Semiconductors

The Semiconductors, such as Germanium, Silicon, Carbon, Selenium, etc. are the materials which are
neither conductors nor insulators. The conductivity of these materials lies in between or middle of the
conductivity of conductors and insulators. Semiconductors have some useful properties and are
extensively used for the preparation of solid-state devices like the diode, transistor, etc.

Although the valence band of these substances is almost filled and the conduction band is almost empty as
in case of insulators, but the forbidden energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is
very small (nearly 1 electron volt) as shown in the figure below:

Its atomic number is 32. It has 32 protons in the nucleus and 32 electrons distributed in the four orbits
around the nucleus. The number of electrons in the first, second, third and fourth orbit is 2, 8, 18 and 4
respectively. It is clear that the germanium has four valence electrons. The various germanium atoms are
held together through covalent bonds as shown in the figure below.

Therefore, an electric field, smaller than insulators and greater than conductors is required to push the
valence electrons to the conduction band. Few of the electrons cross the conduction band even at room
temperature as some of the heat energy are imparted to the valence electrons.

As the temperature increases, more and more number of valence electrons cross over to the conduction
band and the conductivity of the material increases. Thus, these materials have a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
Commonly Used Semiconductor Materials
The forbidden energy gap (i.e. the gap between the valence band and conduction band) in this material is
There are a large number of Tetravalent materials available such as carbon in the diamond stat, silicon, very small. Hence, very small energy is sufficient to lift the electrons from the valence band to the
germanium and grey tin. The minimum energy required for breaking the covalent bond in these materials conduction band.
is 7, 1.12, 0.75 and 0.1 electron volt respectively. Silicon
Carbon in diamond state behaves like as an insulator having forbidden energy gap of 7 eV. Grey tin Silicon is the element available in most of the common rocks. Actually, sand is silicon dioxide. It is
having a forbidden energy gap of 0.1 eV behaves like a conductor. Therefore, Germanium and Silicon treated chemically and reduced to pure silicon, which can be used for the preparation of electronic
have an energy gap of 0.75 and 1.12 eV respectively, are considered most suitable for semiconductor devices.
materials.
The figure below shows the atomic structure of silicon.
The two semiconductor materials are discussed below:

Germanium was discovered in 1886. It is an earth element recovered from the ash of certain coaks or
from the flue dust of zinc smelters. The recovered germanium is in the form of germanium dioxide
powder. It is then converted into pure germanium.

The atomic structure of germanium is shown below:

Its atomic number is 14. Therefore, it has 14 protons in the nucleus and 14 electrons distributed in the N-type Semiconductors
three orbits around the nucleus. The number of electrons in the first, second and third orbit is 2, 8 and 4 In N-type Semiconductors, the semiconductor material is doped with atoms from Group V of the
respectively. The various silicon atoms are held together through covalent bonds as shown in the figure periodic table, such as phosphorus (P) or arsenic (As). These dopant atoms have one extra valence
below. electron compared to the semiconductor material. When they replace some of the semiconductor atoms,
they create extra electrons in the crystal lattice.
●​ Conductivity is mainly because of electrons.
●​ The material is entirely neutral.
●​ The current (I) is due to electron current (Ie), and the concentration of electrons (ne) is much greater
than that of holes (nh).
●​ Majority carriers are electrons, and minority carriers are holes.
P-type Semiconductors
In order to form p type Semiconductor, trivalent impurity is added to it. These elements have three
electrons in there valence shell and need 1 more electron. These are from Group III of the periodic table,
such as Boron (B) or Aluminum (Al). These dopant atoms have one less valence electron compared to the
semiconductor material. When they are added in semiconductor atoms they take one electron and create
holes in the crystal lattice.
●​ Conductivity is mainly because of the holes.
●​ The material is entirely neutral.
●​ The current (I) is due to hole current (Ih), and the concentration of holes (nh) is much greater than that
The forbidden energy gap in this material is quite small. It also needs small energy to lift the electrons of electrons (ne).
from the valence band to the conduction band. ●​ Majority carriers are holes, and minority carriers are electrons.

