θ.
where W is the control weight, l the distance
from the axis of rotation, and θ the deflection

Tc α sin θ. and Td α I,
then at the final deflected position:
Td = Tc at steady state
sin θ α I → I = k sin θ and θ = sin-1(I /k)

Note:
In a spring-controlled instrument, θ α I
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

❑ Damping Torque
➢ The torque that is used to reduce the oscillations of the
pointer and to bring it to the final deflected position.
➢ It acts on the pointer only when the instrument is in
operation.
➢ If sufficient damping torque is not produced, the pointer
makes under-damped oscillations before reaching the
steady deflection.
➢ If the damping torque is more than the required value,
the pointer becomes sluggish and it takes longer than
the required time to reach the final deflection.
➢ Critical damping or dead beat is the condition where the
magnitude of damping torque is sufficient enough to
make the pointer to read the correct reading without
passing or oscillating about it.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

The required damping torque can be produced by the
❑ Damping Torque following methods:
➢ Air-Friction Damping
➢ Figure shows the arrangement where a piston,
attached to the spindle of the moving system,
moves inside the air chamber provided with a
very small clearance between the piston and the
chamber.

➢ When the deflecting torque acts on the moving

system, the suction and compression
actions on the air inside the air chamber
produce the necessary damping torque.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

❑ Damping Torque

➢ Air-Friction Damping
➢ Another arrangement is shown in the
figure. There is a sector-shaped box
containing air.

➢ This box moves a pair of vanes attached

to the spindle of the instrument.

➢ The movement of the vanes in the air

produces the required damping torque.

➢ Both the box and the vanes are made of

aluminum.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

❑ Damping Torque

➢ Fluid Friction Damping

➢ In this method of damping, light disc or vanes are
attached to the spindle of the moving system and
dipped into a pot of damping oil

➢ The motion of the moving system is always opposed by

the friction of the damping oil on the vanes.

➢ The damping force acting on the vanes increases with

the increase in the speed of the moving system.

➢ The damping force always acts in opposite direction to

that of rotation and is zero when the vanes are
stationary
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Principles of Indicating Instruments

❑ Damping Torque

➢ Eddy Current Damping

➢ A thin disc of a conducting but non-

magnetic material (like copper or
aluminum) is mounted on the spindle, which
carries the moving system and the pointer.

➢ During motion, the disc cuts the magnetic

flux produced by the permanent magnet and
eddy currents are produced in the disc.

➢ These currents flow in such a direction that

the motion of the disc is opposed. Thus, the
required damping torque is produced.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

The indicating instruments can be classified as:
● Moving-iron instruments
● Moving-coil instruments
❑ Moving Iron Instruments
➢ These instruments are quite cheap in cost, simple in construction,
and reasonably accurate at fixed power supply frequency.

➢ These instruments can be used both on AC and DC.

➢ They are widely used in laboratories and on switching panels.

➢ These instruments are used either as voltmeter or ammeter only.

 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

o Attraction-type Moving Iron Instruments
❑ Moving Iron Instruments
o Repulsion-type Moving Iron Instruments

o Attraction-type Moving Iron Instruments

❖ Principle:
✓ When a soft iron piece (or vane) is placed in the
magnetic field of a current-carrying coil, it is
attracted towards the center of the coil.

✓ This is because the piece tries to occupy a position of

minimum reluctance.‫اقل معاوقة مغناطيسية‬

✓ Thus, a force of attraction is exerted on the soft iron piece

and deflection in the needle takes place.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Attraction-type Moving Iron Instruments

❖ Construction

It consists of:
• a stationary hollow cylindrical coil.

• An oval-shaped soft iron piece is

mounted eccentrically to the spindle to
which a pointer (needle) is attached.

• The controlling torque is provided by spring control method while damping

torque is provided by air friction, as shown in figures.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Attraction-type Moving Iron Instruments

❖ Working
➢ When the instrument is connected in the
circuit, an operating current (i.e., current to
be measured in ammeter and current
proportional to voltage to be measured in
voltmeter) flows through the stationary coil.
➢ A magnetic field is set up and the soft iron
piece is magnetized that is attracted towards
the center of the coil.