Therefore, even at room temperature, a minute quantity of valence electrons is lifted to the conduction
band and constitute current conduction if a high electric field is applied. However, at room Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor
temperature, the number of electrons lifted to the conduction band in the case of silicon is quite less Here are the main differences between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor:
than germanium.
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
This is the reason why silicon semiconductor devices are preferred over germanium devices.
Types of Semiconductor intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor An extrinsic semiconductor has added impurities
Semiconductors can be classified into two types on the basis of purity: material like silicon or germanium. (dopants) to change its electrical properties.
●​ Intrinsic Semiconductors
●​ Extrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors In intrinsic semiconductors, thermal energy moves Extrinsic semiconductors can be N-type (more
Intrinsic Semiconductors are the pure semiconducting materials without any added impurity. No doping is electrons to the conduction band, creating electrons) or P-type (more holes), based on the
done in this type of semiconductor materials. Intrinsic Semiconductor include elements from Group 4 of electron-hole pairs. additives used.
the Periodic Table. The mostly used elements for intrinsic semiconductor are Silicon and Germanium as
they are tetravalent and bound to the covalent bond at 0 temperature. But s the temperature increases then
At typical temperatures, intrinsic semiconductors
the atoms get unbounded and becomes mobile charge carriers by leave their places and thus creating a Extrinsic semiconductors have much higher
exhibit low conductivity due to the constrained
hole in that positioning. The conductivity is less and the number of electrons and holes become equal. conductivity than intrinsic ones because doping
count of charge carriers generated by thermal
Total current (I) = Ih + Ie adds more charge carriers.
effects.
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Extrinsic semiconductors are intentionally doped with impurity atoms to alter their electrical properties Intrinsic semiconductors have a relatively large Doping can also marginally alter the energy gap of
and increase their conductivity. Doping involves introducing a small number of foreign atoms into the energy gap between their valence and conduction extrinsic semiconductors, particularly in the
crystal lattice of the intrinsic semiconductor. The most common dopants are from Group III (trivalent) and bands compared to extrinsic semiconductors. presence of specific additives.
Group V (pentavalent) elements.
There are two main types of extrinsic semiconductors, depending on the type of dopant used:
●​ N-type Semiconductors Semiconductor materials are very useful in our everyday live below are some common examples-
●​ P-type Semiconductors
●​ Computers: The chips and microprocessors which are called the core of computer are made of of ●​ Temperature Vulnerability: Semiconductor gadgets can react strongly to changes in temperature,
semiconductors. These are the parts which helps the computers in processing data. Complex leading to shifts in how they work and how dependable they are.
operations are not possible without these chips. ●​ Expensive Production: Making semiconductors involves intricate processes and specialized
●​ Use in electronic devices: Basic electronic devices which we use such as Switches, electric circuits, facilities, resulting in high initial manufacturing expenses.
diodes, transistors are made using semiconductors ●​ Heat Tolerance Limits: Some semiconductors can’t endure high temperatures well. This could lead
●​ Light-emitting diodes (LEDs): LEDs are used in home for lightning these are semiconductor to their performance dropping or even failing.
devices which produce light when current is passed through them. LEDs are used in everyday lighting ●​ Reliance on Purity: The efficiency of semiconductors heavily depends on how pure they are. Even
applications, including energy-efficient bulbs for homes and offices, as well as in traffic signals, minor impurities can drastically change their electrical characteristics.
vehicle headlights, and electronic displays. ●​ Issues with Consistency: Over time, specific semiconductor devices might degrade or wear out,
●​ Wearable Technology: The wearable devices such as smart watches now in latest smart rings have negatively affecting their dependability and lifespan.
been built they are only possible using semiconductor technology. Because in them microprocessor
chips are used which can be made using semiconductors PN Junction Diode
●​ Home Automation: Semiconductors are a crucial part of home automation systems, allowing for
smart home devices like smart thermostats, smart lighting, smart security cameras, and A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type semiconductor creating
voice-activated virtual assistants. a potential barrier voltage across the diode junction
Uses of Semiconductors in Everyday Life
Given below are the day to day uses of Semiconductors
●​ Computers and Laptops: The CPUs and GPUs are made from Semiconductor technology.
●​ Televisions: The Modern day LED and OLED are made from Semiconductor materials.
●​ Communication: Many communication devices such as Routers ,Modems, Satellite and GPS
Systems are made from semiconductor chips.
●​ Lighting: Lighting systems such as LED Light are made from semiconductor materials.
Importance of Semiconductors
Importance of Semiconductors are
●​ Small Size: The Semiconductors are manufactured at microscopic scales which can be used for
creating compact and portable device.
●​ Low Power Consumption: The Semiconductors require less input power compared to other
technologies.
●​ Shockproof: Semiconductor devices are solid-state and have no moving parts which make them
resistant to physical shocks and vibrations.
●​ Long Lifespan: The Semiconductors have large lifespan as compared to other technologies. The PN junction diode consists of a p-region and n-region separated by a depletion region where charge is
●​ Noise-Free Operation: The Semiconductor devices works with less electrical noise which improves stored. The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any external voltage being applied
its performance. to the actual PN junction resulting in the junction being in a state of equilibrium.
However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-type
Advantages of Semiconductor materials and then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source now exists to overcome
Here are some advantages of a semiconductor: the potential barrier.
●​ Miniaturization: Semiconductors are used in extremely small devices such as microprocessors and The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to cross the
chips. They allows miniaturization in so that the devices which took a lot of space, with help of depletion region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN junction with regards to the potential
semiconductors can be made in small sizes. barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better known as the PN
●​ Energy Efficiency: As compared to other materials semiconductor is an energy efficient device. They Junction Diode.
consume lower energy compared to other materials while the electronic operations are performed.
●​ Light Emission: Certain semiconductor have the property to emit light when the electric current is A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the electrical
passed through them. This made the LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) possible and also the laser diodes. characteristic of passing current through itself in one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode
●​ High Switching Speed: The switching speed in semiconductors in comparatively very high which does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage. Instead it has an exponential current-voltage
allows fast switching in devices. This is important property because it saves time and lowers the ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we can not described its operation by simply using an equation such as
complexity and also allows them to perform fast digital operations. Ohm’s law.
●​ Formation of IC: Integrated circuits (ICs) can incorporate millions of semiconductor devices on a If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it can
single chip, leading to complex functionalities in a compact form. supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the width of the
Disadvantages of Semiconductor depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
Some of the disadvantages of a Semiconductor are:
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from the when the diode is placed in this fashion. When the voltage is 0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V for
junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of increasing or germanium diodes, the potential barriers fall, and current flows.
decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking the flow of current through The current grows slowly while the diode is under forwarding bias, and the curve formed is non-linear as
the diodes pn-junction. the voltage supplied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. Once the diode has crossed the potential
barrier, it functions normally, and the curve rises quickly as the external voltage rises, yielding a linear
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and narrows with
curve.
an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the differences in the electrical
Reverse Bias
properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking place. One of the
When the PN junction diode is under negative bias, the p-type is linked to the negative terminal of the
results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage) characteristics.
external voltage, while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal. As a result, the potential barrier
Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias voltage is altered as
becomes higher. Because minority carriers are present at the junction, a reverse saturation current occurs
shown below.
at first.
When the applied voltage is raised, the kinetic energy of the minority charges increases, affecting the
majority charges. This is the point at which the diode fails. The diode may be destroyed as a result of this.
Applications of PN Junction Diode
There are various applications of PN Junction Diode in the field of electronics, some of those applications
are listed as follows:
●​ A most common use case of a PN junction diode is as a rectifier which means converting AC current
into DC current.
●​ Zener diode (which is a special type of PN junction diode) is used in circuits for voltage regulation.
●​ As Diode only conducts current in Forward bias, so in electrical circuits, it is used as a switch to turn
on and off certain small circuits in a much more complex circuit.
●​ A reverse-biased p-n junction diode is utilized as a photodiode as it is sensitive to light.
●​ LED is also a special type of PN junction diode on a forward basis which emits light.
Zener Diode
A heavily doped p-n junction diode that works in reverse bias conditions is called a Zener Diode. They
are special semiconductor devices that allow the current to flow in both forward and backward directions.
For the Zener diode, the voltage drop across the diode is always constant irrespective of the applied
voltage. Thus, Zener diodes are used as a voltage regulator.
What is Zener Diode?
A Zener diode can be considered as a highly doped p-n junction diode which is made such that it works in
reverse bias condition.
A Zener diode which is also called a Breakdown diode works in reverse bias conditions. An electrical
breakdown occurring in the reverse-biased condition of the PN junction diode is called the Zener effect.
In this condition when the electric field increases to a high value it enables the tunnelling of electrons
from the valence band to the conduction band of a semiconductor, which suddenly increases the reverse
current.

A curve between the voltage and current across the circuit defines the V-I properties of p-n junction Zener Diode Explanation
diodes. The x-axis represents voltage, while the y-axis represents current. The V-I characteristics curve of Zener diode that is also known as a breakdown diode is a heavily doped semiconductor device that has
the p-n junction diode is shown in the graph above. With the help of the curve, we can see that the diode been specially designed to operate in the reverse direction. When the potential reaches the Zener voltage
works in three different areas, which are: which is also known as Knee voltage and the voltage across the terminal of the Zener diode is reversed, at
●​ Zero bias that point time, the junction breaks down and the current starts flowing in the reverse direction. This
●​ Forward bias effect is known as the Zener effect.
●​ Reverse bias Zener Diode Circuit Diagram
Zero Bias The figure given below is the circuit diagram of the Zener diode. The Zener diode has applications in
There is no external voltage provided to the p-n junction diode while it is at zero bias, which implies the various electronic devices and it works in reverse biasing conditions. In reverse biasing, the P-type
potential barrier at the junction prevents current passage. material of the diode is connected with the negative terminal of the power supply, and the n-type material
Forward bias is connected with the positive terminal of the power supply. The diode consists of a very thin depletion
When the p-n junction diode is in forwarding bias, the p-type is linked to the positive terminal of the region as it is made up of heavily doped semiconductor material.
external voltage, while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal. The potential barrier is reduced
 electrons from the valance band. These electrons then gain energy from the electric field and break free
from the atom.
Thus, for these diodes in the Zener breakdown region, a slight increase in the voltage causes a sudden
increase in the current.
Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown
There is a clear difference between Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown which can easily be
understood by the table discussed below,
Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown

Avalanche breakdown occurs when the Zener breakdown happens when electrons
high voltage increase the free electron in from the valance band gain energy and
A Zener diode can be packed in many ways. Some Zener diodes are used where high levels of power the semiconductor and a sudden increase in reaches the conduction band which then
dissipation are required. The Zener diode which is the most commonly used is contained within a small current is seen. conducts electricity.
glass encapsulation having a band around one end marking the cathode side of the diode.
There are two tags at the end of the bar in the circuit symbol of the Zener diode, one in the upward
direction and the other in the lower direction, as shown in the figure given below. In this way, we can Avalanche breakdown is seen in the diodes Zener breakdown is seen in the diodes
easily distinguish between the Zener diode and other diodes. having breakdown voltage greater than 8 having breakdown voltage in the range of 5
Zener Diode Working volts. to 8 volts.
High-level impurities are added to a Zener diode to make it more conductive and thus the Zener diodes
can easily conduct electricity compared to other p-n junction diodes. These impurities reduce the Avalanche breakdown is observed in diodes Zener breakdown is observed in diodes that
depletion layer of the Zener diode and make it very thin. Thus, this diode also works even if the voltage that are lightly doped. are highly doped.
applied is very small.
In no biassing condition of the Zener diode, all the electrons accumulate in the valence band of the p-type
semiconductor material and thus no current flow occurs through the diode. In the Avalanche breakdown, the VI
In reverse bias conditions, if the Zener voltage is equal to the supplied voltage, the diode conducts characteristics curve is not as sharp as the
Zener Breakdown has a sharp VI
electricity in the direction of reverse bias. When the Zener voltage equals the supplied voltage the VI characteristics curve in the Zener
characteristics curve.
depletion layer vanishes completely. breakdown.​
Zener Diode Working in Reverse Biased
In forward-biased conditions, the Zener Diode works like any normal diode but in the reverse-bias
condition, a small leak current flows through the diode. As we keep increasing the reverse voltage it
For Avalanche breakdown increase in For Zener breakdown increase in
reaches a point where the reverse voltage equals the breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage is
temperature increases the breakdown temperature decreases the breakdown
represented as Vz and in this condition the current start flowing in the diode. After the breakdown voltage
voltage. voltage.
the current increase drastically until it reaches a stable value.
In reverse bias condition, two kinds of breakdowns occur for Zener Diode which are, VI Characteristics of Zener Diode
●​ Avalanche Breakdown The graph given underneath shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.
●​ Zener Breakdown
Avalanche Breakdown
The phenomenon of Avalanche breakdown occurs both in the ordinary diode and Zener Diode at high
reverse voltage. For a high value of reverse voltage, the free electron in the PN junction diode gains
energy and acquires high velocity and these high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms and knock
electrons from that atoms. This collision continues and new electrons are available for conducting current
thus the current increase rapidly in the diode.
This phenomenon of a sudden increase in the current is called the Avalanche breakdown. This
phenomenon damages the diode permanently whereas the Zener diode is a specific diode that is made to
operate in this reverse voltage area.
If the reverse voltage is greater than 6V the avalanche breakdown happens in the Zener diode.
Zener Breakdown
Zener breakdown happens in heavily doped PN junction diodes. In these diodes, if the reverse bias
voltages reach closer to Zener Voltage, the electric field gets stronger and is sufficient enough to pull Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode
Forward characteristics of the Zener Diode are similar to the forward characteristics of any normal diode. What is Bipolar Junction Transistor?
It is clearly evident from the above diagram in the first quadrant that the VI forward characteristics are The concept of BJT refers to a three-terminal semiconductor device consisting of two p-n-junctions that
similar to other P-N junction diodes. are formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductors between two p-type semiconductors.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode Transistors can be used to transfer input signals through the circuits having lower to higher resistance. A
In reverse voltage conditions a small amount of current flows through the Zener diode. This current is BJT may also be implemented as a true solid-state switch in electrical circuits and can also be used to
because of the electrons which are thermally generated in the Zener diode. As we keep increasing the increase the strength of a weak signal.
reverse voltage at any particular value of reverse voltage the reverse current increases suddenly at the
breakdown point this voltage is called Zener Voltage and is represented as Vz.
Applications of Zener Diode
Zener diode is a very useful diode. Due to its ability to allow current to flow in reverse bias conditions, it
is used widely for various purposes. Some of the common uses of Zener Diode are discussed below,
Zener diode as Voltage Regulator
Zener diode is utilized as a Shunt voltage controller for managing voltage across little loads. The
breakdown voltage of Zener diodes will be steady for a wide scope of current. The Zener diode is Symbol of BJT
associated with corresponding to the heap to make it switch predisposition and when the Zener diode ​
surpasses knee voltage, the voltage across the heap will become consistent. Construction of BJT
Zener Diode in Over-Voltage Protection Combinations of p-n junctions, or build a BJT i.e. a BJT is made of p and n type semiconductors. The
At the point when the info voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across the two junctions divide the three semiconductors of a BJT which are: the base, collector, and the emitter. The
resistor drops bringing about a short-out. This can be kept away from by utilizing the Zener diode. emitter and collector part of transistor are placed on each side of the base.
Zener Diode in Clipping Circuits ●​ Emitter (E) : The outermost layer of a transistor, is commonly known as the emitter, it is heavily
Zener diode is utilized for adjusting AC waveform cutting circuits by restricting the pieces of it is possible doped with N- type or P-type semiconductor material. P-type material is often employed to produce
that one or both the half patterns of an AC waveform. the emitter of a PNP transistor, whereas N-type material is mostly utilized for creating the emitter of
Zener Diode Specifications a NPN transistor.
Zener Diode is one other most commonly used diode and some of the specifications of Zener diode are, ●​ Base (B): The intermediate layer is called the base, it forms a narrow zone between the emitter and
●​ Zener Voltage: The voltage at which Zener breakdown occurs in the Zener diode is called as Zener collector and is slightly doped. Its made up of different material than the emitter. A NPN transistor's
Voltage. It is denoted by Vz generally it ranges from 2.4 volts to 200 volts. base is P-type, while a PNP transistor's base is of N-type.
●​ Current Iz (max): The maximum current that the diode can achieve at the Zener Voltage is called ●​ Collector (C): The inner layer is called as collector, and it has a modest doping level. The type of
max current. It ranges from 200μA to 200 A semiconductor used in the designing is the same as that of the emitter. An NPN transistor's collector
●​ Current Iz (min): The minimum current required for the diode to break down is called min current. is formed from N-type material, whereas a PNP transistor's collector is made of P-type material.
●​ Power Rating: The maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate is the power rating of that diode. There are two junctions formed in BJT . They are -
Power is calculated by taking the product of the breakdown voltage and the value of current at that ●​ Emitter-Base junction: The Emitter-Base junction of a BJT refers to the junction that
time. is formed between the emitter and base. During normal operation , this junction is forward-biased.
●​ Temperature Stability: Temperature stability of the Zener diode is greatest at 5V. ●​ Collector-Base junction : Collector-Base junction is the name given to the junction that is formed
●​ Voltage Tolerance: Voltage Tolerance for any Zener diode is normally ±5% between the collector and base. During normal operation, this junction is reverse-biased.
●​ Zener Resistance (Rz): The resistance exhibited by the Zener diode is called Zener Resistance.

Bipolar Junction Transistor

The term "transistor" originated in 1951 at Bell Laboratories by Dr. Shockley and associates. The
transistor is a widely utilized essential component in modern electronic systems. Transistors generally
come in two types. They are field effect transistor (FET) and BJT which is bipolar junction transistor.
Signal amplification, or amplifier usage, is a common use of a BJT ( bipolar junction transistor), which
is a three-terminal semiconductor device composed of combinations of p-type and n-type semiconductors.
As we know this semiconductor device consists of the p-n junction and it is used or able to amplify the
signal or magnify the signal. Through this the current flows and basically it contains silicon, they are also
called bias resistor built-in transistors and their main objective is that -as the small current flows between
the base and emitter which can control a large flow of current between the regions of collector and emitter Construction of BJT
terminals.
Operation of BJT
BJT operates in three regions:
●​ Active region: The transistor is on in this region. When the collector-base junction is reverse-biased
while the emitter-base junction is in forward-bias, then BJT works in the active area. As a result, BJT
is used as an amplifier. The collector current is proportional to and controlled by the base current and
relatively insensitive to VCE. In this region the transistor can be an amplifier.
(IC = β/B)
●​ Saturation region: The saturation region arises when the collector-base junctions and the
emitter-base junction are both forward-biased. The transistor is on. The collector current varies very
little with a change in the base current in the saturation region. The VCE is small, a few tenths of a
volt. The collector current is strongly dependent on VCE unlike in the active region. It is desirable to
operate transistor switches in or near the saturation region when in their on state.
Ic = I(saturation)
●​ Cut-off region: Because the emitter and collector junctions are both in the reversed bias, so the BJT NPN BJT
is off in this condition and vary small amount of current flows from collector to the emitter. There is
no current between emitter and the collector. PNP Transistor
(IB = 0 therefore IC = 0) The two p-type of semiconductors are sandwiched between the n-type semiconductor in a PNP BJT. The
two p-type semiconductors act as the emitter and collector, respectively, and the n-type acts as the base.
In a PNP transistor, current is due to the movement of holes, as opposed to the mobility of free electrons
in an NPN transistor. The collector base junction of a PNP transistor is reverse biased, whereas the emitter
base junction is biased forward. The holes within the emitter area flow into the base region due to the
forward bias at the emitter-base junction. This constitutes the emitter current .
The holes after reaching the base region, combine with the electrons in the base and constitutes base
current. Most of the holes do not combine with the electrons in the base region as base width is made
extremely small, and holes does not get sufficient electrons for recombination.
Thus most of the holes diffuse to the collector region and constitutes collector region. There is small
component of collector current due to the thermally generated carriers . This is called reverse saturation
current.

Regions of Operation of BJT

Types of BJTs
BJT could possibly be divided into two broad groups based on how the p-type and n-type semiconductor
materials are arranged physically:
●​ PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor
●​ NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor
NPN Transistor
P-type material is sandwiched between the two n-type of semiconductors in NPN type semiconductor.
The two semiconductors of the n type act as the emitter and collector, respectively, while of p-type acts as
the base. The Emitter-base junction is forward bias and collector-base is reverse bias during the forward PNP BJT
active state of NPN transistor. Only if voltage exceeds the barrier potential, which is 0.3 volts for The transistor is fundamentally a current-controlled device, hence the voltage between its terminals has
germanium transistors and 0.7 volts for silicon transistors, is the emitter-base junction forward biased. significant effect on its behavior.
Due to forward bias on the emitter- base junction the free electrons move towards the base region in N ●​ Voltage Control: If we talk of input, the BJT is primarily a voltage-controlled device. The
–type emitter. This constitutes emitter current . Direction of conventional current is opposite to the flow of base-emitter junction voltage determines the current flows between the emitter and the collector.
electrons. Electrons after reaching the base region tend to combine with the holes. If these free electron And the base-emitter junction voltage determines whether the transistor is "on" or "off" and hence
combine with holes in the base, they constitute base current . influences the amount of current that may travel through it.
Most of the free electrons do not combine with the holes in the base as base and the width is made ●​ Charge Control: The current between the collector and emitter is determined by the movement of
extremely small and electrons do not get sufficient holes for recombination. Thus most of the electrons charge carriers, such as electrons or holes, in the base area. Between the collector and emitter, a
will diffuse to the collector region and constitutes collector current . There is another component of considerably bigger current is controlled by a much smaller current at the base. Holes are charge
collector current due to the thermal generated carriers. known as reverse saturation current and is quite carriers in PNP transistors , whereas NPN transistors have electrons. The transistor's ability to work
small.
 as a switch or an amplifier are determined by the number of charge carriers delivered into the base
region.
●​ Current Flow: The current that flows between the collector and emitter of a BJT is its main output.
The voltage across the base-emitter junction controls base current, which influences the collector
current. The transistor's current gain, or β (beta), explains the relationship between IC, IB, and IE,
where ,IC=collector current , IB=base current , and IE= emitter current (IE). The collector current
should, in theory, be equal to β times the base current, or:
IC = β * IB.

Bipolar Transistor Configurations

There are basically three possible ways to connect BJT in an electric circuit are:
●​ Common Collector Configuration
●​ Common Base Configuration
●​ Common Emitter Configuration.
Common Base Configuration Output characteristics
The base of transistor is grounded in common base characteristics , with the emitter acting as the input Common Emitter Configuration
and the collector as the output. The emitter-base junction is biased forward, whereas the junction between Emitter of transistor is grounded in common-emitter characteristics , and the base serves as input and the
the collector and the base is reverse biased. Low voltage gain but high current gain is offered by the CB collector serves as output. The CE configuration is like the CB configuration, it has a forward biased BE
arrangement. It is frequently employed in impedance matching. It reverses the output signal's phase with junction and a reverse biased CB junction. The voltages of CB and CE configurations are related by:
respect to the input and frequently utilized as a buffer between circuits with high and low impedance and VCE = VCB + VBE or, VCB = VCE - VBE
in high-frequency applications like RF amplifiers. and the emitter current in given by :
Characteristics curves IE = IC + IB
There are two important characteristics of a transistor. A CE design offers a modest current gain together with a strong voltage gain. It is frequently employed in
●​ Input characteristics- The curve drawn between emitter current and emitter – base voltage for a
voltage amplification. In a Phase Relationship, it Flips the phase of input signal in relation to the output.
given value of collector – base voltage is known as input characteristics. Input characteristics of CB Typically used in general-purpose amplification, audio amplifiers and RF amplifiers .
ΔVCB at constant: Characteristics curves
●​ Input Characteristics - Input characteristics refer to the curve between base current and base-emitter
Rin = ΔVBE/ΔIE
voltage for a particular collector-emitter voltage value.

Input characteristics

Input Characteristics
●​ Output characteristics - The curve drawn between collector current and collector – base voltage, for
a given value of emitter current is known as output characteristics. Output characteristics of CB ΔIE at
constant: ●​ Output characteristics - The output characteristics for a given base current Ib are shown by the curve
Rout =ΔVCB /ΔIB formed between collector current (Ic ) and collector-emitter voltage (Vce).
 Transistor Operating Conditions
When a small signal is applied between one pair of terminals in a transistor, a signal can be operated to
control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. In this part, the property of the transistor is
gained due to signal strength in the process of switching and the output generated can be either voltage or
current or electronic signal. If the input increases then the output also increases. In other words, it is
simple to say that output is proportional to input. Due to this particular activity transistor can act as an
amplifier.
The main use of a transistor is that it makes the circuit more controllable and the current flow is
determined by other circuit elements. Depending on the biasing conditions like forward or reverse,
Output Characteristics transistors have three major modes of operations cutoff, active, and saturation regions.
●​ Active Mode: In this mode, the transistor is generally used as current amplifier. In active mode, two
junctions are differently biased which means emitter-base junction is forward biased whereas
Common Collector Configuration collector-base junction is reverse biased. In this mode, current flows between emitter and collector
In the common collector characteristics, the collector of the transistor is grounded, then the base turns as and the amount of current flow in proportional to the base current.
input and the emitter turns as output. One voltage gain but a significant current gain is achieved with the ●​ Cutoff Mode: Here both collector base junction and emitter junction are reverse biased. As both
CC setup. It serves mostly as a buffer for current. Phase Relationship: Preserves the identical phase the PN junction are reverse biased, there is almost no current flow except very small leakage of
between the signals received and sent. It include impedance transformation, impedance buffering, and currents. In BJT mode it is switched OFF and is essentially an open circuit. This region is mainly used
voltage following to match impedance between circuits. in switching and digital logic circuits
Characteristics curves ●​ Saturation Mode: In this particular mode of operation, both the emitter-base and collector-base
●​ Input Characteristics - To determine the i/p characteristics Vce is kept at a suitable fixed value. The junctions are forward biased. Here current flows freely from collector to emitter with almost 0
base collector voltage Vbc is increased in equal steps and the corresponding increase in Ib is noted. resistance. In this mode, the transistor is fully switched ON and it is a closed circuit. It is mainly used
in switching and digital logic circuits.

Input Characteristics

●​ Output Characteristics - The Curve drawn between emitter current and collector-emitter voltage for Characteristics of
a given value of current is known as output characteristics. Output characteristics of CC at constant: Transistor
Configuration Common Emitter Common Base Common Collector

Power Gain Very high Low Medium

Voltage gain Medium High Low

Current amplification
β = IC / IB α = IC / IE γ = IE / IB
factor

Output Characteristics
 ●​ Its used in temperature sensors.
Characteristics of ●​ Field-Effect Transistor (FET) is a semiconductor device that consists of a channel made of a
Transistor semiconductor material, with two electrodes connected at either end, namely the drain and the
Configuration Common Emitter Common Base Common Collector source.
●​ What is FET?
Current gain Medium Low High ●​ FET is a type of semiconductor device which is having a semiconductor-based channel connected
to two electrodes. The two electrodes named the drain and the source connected to either end. It
has a third electrode named the gate which controls the current flow between the given two
Phase angle 180 0 0
electrodes named the drain and the source.​
The FET is classified into two types based on its mode of operation, specifically the enhancement
Output impedance High Very high Low mode and depletion mode FETs, depending upon whether the voltage applied at the gate terminal
then increases or decreases the current flow through the channel. The idea of the field effect
transistor depends on the possibility that a charge on a nearby thing can draw in charges inside a
Input Impedance Medium Low High semiconductor channel. It essentially works by using an electric field effect, and this is how its
name started.
Functions of BJT ●​ Working of FET Transistor
The most well- known functions of BJT are : ●​ It has 3 terminals: gate, drain, and source. The working principle is as per the following:​
●​ Amplification: Junction Bipolar Transistors are crucial for boosting electrical signals in devices like
To allow electrons or holes to flow between the source and drain terminals, they are doped with
audio amplifiers because they magnify signals by regulating a greater current flow between the material of the n-type or p-type variety.
collector and emitter based on a lesser input current at the base.
●​ Switching: BJTs function as electronic switches that regulate the current flow between the emitter and
collector. A key element of logic gates and digital circuits, the BJT functions as a switch by applying a
signal to its base, permitting or limiting the flow of current.
●​ Signal Modulation: BJTs are employed in modulation circuits to change the carrier signals'
properties. These transistors are essential components of information-transmission communication
systems because they may change signal characteristics like amplitude, frequency, or phase by altering
the base current.
Advantages of BJT
Few advantages of BJT includes :
●​ Voltage gain is high.
●​ It includes maximum current density.
●​ It provides good performance at high frequency. An electric field is created in the channel area between the source and drain when a voltage is applied to
●​ It has a high gain bandwidth. the gate terminal. This electric field modulates the conductivity of the channel, behaving like a "valve"
●​ High-frequency operation. that controls the current flow between the source and drain. For an n-channel FET, applying a positive
●​ Forward voltage drop is low voltage to the gate attracts free electrons into the channel, increasing its conductivity and allowing more
●​ It operates in low power or high power applications current to flow between the source and drain. For a p-channel FET, a negative voltage on the gate repulses
Disadvantages of BJT holes, expanding conductivity.
Few disadvantages of BJT includes : By changing the gate voltage, the conductivity and current flow through the channel can be finely
●​ Less switching frequency. controlled. This permits FETs to be utilized as electronic switches and in amplifying circuits. The electric
●​ Noise production is more. field effect gives a high input impedance and low noise performance, making FETs valuable in RF
●​ Thermal stability is less. applications and as sensitive analog signal amplifiers.
●​ The time taken for switching is not fast as compared to a high flashing frequency of voltage and Types of FET Transistor
current. A Field Effect Transistor (FET) operation depends on a controlled input voltage. By
Applications of BJT appearance, JFET and bipolar transistors are basically the same. BJT is a current-controlled device, and
Some of the well - known applications of BJT includes- JFET is controlled by the input voltage. Two types of FETs are available.
●​ A BJT is used as an amplifier. ●​ Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
●​ BJT can also function as a switch . ●​ Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
●​ It can be used as an oscillator.
●​ BJT is often used in logic circuits.
●​ It is also used in clipping circuits .
●​ BJT is used as a demodulator and used a detector
 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) Vs = IDRS
Junction Field Effect Transistors, or JFETs, operate based on the movement of electrons or holes, which As we know, gate current is negligible; the gate terminal is at DC ground, VG = 0.
are the majority carriers. These transistors are constructed using a silicon bar that contains PN junctions VGS = VG - Vs = 0 - IDRS
on its sides. To better understand JFETs, here are some essential points to keep in mind. VGS = - IDRS
The gate of a JFET is formed by heavily doping the two sides of the N-type bar using diffusion or VGS keeps the gate negative with respect to the source.
alloying techniques. These doped regions are known as the gate (G). The majority of carriers enter
the semiconductor bar through the source, which serves as the entry point. On the other hand, the drain
Voltage Divider Method: The following figure shows the voltage-divider method for biasing the JFETs.
acts as the exit point, allowing the majority of carriers to leave the semiconductor bar. The channel refers
Here, resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider circuit across drain supply voltage (VDD), and it is more
to the N-type material area that facilitates the flow of majority carriers from the source to the drain. In the
or less identical to the one used in transistor biasing.
realm of semiconductor devices, there are two commonly used types of JFETs: N-channel JFET and
P-channel JFET. Both variants play a crucial role in various electronic applications.
Output Characteristics of JFET:
The output characteristics of JFET are drawn between drain current (ID) and drain source voltage (VDS)
at constant gate source voltage (VGS), as shown in the following figure.
Initially, the drain current (ID) rises rapidly with drain source voltage (VDS), however, at a voltage
known as pinch-off voltage (VP). Above the pinch-off voltage, the channel width turns out to be restricted
to such an extent that it allows a very small drain current to go through it. Subsequently, drain current (ID)
remains constant above the pinch-off voltage.
The main parameters of JFET are:
●​ AC drain resistance (Rd)
●​ Transconductance
●​ Amplification factor
AC drain resistance (Rd): is the ratio of the change in the drain source voltage (ΔVDS) to the change in
drain current (ΔID) at a constant gate source voltage. It can be expressed as,
Rd = (ΔVDS)/(ΔID) at constant VGS The voltage across R2 provides the necessary bias.
Transconductance (gfs): − It is the ratio of the change in drain current (ΔID) to the change in gate source V2 = VG = VDD (R1 + R2 ) / R2
voltage (ΔVGS) at a constant drain source voltage. It can be expressed as, = V2 + VGS + ID + RS
gfs = (ΔID)/(ΔVGS) at constant VDS Or VGS = V2 - IDRS
Amplification Factor (u) − It is the proportion of progress in channel source voltage (ΔVDS) to the The circuit is designed so that VGS is always negative. The following formula can be used to determine
change in gate source voltage (ΔVGS) constant drain current (ΔID). the operating point:
It can be expressed as ID = (V2 - VGS ) / RS,
u = (VDS)/(VGS) at constant ID and
Biasing of JFET VDS = VDD - ID(RD + RS).
There are two methods in use for biasing the JFET:
●​ Self-Bias Method Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFET)
●​ Potential Divider Method or Voltage Divider Method Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors, or MOSFETs, are a new addition to the FET family
Self-Bias Method: The following figure shows the self-bias method for n-channel JFET. The drain with increased significance. It has a lightly doped P-type substrate into which two exceptionally doped
current flows through Rs and produces the required bias voltage. Therefore, Rs acts as the bias resistor. N-type zones are diffused. A one-of-a kind component of this device is its gate construction. The channel
is completely insulated from the gate. At the point when voltage is applied to the gate, it will develop an
electrostatic charge.

Hence, voltage across the bias resistor,

The terminology used for signifying the three essential FET configurations indicates the FET electrode region. The voltage that is applied to the drain is referred to as VDS (sometimes also as VDD), and the
that is common to both input and output circuits. This gives rise to the three terms: a common gate, a voltage that is applied to the gate is referred to as VGS or VGG.
common drain, and a common source. The three different FET circuit configurations are:
●​ Common source: This FET configuration is probably the most commonly used. The common source
circuit has medium input and output impedance levels. Both current and voltage gain can be described
as medium; however, the result is the inverse of the input, for example, a 180° phase change. This
provides good performance, and as such, it is in many cases considered the most widely used
configuration.
●​ Common drain: This FET configuration is also called the source follower. The reason behind this is
that the source voltage follows that of the gate. Offering a high input impedance and a low output
impedance, it is generally used as a buffer.
●​ Common gate: This transistor provides a low input impedance while offering a high output
impedance. Although the voltage is high, the current gain is low, and the overall power gain is also
low when compared with the other FET circuit configurations available.
The common gate FET configuration provides a low input impedance while offering a high output
impedance. As the gate is grounded, this acts as a barrier between input and output, giving a high level of
isolation and preventing feedback, particularly at high frequencies. The voltage gain is high, the current
gain is low, and the general power gain is low when compared with the other FET circuit configurations
available. The other feature of this configuration is that input and output are in phase.
No current is permitted to flow in the gate region of the device. Also, the gate is an area of the device that
is covered with metal. For the most part, silicon dioxide is used as an insulating material between the gate
and the channel. Because of this, it is also called an insulated gate FET. There are two types of MOSFETs
widely used:
●​ Depletion MOSFET
●​ Enhancement MOSFET
Depletion MOSFET
The following figures show the n-channel D-MOSFET and the symbol. The electric field of the capacitor
changes when the gate voltage changes, which changes the n-channel's resistance. In this case, we can
either apply positive voltage or negative voltage to the gate. Depletion mode is the operation of a
MOSFET with a negative gate voltage, while enhancement mode is the operation of a MOSFET with a Ohmic Region
positive gate voltage. This prevents the channel from being pinched off and causes the current ID to rise because the VDS value
Most electrons are available on the gate, as the gate is negative, and it repels the electrons in the n is greater than zero and lower than VP. At the point when we increase the gate source voltage (VGS), the
channel. This activity leaves positive particles in the channel. In other words, a portion of the free channel conductance falls and the resistance is increased. In this way, the depletion regions will spread
electrons in the n channel are depleted. Accordingly, a smaller number of electrons are available for more, creating a narrow channel. The channel resistance changes by and large from 100 ohms to 10K
current conduction through the n channel. The more prominent the negative voltage at the gate, the less ohms and controls the voltage. Thus, transistors act as voltage-controlled resistors in this region.
the current from the source to the drain. In this way, we can change the resistance of the n channel and the Saturation Region (VDS > VGS-VP )
current from the source to the drain by varying the negative voltage on the gate. This region starts from where VDS is greater than VGS minus VP; here VP is the pinch-off voltage.
Enhancement Mode Around here, the drain current ID completely depends on the VGS and is not an element of the VDS. The
The following figure shows the n-channel D MOSFET under enhancement mode of operation. Here, the FET operates in this region to amplify the signal with respect to switching operations as well. From the
gate acts as a capacitor. However, the gate is open in this case. The number of electrons in the n channel figure, it is seen that when VGS is zero, the maximum current ID flows. The drain current decreases when
increases as a result of this provocation. A positive gate voltage enhances or increases the conductivity of the VGS is made more negative. At a specific value of VGS, the drain current flows constantly through
the channel. The larger the positive voltage on the gate, the greater the conduction from the source to the the device. Consequently, this region is also called the constant current region.
drain. Subsequently, we can change the resistance of the n channel and the current from the source to the Cutoff Region (VGS < VP)
drain by shifting the positive voltage on the gate. The region in which the drain current ID is zero and the device is off is known as the cutoff region (VGS
Characteristics of FET < VP). The gate source voltage VGS is less than the pinch-off voltage VP. This implies the value of VGS
Field Effect A transistor is a unipolar device where the current is carried only by the majority of part is more negative than VP. As a result, the channel closes, preventing the device from receiving any
carriers (either by holes or electrons). A FET is a voltage-controlled device; by controlling the voltage current.
between the gate and source, the output current gets varied. Breakdown Region
Let us consider N-channel JFET for understanding the operating regions. The operation or characteristics This is the last and terminal region of the characteristics curve for the field effect transistor; you can see
of JFET are divided into three different regions: the ohmic region, the saturation region, and the cutoff this region on the right corner. At this point, the voltage shown by the VDS between the drain and source
is very high. The voltage is sufficiently high that the conductive channel is broken, and maximum current
goes through the channel into the drain. BJT FET
FET switching circuits
From the above discussion, the FET can be used as a switch by operating it in two regions: the cutoff BJT has a higher gain bandwidth product FET has a lower gain bandwidth product
region and the saturation region. At the point when the VGS is zero, the FET works in the saturation
region, and maximum current flows through it. Consequently, it is like a fully turned-on condition.
BJT has a higher voltage drop FET has a lower voltage drop
Similarly, when the VGS applied is more negative than the pinch-off voltage, the FET works in the cutoff
region and does not allow any current to flow through the device. Consequently FET is in completely
OFF condition. The FET can be used as a switch in different configurations; a portion of these are given BJT has a bigger size FET has a smaller size
below.:
●​ FET as a Shunt Switch
●​ FET as a Series Switch SCR
FET as a Shunt Switch An SCR is a three-terminal, three-junction, and four-layer semiconductor device that is used to perform
At the point when the VGS applied is zero, the FET is turned on by operating in the saturation region, and switching functions in power circuits.
its resistance is very small, 100 ohms. The output voltage across the FET is VOUT = Vin * {RDS/(RD + Sometimes the SCR is also called as Thyristor.
RDS (ON))}. The output voltage is considered zero due to the large resistance RD.
At the point when we apply the negative voltage, which is equivalent to the pinch-off voltage at the gate, Constructional Details of SCR
the FET operates in the cutoff region and acts as a high-resistance device, and the output voltage is The SCR has three pn – junctions, and four layer of p and n type semiconductor joined alternatively to
equivalent to the input voltage. get pnpn device. The three terminals are taken – one from outer p – type layer called anode (A), second
FET as a Series Switch from the outer n – type layer called cathode (K) and the third from the internal p –type layer called gate
A FET acts as a series switch in this circuit. It acts as a closed switch if the control voltage is zero and an (G).
open switch if the control voltage is negative. At the point when the FET is ON, the input signal will
show up at the output, and when it is OFF, the output is zero.
Applications of the FET
●​ Due to their low noise and high input impedance, amplifiers are utilized in multi-stage amplifiers as
preamplifiers, buffers, and stages.
●​ Power control: Power MOSFETs are used in power control applications as switches because of their
high productivity, low obstruction, and fast exchanging. utilized in drivers, power executives, and
power supplies.
●​ Changes have the capacity to work as electronic switches by directing current stream with a little
entryway voltage. It is utilized in computerized power supplies and RF circuits.
●​ Sensor connection points are utilized as info stages for sensors due to their high info impedance.
Connect with sensors for light, pH, pressure, and different sensors.
●​ Oscillators are utilized as dynamic parts in oscillator circuits as a result of their low contortion and
wide recurrence range Working of SCR
●​ RF circuits are utilized as intensifiers and blenders due to their high information impedance, low In a SCR, the load is connected in series with the anode. The anode is always kept positive with respect to
commotion, and ability to work at high frequencies. cathode.
●​ Logic systems: Because of their lower power utilization, higher rates, and capacity to work at lower
When Gate is Open Circuited
voltages, rationale circuits are progressively supplanting BJTs. When no voltage applied to gate terminal, junction J2, is reverse biased and the junctions J1 and J3 are
●​ Simple circuits are utilized in simple circuits due to their great linearity and low commotion in circuits
forward biased. Since one of the three junctions is reverse biased so there is no current can flow through
like activity amps, channels, and regulators.
the load, hence the SCR is OFF. However if the applied voltage is gradually increased, a stage is reached,
Comparison between FET and BJT
when reverse biased junction (J2) breaks down. The SCR now, starts conducting and become ON. The
BJT FET value of applied voltage at which the reverse biased junction breaks down and the SCR becomes ON is
known as Breakover Voltage
BJT has a three terminals they are emitter, collector FET has a three terminals they are source, gate
and base and drain

BJT has a low input impedance FET has a high input impedance
 ●​ Circuit Fusing Rating − It indicates the maximum forward surge current capability of the SCR.
It is defined as the product of square of forward surge current and the time duration of the surge.

If the circuit fusing rating is exceeded in the SCR circuit, the device is destroyed by excessive power
dissipation.

I–V Characteristics of SCR

It is the curve plotted between the anode – cathode voltage (V) and anode current (I) of the SCR at
constant gate current.

When Gate is Positive with Respect to Cathode

The SCR can be turned ON at smaller applied voltage by the application of a small positive voltage at the
gate terminal. When gate voltage is applied the junction J3 is forward biased and junction J2 is reverse
biased. Thus, the electrons from n – type layer starts moving across the junction J3 toward p –type
material and the holes from p –type material towards the n – type material. Due to the movement of holes
and electrons across the junction J3 the gate current starts flowing. Because of gate current the anode
current increases. The increased anode current makes the more electrons available at the junction J2. As a
result of this process, in a small time, the junction J2 breaks down and the SCR is turn ON.

●​
●​ Forward Characteristics − When the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode, then
the curve between V and I is called as forward characteristics of the SCR. If the supply voltage is
increased from zero, a point is reached (Point A, the voltage is called breakover voltage) when the
SCR starts conducting. Under this condition, the voltage across SCR decreases suddenly (shown
by dotted line in the curve) and the most of the supply voltage appears across the load.
●​ Reverse Characteristics − When anode is made negative with respect to the cathode, the curve
plotted between V and I is called as reverse characteristics. If the reverse voltage is increased
gradually, at first the anode current remains small (called leakage current) and at some reverse
voltage, the avalanche breakdown occurs and the SCR starts conducting in the reverse direction
(Shown by the curve in third quadrant). The maximum reverse voltage at which the SCR starts
conducting in the reverse direction is called as Reverse Breakdown Voltage.

Applications of SCR
Even if the voltage at the gate terminal is removed, the SCR the anode current does not decrease. The The SCR can be used in following application −
SCR can only be turned off by reducing the applied voltage to zero. ●​ Power Switching Circuit
Parameters of SCR ●​ Controlled Rectifier
●​ Break Over Voltage − It is the minimum value of the applied voltage at which the SCR is turned ●​ AC power control circuits
ON, provided the gate voltage is not applied. For commercially available SCRs the range of break ●​ Speed control of DC shunt motor
over voltage is 50 V to 500 V. ●​ SCR Crowbar
●​ Computer logic circuits
●​ Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV) − It is the maximum reverse voltage (i.e. cathode made positive
●​ Timing Circuits
with respect to the anode) that can be applied to the SCR without conducting in the reverse
●​ Inverters
direction. The commercially available SCRs have PRV up to 2.5 kV.
●​ Battery Charging Regulators
●​ Holding Current − With gate being open, it is the maximum value of anode current at which
●​ Temperature control systems
SCR is turned OFF from ON state.
●​ Forward Current Rating − It is maximum value of the anode current that an SCR can pass
through it without destruction. The IGBT or Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is the combination of BJT and MOSFET. Its name also
implies the fusion between them. “Insulated Gate” refers to the input part of MOSFET having very high
input impedance. It does not draw any input current rather it operates on the voltage at its gate terminal. o​ The application of a positive voltage between gate-emitter terminals forms an inversion layer near
“Bipolar” refers to the output part of the BJT having bipolar nature where the current flow is due to both the surface channel region under the dielectric layer.
types of charge carriers. It allows it to handle very large currents and voltages using small voltage signals. o​ This inversion layer provides low resistance paths for both holes and electrons to flow between
This hybrid combination makes the IGBT a voltage-controlled device. emitter and collector terminals.
o​ The inverted P- region under the gate now allows electron flow from the emitter to the collector
IGBT Symbol like in a MOSFET.
The IGBT symbol shows that the IGBT symbol is similar to a power MOSFET but includes some o​ Simultaneously, the built-in PNP transistor formed by P+, N-drift, and P-body regions inject holes
important differences. The gate terminal G is insulated from the other terminals by a dielectric layer, into the N-drift region.
unlike in a MOSFET as shown in Figure. The two power terminals, collector C and emitter E look like o​ Movement of both holes and electrons reduces the resistance of the drift region, enhancing
that of a BJT. This IGBT transistor (GEMFET) symbol clearly represents its characteristics as a current flow from collector to emitter.
combination of MOSFET and BJT
This combined majority and minority carrier conduction is the primary function of an IGBT that provides
its unique advantages.

IGBT Construction
The construction of an IGBT is made of four alternating layers of P-type and N-type semiconductors as
shown in Figure. It consists of a P+ substrate, an N- N-drift region, a P- body region, and an N+ source
region. A gate terminal is insulated above the P-body region by a dielectric layer. This cross-sectional
view reveals how the IGBT effectively combines the characteristics of a MOSFET and BJT.

IGBT Characteristics
VI characteristics of IGBT exhibit some important graphs that give its switching behavior:

o​ Transfer Characteristics: Plot of collector current IC versus gate-emitter voltage VGE as shown
in Figure. It indicates the control of output current by the input voltage.
o​ Output Characteristics: Relationship between collector-emitter voltage VCE and collector
current IC as in Figure. Different operating regions like active, saturation can be identified.
o​ Switching Waveforms: Turn-on and turn-off transient waveforms as shown in Figure are useful
to determine switching times.

The emitter and gate are metal electrodes. The emitter is directly attached to the N+ region while the gate
is insulated using a silicon dioxide layer. The base P+ layer injects holes into N- layer which is why it is
called injector layer. While the N- layer is called the drift region. Its thickness is proportional to
voltage-blocking capacity. The P layer above is known as the body of IGBT.

IGBT Working
When a positive voltage is applied between the gate-to-emitter terminals of an IGBT, it allows the flow of
both majority and minority charge carriers during its operation. Here are the simplified working steps:
 Advantages And Disadvantages Of IGBT
IGBT has combined advantages of BJT and MOSFET, here are some advantages of IGBT
IGBT Advantages Working of HWR Circuit
o​ Higher breakdown voltage ratings for power applications
o​ Lower conduction losses due to lower saturation voltage
Positive Half Cycle
o​ Ease of driving without require high base current
o​ Reduced size and cost due to high power density The AC high voltage is applied to the primary of step down transformer and the obtained secondary low
o​ Handles both majority and minority carriers voltage is applied to the diode, the diode is forward biased during positive half cycle and act as a short
IGBT Disadvantages circuit.
However, IGBT also has some disadvantages
o​ relatively low switching speed
o​ susceptibility to latch-up during turn-on.
IGBT Application
Due to its high power handling capability along with ease of driving, IGBT has revolutionized power
electronics. Some important applications are given below:
o​ Industrial motor drives for HVAC, conveyors, pumps, etc.
o​ Home appliances washing machines, refrigerators, etc
o​ Power supplies for servers, UPS systems -Renewable energy interfaces like solar inverters, wind Negative Half Cycle
converters
o​ Traction power electronic systems for electric vehicles and trains
During the negative half cycle, the P – terminal of the diode is connected with the negative supply which
o​ High voltage DC transmission lines
reverse biases the diode, the diode behaves like an open circuit and does not produces the output across
Difference Between IGBT And MOSFET
the load.
IGBTs and MOSFETs are used for different purposes for 400- to 1200-V applications:
o​ IGBTs are used for inverter applications with a switching frequency of less than 20 kHz
requiring high overload endurance.
o​ MOSFETs are used for inverter applications with a switching frequency exceeding 20 kHz.
RECTIFIER

Half Wave Rectifier is a diode circuit which is used to transform Alternating Voltage (AC
Supply) to Direct Voltage (DC Supply). A single diode is used in the HWR circuit for
the transformation of AC to DC.

Half Wave Rectifier circuit allows the one – half cycle of the AC Supply waveform to pass and blocks the
other half cycle.

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit Diagram

Half Wave Rectifier Formulae

Efficiency of HWR
The efficiency of HWR is defined as the ration output DC power to the input AC power. What is Full Wave Rectifier?
η=Pdc/Pac
Full wave rectifier consists of semiconductor devices which converts both positive and negative cycle of
The maximum efficiency of half wave rectifier is 40.6%. the input alternating current(AC) into pulsating direct current(DC). The drawback of the Half wave
rectifier is overcome by Full wave rectifier.
Peak Inverse Voltage of HWR There are two types of Full wave Rectifiers
●​ Center tapped two diode full wave rectifier
The peak inverse voltage of a HWR is the maximum voltage that can a diode withstand without
destruction when reverse bias is applied to it. ●​ Bridge rectifier
Center tapped two diode Full wave rectifier:
PIV=Vm

RMS Value of Load Current of HWR

IRMS=Im/2

Average Value of Load Current of HWR

Iavg=Im/π

Form Factor of HWR

For HWR the form factor equals to 1.57

Center tapped two diode full wave rectifier​
Ripple Factor of HWR
In this method a center tapped transformer and two diodes are used. One diode is used for positive cycle
Ripple Factor gives the information about how a HWR can transform input AC voltage to output DC
of the alternating current and another diode is used for the negative cycle of the input current. So the full
voltage. It is given by
wave rectifier is like back to back two half wave rectifier.

Working of Center tapped two diode Full wave rectifier:

The ripple factor for half wave rectifier is 1.21.

Application of Half Wave Rectifier

There are some applications of Half Wave Rectifier −

●​ They are used for rectification
●​ They are used for demodulation
●​ They are used for signal peak applications

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

●​ The AC supply delivers power only for the half cycle. Therefore, the output is low.
●​ The pulsating current in the load contains alternating current whose frequency is equal to supply Working of full wave rectifier​
frequency. Therefore, filtering is required to produce steady direct current.
​ Initially the capacitor is uncharged. Then slowly capacitor charges and attains maximum when the input
When the positive cycle of the input alternating current is applied to the transformer, diode D1 is forward voltage reaches its maximum.
biased and D2 is reverse biased.
When the input voltage drops the capacitor starts discharging very slowly and it does not discharges
So the D1 acts as a closed circuit and D2 acts like a open circuit. So the positive half cycle of the completely, again it starts charging.
alternating current is converted into pulsating DC output.
So by using soothing capacitor, unnecessary ripples can be removed from the generated output. Thus pure
When the negative cycle of the input voltage is applied, D1 is reverse biased and acts as an open circuit DC output is obtained.
and D2 is forward biased and acts as a closed circuit.
Full wave rectifier calculations:
Thus the negative half cycle of the alternating input voltage is converted into pulsating DC output.

Center tapped Full wave rectifier with soothing capacitor:

Advantages:
• Ripple factor is less than halfwave rectifier.
Full wave rectifier with capacitor filter​ • Rectification efficiency is higher.
• Both positive and negative cycle of AC waveform are rectified.
The output of the full wave rectifier consists of ripples or variations. So a capacitor filter is used.
INVERTOR
An inverter is a device that is used to convert Direct current to Alternating Current. However the output is
not a sine wave. It can be square wave, quasi square wave or PWM. But in most scenarios the value of
DC power is low. But we require high Alternating Currents. This can be achieved in two ways:
●​ First we need to step up the DC power. Then we can make use of inverter to convert DC to AC.
●​ Secondly, we convert low powered DC to low powered AC. Then we increase the power of
Alternating current by stepping it up.

TYPES OF CURRENT

●​ Direct Current: In this type of current, electrons flow in constant direction. In other words we can
say that it is unidirectional in nature.
●​ Alternating Current : In this type of current, electrons change the direction periodically. It can be
Working of full wave rectifier with capacitor filter​ compared to sinusoidal wave. The main advantage of using AC current over DC current is that it helps
to supply current to long distances without involving much cable
 5. Three Phase Inverters
These types of inverters are used in industrial as well as commercial areas. They convert the DC power to
AC power. This AC power is useful in motors, pumps etc. It is to be noted that three phase AC power is
generated by these inverters.
How does an inverter work?
The task of the inverter is to convert DC to AC. It takes up the incoming DC current, uses oscillators to
increase the frequency of the signal. Here oscillators are basically the transistors( MOSFETs and BJTs).
After this the improved DC is passed to transformer. The transformer steps up the signal and improves the
waveform so as to produce AC output. Meanwhile filters filter out the frequencies so that the appropriate
output is generated.
Characteristics of Inverter
Components of an Inverter An inverter should have some characteristics that will have good efficiency as well as long lifespan. Some
There are mainly five components of an inverter. They are as follows: characteristics an inverter should have are as follows:
Microcontroller 1.​ The output is a crucial component for inverters. Sine waves produce clean output while square waves
A microcontroller is also known as Digital Signal Processor. This is the core of the inverter that is produce basic AC output.
responsible for managing the switching of electric conversion. It also regulates the voltage so that 2.​ Proper cooling mechanisms should be used so as to cool the inverters.
the frequency remains stable. Microcontroller also detects faults or issues if present. This processor also 3.​ An inverter should have high efficiency above 90%. It also should be efficient under any
ensures that maximum output and minimum energy loss. circumstances.
Bipolar Junction Transistors 4.​ The inverter should produce accurate AC voltage. In general 120 V or 240 V should be generated by
A transistor is a semiconductor device whose task is to amplify the signals. These are used to basically any inverter.
switch quickly from one type to another type. Here two kinds of transistors PNP or NPN are used. 5.​ It should produce output that will have least harmonic distortion.
Filter Applications of Inverter
This is used to filter the frequencies based on the requirements. It will allow to pass high frequencies if There are various applications of inverter. Some of them are as follows:
high frequencies are required and vice versa. It also smooths waves so as to produce perfect AC output. ●​ Inverters provide power supply when the grid power is not available.
MOSFETs ●​ It provides backup during adverse weather conditions.
MOSFETs or Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor-Field-Effect-Transistor are responsible for high switching. ●​ It is widely used in vehicles, boats etc.
They are used for switching between high frequencies so that the inverter can correctly chop off the ●​ They are used in telecommunications where DC power is extracted from solar panels and is converted
Direct currents and convert them to AC. to AC power
Heat Sink and Cooling System Advantages and Disadvantages of Inverter
Since in inverter there is switching between high frequencies and converting low powered DC to high Some advantages of inverter are as follows:
powered AC, a large amount of heat is dissipated. So to avoid over heating appropriate heat sinks are Advantages
required. Also cooling systems are required so as to maintain the temperature of the inverter. ●​ Since inverter converts DC to AC it is useful during power outages.
Types of Inverters ●​ It is combined with renewable resources so that appropriate output is generated.
There are basically three types of inverters based on the output. They are as follows: ●​ It is useful in remote areas as small quantity of DC is converted to high frequency AC .
1. Sine wave Some disadvantages of inverter are as follows:
In this type of inverter, the output produced is a sine wave. Since AC current adheres to sinusoidal Disadvantages
waveform, this is the most commonly used inverter. It is useful in all expensive electronic devices. Since ●​ Inverters are usually bulky because of the large inbuilt circuitry. It is also expensive.
sine waves reduce distortion, the circuitry is complex. The main advantage is it produces clean output. ●​ Maintaining an inverter is costly since it requires proper ventilation and cooling.
2. Modified Sine Wave Precautions for using an Inverter
Modified Sine waves is a combination of sine wave and square wave. It uses series of steps to Some precautions should be taken while using an inverter. Some of them are as follows:
approximate the sine wave. This inverter is most commonly used in household applications. The circuitry ●​ Store the inverter in a cool dry place.
is less complex as compared to sine wave. However the drawback is it does produce noise and distortion. ●​ Ensure proper ventilation so that the inverter works at room temperature.
3. Square Wave ●​ Use fuse or circuit breaker on DC part so as to avoid overloading
Square wave produces basic AC output. The curve ranges between positive and negative values. It has a ●​ Regular Maintenance is must. Check the wirings or any other electrical part so as to avoid damages.
straight forward circuitry. However the output does not comply with the sine wave. Hence it is susceptible ●​ When inverter is not in use, disconnect it so as to avoid any potential damage.
to harmonic noises and distortion. These inverters are cheap and have short lifespan because they tend to Conclusion
get heated easily.
4. Grid Tied Inverters
Grid Tied Inverter is a type of inverter that converts DC to AC which can be in turn injected in the
electrical grids. They are useful in solar panels, turbines etc. In this solar energy is fed into the panels and
accordingly the power is generated.