➢ Thus, the pointer attached to the spindle is deflected over the calibrated scale.

❖ If current in the coil is reversed, the direction of magnetic field produced by the coil will reverse. In
turn, this will also reverse the magnetism produced in the soft iron piece. Hence, the direction of
deflecting torque remains unchanged. Thus, these instruments can be used on DC as well as on AC
system.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Attraction-type Moving Iron Instruments

❖ Deflecting torque
The deflecting torque Td depends upon the force
acting on the soft iron piece.
Let:
H = field strength produced by the coil;
m = pole strength of the soft iron piece, and (m ∝ H)
➢ Pulling force acting on the movable iron piece, 𝑭 ∝ 𝒎 × 𝑯 or 𝑭 ∝ 𝑯𝟐
Now, 𝑯 ∝ 𝑰 → 𝑭 ∝ 𝑰𝟐 As deflecting torque, 𝑻𝒅 ∝ 𝑭 → 𝑻𝒅 ∝ 𝑰𝟐
➢ The controlling torque Tc is provided by the spiral spring → 𝑻𝒄 ∝ 𝜽 (where 𝜽 is deflection angle)
In steady position of deflection, 𝑻𝒄 = 𝑻𝒅 ∴ 𝜽 ∝ 𝑰𝟐 (I is the rms value of current in AC)
Since, 𝜽 ∝ 𝑰𝟐 , the scale of such an instrument is non-uniform, being crowded in the beginning. However, by
choosing proper dimensions, shape and position of soft iron piece (vane), it is possible to design and construct
an instrument with a scale that is very nearly uniform over a considerable part of its length.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Repulsion-type Moving Iron Instruments

❖ Principle:

✓ The basic principle of a repulsion-type moving iron instrument is that the

repulsive forces will act between two similarly magnetized iron
pieces when placed near to each other.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Repulsion-type Moving Iron Instruments

❖ Construction

It consists of:
• A fixed cylindrical hollow coil that carries the operating current.

• Inside the coil, there are two soft iron pieces (rods or vanes)
placed parallel to each other and along the axis of the coil.

• One of the rod or vane is fixed and the other is movable

connected to the spindle.

• A pointer is attached to the spindle that gives deflection on the

scale.

• The controlling torque is provided by spring control method,

while damping torque is provided by air friction.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Repulsion-type Moving Iron Instruments

❖ Working
➢ When the instrument is connected in the circuit, the
operating current flows through the coil.

➢ A magnetic field is set up along the axis of the coil. This field
magnetizes both the iron pieces, and therefore, both the
pieces attain similar polarities.

➢ A force of repulsion acts between the two; therefore,

movable piece moves away from the fixed piece. Thus, the
pointer attached to the spindle deflects over the calibrated
scale.
❖ If current in the coil is reversed, the direction of magnetic field produced by the coil is reversed.
Although the polarity of the magnetized soft iron pieces is reversed but still they are magnetized similarly
and repel each other. Hence, the direction of deflecting torque remains unchanged. Thus, these
instruments can be used on DC as well as on AC system.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Repulsion-type Moving Iron Instruments

❖ Deflecting torque
The deflecting torque depends upon the repulsive force
acting between the similarly magnetized iron pieces. Let,
H = field strength produced by the coil;
m1 = pole strength of the fixed iron piece; (m1 ∝ H)
m2 = pole strength of the movable iron piece; (m2 ∝ H)

➢ Repulsive force acting on the movable iron piece, 𝑭 ∝ 𝒎𝟏 × 𝒎𝟐 → 𝑭 ∝ 𝑯𝟐

Now, 𝑯 ∝ 𝑰 → 𝑭 ∝ 𝑰𝟐 As deflecting torque, 𝑻𝒅 ∝ 𝑭 → 𝑻𝒅 ∝ 𝑰𝟐
➢ The controlling torque Tc is provided by the spiral spring → 𝑻𝒄 ∝ 𝜽 (where 𝜽 is deflection angle)
In steady position of deflection, 𝑻𝒄 = 𝑻𝒅 ∴ 𝜽 ∝ 𝑰𝟐 (I is the rms value of current in AC)
Since, 𝜽 ∝ 𝑰𝟐 , the scale of such an instrument is non-uniform. However, by using tongue-
shaped iron pieces, scale of such instruments can be made almost uniform.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments
Advantages
1. They are cheap in cost, mechanically robust, and simple in construction.
2. They can be used on both AC and DC.
3. They are reasonably accurate.
4. They possess high operating torque.
5. They can withstand overloads momentarily.
Disadvantages
1. They cannot be calibrated with a high degree of precision with DC on account of
the effect of hysteresis in the iron rods or vanes.
2. They have non-uniform scale crowded at the beginning, and therefore, it is difficult
to get accurate readings at this end.
3. They are not very sensitive.
4. Power consumption is quite high.
5. Errors are introduced due to change in frequency in the case of AC measurements.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Errors ➢ Errors with both DC and AC

1) Error due to hysteresis:

Because of hysteresis in the iron parts of operating system, the readings are higher for descending value
but lower for ascending values. The errors due to hysteresis are considerably reduced by using Mumetal or
Permalloy that have negligible hysteresis loss.

2) Error due to stray magnetic fields:

Since the operating magnetic field of these instruments is comparatively weak, and therefore, stray fields
(fields other than the operating magnetic field) affect these instruments considerably. Thus, the stray
fields cause serious errors. These errors can be minimized by using an iron case or a thin iron
shield over the working parts.

3) Error due to temperature:

In moving iron instruments, the change in temperature affects mainly the temperature coefficient of
spring. With the change in temperature, stiffness of the spring varies that causes errors. However, for
voltmeters both the temperature co-efficient of spring and temperature co-efficient of resistance of
voltmeter circuit may balance each other.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Errors ➢ Errors with AC only

➢ The change in frequency produces change in impedance of the coil

and change in magnitude of eddy currents.

➢ However, this error can be eliminated by connecting a condenser of

suitable value in parallel with the swamp resistance ‘r’ of the instrument.

➢ The impedance of the whole circuit of the instrument becomes independent

of frequency if C = L/r2, where C is the capacitance of the condenser.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Ranges

Ammeters:
From about 0-20 mA to 0-800A, maximum without current transformer.

Voltmeters:
From about 0-1V to 0-800 V, maximum without potential transformer.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Applications of Moving Iron Instruments
▪ These instruments can work on both AC and DC system.
➢ Ammeter
➢ An instrument that is used to measure electric current in an electric
circuit is called an ammeter.

➢ The operating coil of the instrument is to carry the whole of the current
to be measured or fraction of it.

➢ When current flows through the operating coil, the desired deflecting
torque is produced.

➢ Since an ammeter is connected in series, it should have low resistance

to keep the circuit conditions to be the same. Hence, the operating coil of
an ammeter should have a few turns of thick wire.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Types of Indicating Instruments

❑ Moving Iron Instruments o Applications of Moving Iron Instruments

➢ An instrument that is used to measure potential difference (or voltage)

➢ Voltmeter
across the load or between two points in a circuit is called a voltmeter.

➢ A voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the load or portion of the

circuit whose voltage is to be measured.

➢ The deflection of the meter depends upon the current (Iv) flowing through the
operating coil that is proportional to the voltage across the meter (Iv α V).

➢ Since a voltmeter is connected in parallel, it should have high resistance to

keep the circuit conditions to be the same.

➢ Hence, the operating coil of a voltmeter should have a large number of

turns of thin wire. However, it is not sufficient, and therefore, a high
resistance is connected in series with the operating coil.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Solved Examples
Example: If the deflection torque of an instrument is directly proportional to the current to be measured
and the maximum current produces a deflection of 90o, compare the deflection in the spring-controlled
instrument with a similar instrument having gravity control for a current equal to half the maximum
value.
solution
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Solved Examples
Example:
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Solved Examples
Example:
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Solved Examples
Cont’:
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Solved Examples
Example: