Baron psychology part 2

CHAPTER 6: MEMORY : OF THINGS REMEMBERED AND FORGOTTEN

Memory is one of the earliest focus of psychological research - the experiments of Hermann
Ebbinghaus in the late nineteenth century are famous for observations that have stood the test
of time. eg he found that at first we forget materials memorized quite rapidly, but that later,
forgetting proceeds more slowly. He was also the one to find out that distributed
practice(spreading out the efforts to memorize over time) is superior to massed
practice(remembering everything at once).
Today the modern memory research has gone much far beyond after the early studies by
Ebbinghaus and Alfred Binet.

HUMAN MEMORY - TWO INFLUENTIAL VIEWS

Psychologists often construct models of what they study, these models describing the nature
and operation of the processes in question.

A. Atkinson and Shiffrin model

● The basic analogy of computer memory and human memory played a key role in this
model, sometimes known as the MODAL MODEL of memory.
● The theory says that basically, both computer and human memory must accomplish 3
tasks - encoding - converting information in a form that can be stored in the memory,
storage - retaining information over varying periods of time and retrieval - locating and
assessing specific information when it is needed later at times.
● According to this theory, we possess 3 kinds of memory - sensory memory ( which
provides temporary storage of information from the senses), short term memory (stores
small amount of information for brief periods of time, thirty seconds or less), and long
term memory(stores vast amount of information over very long periods of time; it is long
term memory that helps in retaining factual information.)
● So how does memory move from one memory to another? The model proposes the
presence of active control processes acting as filters.
 a. The information in sensory memory goes to short term memory when it becomes the
focus of our attention, whereas sensory impressions that do not fade away. This is called
Selective attention - our ability to pay attention to only some aspects of the world around us
while largely ignoring others.
b. The information in short term memory enters long term through Elaborative Rehearsal
- when we think about its meaning and relate it to other information in long term memory. Unless
this cognitive effort is done, the information in short term memory also fades away and is lost.

In contrast, simply repeating the information to ourselves - maintenance rehearsal does

not necessarily commit the information to long term memory

● In sum, these two linked the study of human memory to the INFORMATION
PROCESSING PERSPECTIVE - An approach to human memory that emphasizes the
encoding, storage and retrieval of information, and is an important aspect of cognitive
psychology today.

B. Neural network models : parallel processing of information

● It says that the rich interconnectedness of our neural units accounts for our ability to
process information so quickly.
● They also propose that the information in memory is not located at a specific point, but
rather in patterns of activation spread over many processing units and by the strength of
activation across these units.
● This model sharply differentiates between computer and human memory - with the
former processing information serially, and the latter parallel : meaning that many
modules - collections of interconnected neurons - process information in different ways
simultaneously. These modules may be scattered widely in different parts of brain.

KINDS OF INFORMATION STORED IN THE MEMORY

A. WORKING MEMORY : THE WORKBENCH OF CONSCIOUSNESS.

● Evidence for this kind of memory was provided by many findings, the most
important among them being the Serial Position Curve - the greater accuracy of
 recall of words or other information early and late in a list of information than of
words or information in the middle of the list. One possible answer, supported by
various results, is the presence of two memory systems - one that holds
information for very short periods of time, and one that holds it for very long
periods. So the recall of last words we hear - the ARECENCY EFFECT - is due
to them being in the working memory.
● Therefore, working memory is the memory system that holds the information we
are processing at the moment, (formerly called short term memory). Research
has suggested that this memory contains many more complex levels than was
previously believed.
● As a storage system, the working memory can hold 7-9 discrete items. Beyond
that, the system becomes overloaded, and if new information enters, existing
information is lost.(Miller, 1956). However, each of these "items" can contain
several separate bits of information - related bits that can somehow be grouped
into meaningful information. When this is done, each piece of information is
described as a CHUNK - and the total information that can be held can be quite
large. eg the difference between FBICBIAIIMSAFMC and FBI CBI AIIMS AFMC.
Processing in working memory - there is a lot going on!

● While there is not total agreement on how working memory operates, there is
growing evidence for the model proposed by Baddeley(1992).
● This theory says that this memory consists of 3 parts -
a. A phonological loop that processes information related to the sound of words
b. A visuospatial sketch pad that processes visual and spatial information
c. A central executive that supervises and executes other two components - procedural
knowledge and abstract semantic information.

● Several studies have supported this model, neuroimaging has shown that
phonological and spatial information are processed in different areas. Recent
research has even been able to observe specific regions of brain in which spatial
information is rehearsed, and hence, retained in working memory.
● The presence of central executive is known by a concurrent task paradigm where
participants work on two tasks at the same time - the reasoning being that the
more similar the distracting task is to primary task, the more it will disrupt the
 planning and control functions of the central executive, which is precisely what
happens.
Other evidence is provided by those who have suffered damage to their frontal lobes -
where the executive function is presumably, centred. Such people - suffering from a
dysexecutive syndrome - are not able to come to a decision, get distracted easily, and show a
tendency towards perseveration - they continue to pursue an initial goal instead of switching to
other goals once the first one is met.

B. MEMORY FOR FACTUAL INFORMATION : EPISODIC AND SEMANTIC MEMORY

Factual information is also known as explicit or declarative memory because we can bring it into
consciousness and report it verbally. It has 2 types.
Episodic memory holds information we acquire at a specific time and place - the kind of memory
which allows us to go back in past and remember specific thoughts or experiences. It is tested
by psychologists when participants are tested for recall of words, lists and numbers and so on.
Semantic memory is the memory which holds info of a more general nature - information that
we do not remember acquiring at a specific time or place (general knowledge).

Episodic memory : some factors affecting it.

● The first factor is the amount and spacing of practice. It more often we practice
information, the more we can retain.
However, the major gains occur first, and slow down later, which is why spacing of
practice is equally important - spreading of efforts over time is helpful. This also suggests that
memories get consolidated or grow stronger over time.
● The second factor is the processing done to retain the info. An influential theory of
memory called Levels of processing view was proposed by Craik and Lockhart(1972)
suggesting that the more deeply info is processed, the higher chances there are that it
will be retained.
Shallow processing involves little mental effort and may involve repeating a word and
little sensory judgment about it - eg do two words look alike?
A deeper level may involve more complex comparisons - eg two words rhyme?
A still deeper level would include an attention to their meaning.
 Considerable evidence suggests that the deeper the level of processing, more is the
likelihood that info will enter long term memory. However, important questions still arise - eg it is
still difficult to specify in advance just what constitutes shallow and deep level of processing.
Also, it is difficult to fathom that even after reading a word again and again, one will not be
aware of its meaning. In fact several levels of processing occur at once. So because of potential
confusions, it is difficult to outline different levels of processing.
● A third factor affecting episodic memory is retrieval cues - stimuli associated with
information in memory that can assist in its retrieval.
Indeed the more cues we have, the more is our ability to retrieve information from long
term memory, although it is not a guarantee.

Perhaps the most intriguing research in this area is that of context dependent memory -
the fact that material learnt in one environment is easier to retrieve in the same environment,
compared to a different one. The expt by Godden and Baddeley(1975; pg 190).

#Additional research suggests that it is not necessary to be in the location or context where
information was entered into long term memory, and that mere imagination of the same is
sufficient. (Smith, 1979) - proving that we are capable of generating our own context-related
specific cues.

#Studies also show that it is not only external cues that are an aid to retrieval but also our
internal states. The most general term for this effect in State dependent Retrieval - occurs when
aspects of our physical states serve as retrieval cues for info stored in long term memory.

#The basic principle that underlines all these phenomenon is known as ENCODING
SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE which states that retrieval of information is successful to the extent
retrieval cues match the cues used by the learner during the study phase. The more these cues
are similar, the more retrieval is facilitated.

Semantic memory : how information is organized in memory.

● Because of the large amount of information here, psychologists have focused on how
this is organized, rather than how it entered in the first place. One important element of
organization consists of Concepts - mental categories for objects or events that are
 similar to one another in certain ways eg bicycle, car, elevator - may be clubbed in the
concept of vehicle or means of transportation.
● Concepts in semantic memory may exist in networks reflecting relationships between
them - the semantic networks.
a. In the network model of semantic memory - the meaning of a concept reflects its links
or associations with other, adjoining concepts.
b. In another view, the meaning of concept derives from prototypes - abstract,
idealized representations that capture an average or typical notion of members of that category.
c. Still another view derives the meaning of concept from exemplars - an
example of the category that an individual can readily bring to mind.

The finding that episodic and semantic memory are different are provided from two sources -
one, patients where disease or operation leaves episodic memory intact and semantic memory
destroyed and vice versa, and also PET scans which show higher blood flow in different areas,
when tasks pertaining to both are performed respectively.

C. MEMORY FOR SKILLS : PROCEDURAL MEMORY

● Memory systems that retain information which we cannot express verbally - eg
information necessary to perform skilled motor activities like riding a bicycle. Also called
Implicit memory.
● It is studied by a method called Priming - the fact that having seen or heard a stimulus
may facilitate us recognizing it on a later occasion, even if we are unaware this is
happening.
● The effect of priming is said to be the difference between Remembering and Knowing -
remembering is being able to report an event and the circumstances in which it
happened, and knowing is the sense of familiarity that accompanies the event even
when we can't remember it explicitly - a familiarity that can affect our behavior to a large
extent. Agostino expt - pg 192.
● Apart from priming, the way in which a skill is acquired also forms an evidence for
procedural memory - Initially, when in the starting stages, when we acquire a skill, we
think about what we are doing and report it verbally, but as time progresses, and the
level of skill acquisition increases, explicit knowledge is replaced by procedural memory
and we are less and less capable of precisely describing how we perform the actions in
question.
Read about super memory?

FORGETTING - SOME CONTRASTING VIEWS

A. The earlier view was that the info in long term memory fades or decays with the passage of
time - while this matches with our subjective experience, research has shown that forgetting is
not only a function of time, rather what happens during that time is crucial (Jenkins and
Dallenbach, 1924) the experiment of cockroaches pg 193.
Infact some other studies even came to the conclusion that recall increases over time(Kleinbard,
1978). So early on, psy rejected the notion that forgetting happens due to passive decay of
information over the passage of time.

B. Forgetting as a result of interference -

Such interference can take two different forms -
a. Proactive interference - when previously learned info present in long term memory interferes
with the current information being learnt.
b. Retroactive interference - when the currently learned information interferes with info already
present in memory.

A large body of evidence suggests that this might be true (Tulving and Psotka, 1971) - their expt
with syllables.
However, there are many doubts -
a. while interference does seem to play a role in forgetting meaningless passage, it seems to
play very little role in the forgetting of meaningful passages. Memory for the basic meaning or
gist of such passages is retained even when they are quite similar and are expected to produce
interference.
b. Similarly for interference to happen, something must happen between original learning and
testing for memory, yet forgetting happens even when a single list is learnt by participants -
although it can be said that this happened due to interference due to factors outside the expt -
such factor shave proved difficult to identify.

C. Forgetting and retrieval inhibition

This paradoxical finding is explained as follows : when we attempt to remember information in
memory, we might recall the items we seek but at the same time generate inhibition of other
items that we don't try to remember - resulting in a higher propensity to forget them. THis
phenomenon is called Retrieval Inhibition - and has been observed in several experiments.

MEMORY DISTORTION AND MEMORY CONSTRUCTION

These represent cases where info entered in memory is altered over a period of time - and
these alterations reduce its accuracy and change its meaning.

A. DISTORTION AND THE INFLUENCE OF SCHEMAS

● Almost everyone has firsthand experience with memory distortion eg looking at
ourselves in favorable light when looking back at past situations.
● It can also happen when false or misleading information is provided by others - if
someone's comments suggest a fact or detail that is not present in our memory , we
might add that fact or detail in our memory - things that can happen in trials.
● What accounts for them?
1. In many cases, they seem to involve the operation of schemas - cognitive frameworks
representing our knowledge and assumptions about specific aspects of the world. These are
formed through experience, and act like mental scaffolds providing us with basic frameworks for
processing new info and relating it to existing knowledge - including knowledge held in long term
memory.
Once schemas are formed, they strongly influence the way info is encoded, stored and
retrieved, which can in effect lead to errors and distortions within memory.
These are most evident with encoding - research suggests that when schemas are being
formed, information inconsistent with the schema being formed are easier to notice and encode
compared to the info that is consistent.(Inconsistent information is surprising and more likely to
become the focus of our attention). But once the schemas are formed, info consistent with them
is easier to notice, and is responsible for most part, where we are more likely to remember info
that supports our beliefs about the world than contradicts it.
2. Another important cause can be our motives - we often distort our memory in
order to bring them in line with whatever goals we are seeking. - Mcdonald and Hirt expt pg 196.
3. A final way in which memory can be influenced is confusion concerning the
sources of memory. Often errors are made in Source monitoring - the process of identifying the
origins of specific memories. WHile the info is remembered, it is attributed it to a wrong source.
A related effect is reality monitoring - the process of deciding whether memory stems
from external sources(events we actually experienced) or internal sources(imagination or
thoughts). Both source and reality monitoring have important practical effects specially in
eyewitness testimony.

B. MEMORY CONSTRUCTION : REMEMBERING WHAT DIDN'T HAPPEN

Recalling events that didn't happen, or experiences never really had.
A growing body of research suggests that false memories can be persistent and convincing -
people strongly believe that they are real. THis in turn has significant practical implications
especially in legal areas.
Eyewitness testimony - is it as accurate as we believe?
These testimonies, as research suggests are far from infallible.
Factors involved -
a. Suggestibility - getting influenced by leading questions and similar techniques used by
attorneys and officers.
b. Errors wrt source monitoring.
c. Illusion of outgroup homogeneity - the fact that people outside our own group seem more
similar in appearance and characteristics than people in our group, because of this it is easy to
identify an outsider as perpetrator of a crime wrongly.
Things that can be done to enhance eyewitness testimony -
a. improved interviews that can help enhance their ability to remember info accurately. In such
interviews, eyewitnesses are asked to report everything they can remember, this provides them
with multiple retrieval cues and increases the accuracy of recall.
b they are also sometimes asked to describe events from another perspective and in different
order so as to increase accuracy.

MEMORY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

A. Repression : what's too painful to remember, we simply forget.

○ This concept played an important role in Freud's theory of human personality and
his causes for psychological disorders; he said that repressed memories are
pushed in the unconscious mind, where they are kept festering psychological
problems until taken out by a skilled therapist.
○ Repression has been generally accepted by psychiatrists, psychologists and the
society generally - cases of childhood sexual abuse where victims forget their
 experiences until a therapist talks to them, raising further questions about the
reality of these feelings.
○ The skepticism is warranted because firstly, despite its widespread acceptance,
there is very little scientific evidence for it. Case studies are there, but they
cannot be conclusive. Also, secondly, because a therapist believes strongly in
the theory of repression, he/she may in a way lead the clients to report repressed
memories, in other words, Suggest them to patients in a subtle and unconditional
manner. Third, even if the first 2 conditions do not exist, media reports for sexual
abuse along with the fact that repressed memories are common, may lead some
to believe that there problems are due to these causes even when it is untrue.
Finally, it is also true that people generate false memories - memories for events
that never happened, and are especially common in young children who show
errors with respect to both source and reality monitoring. Ceci experiment - pg
199.

B. Autobiographical memories : remembering the events of our own lives

Autobiographical memory is the memory for information about events in our own lives - falls
under the broader heading of episodic memory.
The most dramatic approach to study these memories has been diary studies - Willem
Wagenaar kept a diary for 6 years - the results were complex, but showed that this memory is
also affected by many of the same variables as other forms of memory - eg by retrieval cues
and emotional states. Since diary studies are conducted under more natural conditions although
less controlled compared to laboratory conditions, and examine memory for everyday events
rather than list of words or nonsense syllables, they are useful in one crucial aspect - they
support the view that research on memory can indeed be generalized beyond the confines of a
psychological laboratory.

a. Infantile amnesia - when do autobiographical memories begin?

It refers to our supposed inability to remember events during the first 2 or 3 years of life.
Research however suggests that we can infact remember these experiences, but because we
do not possess language skills in infancy, we cannot report them in words. The study by Myers
et al pg 201.
Other factors that may contribute to this amnesia are - brain structures necessary for such
memory are not fully developed (Moscovitch, 1985), and that we do not form a clear self
concept until sometime between our second and third birthdays - so we lack the personal frame
of reference for autobiographical memory(Howe and Courage, 1993)
Hence, the term infantile amnesia is misleading as it suggests a lack of memory, when memory
is actually present.

b. Organization of autobiographical memory

In order to study this memory, psychologists commonly use cue-word method, where
participants are asked to associate autobiographical memories with certain words given to them.
The results show that events described are generally recent and frequency of memories brought
to mind drops off with increasing age - people recalling more events from 10 years ago than 20
years. But there is a "bump" in this function - people report more memories than expected from
their early adult years(late teens to mid twenties). This might be because a lot of thing happen
at that time which may be personally important to them and also linked to strong emotions thus
encoding them differently.
In addition, people may use different retrieval cues for recalling events associated with landmark
events in their lives, thus aiding their recall.
So if we talk about the organization of autobiographical memories, they seem to not be random
assortment of experiences - and are centered mostly around major lifetime periods; below this
level of organization are general events or personal landmarks most people remember, such as
first date, first day at work, and then finally there is info for some specific,unique events.
We know such organization exists because the time taken to recall events is the shortest when
describing lifetime periods followed by personal landmarks and highest for specific events that
do not relate to the larger themes.
Hence, we do retain much info about our lives, but this info is not equally memorable.

c. Memory for emotionally laden events : flashbulb memories and the effects of mood on
memory
Flashbulb memories relate to vivid memories of what we were doing at the time of an emotion
provoking event - called so because they are preserved in the autobiographical memories like a
photograph.
Research has however raised questions about whether they are really special after all -
suggesting that these memories are found to be exceptionally strong or vivid because they are
triggered due to events that are surprising, distinctive and important to the people involved - and
can be understood in the way other autobiographical memories are understood - elaborateness
of encoding, rehearsal and emotionality of the event.
Flashbulb memories are not distinctly different from other memories, in fact they might be quite
inaccurate too (Neisser, 1999); they do not provide an individual with perfect memory snapshots
of important public events.

d. effects of mood on memory

Mood can affect memory in two distinct bey related ways -

1. retrieval can be enhanced if mood during retrieval is similar to the mood during encoding, this
enhanced recall is called Mood dependent memory and one can recall whatever memory was
stored in that mood - positive, negative or unrelated to mood.

2. Second are the mood congruence effects - our tendency to remember info congruent to our
current mood(Blaney, 1986).

Research suggests that these effects may be very important for depression, a very serious
psychological disorder as depressed people have difficulty remembering times when they felt
better(Schachter & Kihlstrom, 1989) - thus mood congruence can set up a vicious circle in which
negative thoughts breed negative memories.

AMNESIA AND OTHER MEMORY DISORDERS - KEYS FOR UNLOCKING BRAIN-MEMORY

LINKS

-- 2 major types - retrograde( loss of memory of events that occurred prior to the amnesia-
inducing event) ,and anterograde(inability to store in long term memory info that occurs after an
amnesia inducing event)

The cases of SP and Clive Wearing - pg 204, 205 -- read!

a. Amnesia as a result of Korsakoff's syndrome

develops in people who consume large amounts of alcohol.
apart from large sensory and motor problems as well as gastro, heart and liver disorders, they
develop both retro and antero grade amnesia - and brains show extensive damage to thalamus
and hypothalamus.

b. The amnesia of Alzheimer's disease

wide range of memory impairments are seen - working memory, episodic memory, memory for
skills, and autobiographical memories - all are disturbed. The worst thing is they are aware of
the progressive changes they are experiencing, and this is very disturbing to them.
Careful study of brain reveal tangles of amyloid beta protein, a substance not found in similar
concentration in normal brains. Also, the reduced acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter which
appears to play a key role in memory - has been associated with this disease. Recent research
has implicated the involvement of other neurotransmitters also, so the picture is complex.

MEMORY AND THE BRAIN - A MODERN VIEW - PG 207.

Why does damage to various brain structures causes amnesia and other memory deficits?
Various theories exist -

a. prevents memory consolidation.

CHAPTER 7 - COGNITION - THINKING, DECIDING COMMUNICATING

Cognition is a general term referring to mental events associated with thought, decision making,
language and other higher mental processes.

A. THINKING: FORMING CONCEPTS AND REASONING TO CONCLUSION

1. Basic elements of thought - Concepts, propositions and images

A. Concepts: Categories for understanding experience

Concepts are mental categories for events, objects, experiences or ideas that are similar to one
another in one or more respects - this allows us to represent a great deal of info about diverse
objects, ideas or events in a highly efficient manner. This simplifies the complex world world of
our experience that is so full of variation.
The difference between logical and natural concepts - the former are concepts that can be
clearly defined by a defined set of rules or properties, and the membership of an object in a
category is unambiguous eg geometrical figures.
Natural concepts, on the other hand are those that are not based on a precise set of attributes
or properties, do not have clear cut boundaries, and are often defined by prototypes. The more
attributes the new item shares with an existing prototype, the more are its chances of getting
included in that category. eg fruit or art.

B. Concepts : how are they represented.

No firm answer exists to this, but several possibilities have been suggested -
1. Concepts may be represented by the features or attributes associated with them in memory.
Then, when a new item is encountered, its features are compared with the features we have
already learned about; the closer the match, the higher the possibility of adding it within the
concept.
2. Concepts may be represented, in part by visual images: mental pictures of objects and
events in the external world.
3. Concepts are also closely related to schemas. Like the latter, concepts are also acquired
through experiences and represent info in an efficient summary form. However, schemas
appear to be more complex than concepts - each schema containing a broad range of info and
including many distinct concepts.

C. Propositions : relations between concepts

Thinking is not a passive process, and involves mental manipulations of internal representations
of the external world(i.e. concepts); frequently thinking involves the relating one concept to
another, or relating a part of the concept to the whole concept.
Because we possess highly developed language skills, these cognitive actions take the form of
propositions - sentences that relate one concept to another and can stand as separate
assertions eg Polar bear have white fur (relation of a concept and its properties), or Slama met
Pooja(relation between two concepts).
Clusters of propositions are represented as mental models - knowledge structures guiding our
interactions with the objects and events in the world around us eg if I want to clear my exam, I
might use a mental model constructed from several propositions - I have to finish History. I have
to write answers. I have to read Yojana. What must be kept in mind, however, is that if some
aspect of a mental model is incorrect, or if we process info contained in the model wrongly or
incorrectly, we may tend to make mistakes. So, I must know what weightage is being given in
the exams as of now, or I will not clear my exam!
So because much of our thinking involves the formulation and consideration of propositions, it
can be said to be one of the basic elements of thought.

D. Images: mental picture of the world

Research seems to indicate that mental manipulations performed on images of objects is very
similar to those performed on actual objects. eg if asked to picture a scene of Kanha national
park, we would easily conjure snow in our mind, but conjuring up animal will take some time -
maybe because locating the animals requires more scanning than locating snow.
REsearch also seems to indicate that once we form a mental image, we perceive and think
about it just as if it actually existed. eg when instructed to imagine walking closer to an objet,
people often report that object gradually expanding in size as and when they come closer; when
asked to tell the distance between two locations in a familiar place, the farther apart the places
indicated, the more time it takes to respond by the participants.
Mental images serve important purposes in thinking - people report using images for
understanding verbal instructions, and also using them for enhancing their own moods by
visualising positive events or scenes.
Also research has pointed out to some practical benefits with mental images use - it can help
people change their behavior towards reaching important goals like - losing weight, or
enhancing certain aspects of their performance. It has been found that the greatest benefit has
been derived from mentally simulating the process or steps necessary to reach a goal, rather
than picturing the desired outcome itself. This helps -
to identify and organize the specific activities that will enable them to reach their goals.
helps avoid planning fallacy - the tendency to underestimate the resources (like time or money)
necessary to achieve the goal, and to overestimate how easily the goal can be achieved
(Buehler, Griffin and Ross, 1964).

2. Reasoning : Transforming information to reach conclusions

Definition is this only.
The distinction between formal reasoning and everyday reasoning - in the formal reasoning, all
the needed info is supplied, the problem to be solved is straightforward, there is typically one
correct answer, and the reasoning applied follows a specific method. In contrast, everyday
reasoning refers to what we do in our daily lives - planning, commitment, evaluating arguments
etc.
Reasoning: some basic sources of error -

a. The role of mood states -

● Positive and negative moods can both make us lose our ability to reason effectively.
● Oaksford expt - pg 219.
● The positive state brings to us more and more diffused memories - a state that is optimal
for for tasks that need creative solutions; but reasoning mostly relies on the ability of
long term memory retrieval, and that of being able to work through a series of discrete
steps.
b. The role of beliefs -
● Reasoning is influenced by emotion laden beliefs which may make the person
trying to reason alter the opposite viewpoint person's premise, or "remember"
things that are never said.
● When powerful beliefs come face to face with logical arguments, it is the latter
that mostly gives way.
c. The confirmation bias : searching for positive evidence
● The tendency to pay attention primarily to that information that supports existing
beliefs or views.
● Because of this, individuals fall prey to flawed conclusions, and when this bias
operates, people fail to even notice the info that might question their premise.
d. Hindsight: The "I knew it all along" revisited.
● The tendency to assume that we would have been better at predicting actual
events than is really true. (Hawkins and Hastie, 1990)
● Most research in the past has focused on not the participants or decision makers,
but on observers of the event/decision outcome. Recent research however, has
focused on the hindsight bias of decision makers (Marks and Mellor, 1991). Of
particular interest has been how individuals show the bias when their decisions
reflect on their ability or skill, with evidence indicating that hindsight may be
influenced by whether outcomes reflect positively or negatively on the decision
maker. In the process of taking credit when outcomes reflect well on them,
people may show significant hindsight effects, while denying responsibility and
 reducing hindsight bias when outcomes reflect negatively. This goes to prove
that because of our tendency to act in ways that are self-serving, hindsight effect
may be most evident for those events where we receive favorable feedback for
our actions.
● HIndsight effect can have serious consequences both for decision makers and
for those who depend on them. The tragic incident of Mount Everest deaths. pg
221.
●
Physical reasoning : reasoning about objects in the physical world
● Physical reasoning is a growing area of research in the field of cognitive
psychology.
● Physical reasoning refers to the way in which people perceive physical objects
and the cognitive processes that allow people to make predictions about events
involving these objects.
● Evidence suggests that the ability to reason effectively about the nature of
physical systems depends on the fit between the info that we gain through
perception and our knowledge of the fundamental properties of physical systems.
Among the most important of these is the orientation of the object - how physical
objects are aligned in three dimensional space.
● Study by Pani Zhou and Friend(1997) - showed that way in which objects are
oriented has dramatic effects on physical reasoning. Those who saw objects
vertically perceived them to have uniform edges and surfaces and therefore
subjectively simple in contrast to those who saw objects in a different orientation
perceiving them to have non-uniform edges and surfaces and thus, subjectively
complex.

B. MAKING DECISIONS: CHOOSING AMONG ALTERNATIVES

The process of choosing among various actions or alternatives.

1. Heuristics : using quick - but fallible - rules of thumb to make decisions

● Where cognition is concerned, human beings follow the path of least resistance,
so they try to take shortcuts in decision making also. One of these cognitive
shortcuts is known as heuristics - Mental rules of thumb that allow us to make
 decisions and judgments in a rapid and efficient manner. They reduce the effort
required, though they may not necessarily enhance the quality or accuracy of the
decisions reached (Kahneman and Tversky, 1982).Heuristics are derived from
past experiences and serve as simple guidelines helping us to take reasonably
good decisions quickly and efficiently.
● Availability heuristic -- Our tendency to make judgments about the frequency or
likelihood of events in terms of how readily examples of them can be brought to
mind. This shortcut generally works well, because the more readily we can bring
events to mind, the more frequently they do happen, but it can lead us into error
as well The study by Tversky and Kahneman - pg 223; also influences may allow
people to overestimate their chances of being a victim of a violent crime, or the
winner of a lottery because of their over representation in the media.
● Representativeness heuristic - assuming what is typical is also likely; This refers
to a mental rule of thumb suggesting that the more closely an event or object
resembles typical examples of some concept or category, the more likely it is to
belong to that concept or category. eg judging what someone does by the way
he/she looks. Unfortunately the use of this heuristic sometimes makes us ignore
forms of information that can prove very helpful - the most important of them
being the base effect - the relative frequency of various events or items in the
external world.
● Anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic - A cognitive rule of thumb for making
decisions in which the existing info is accepted but then adjusted(usually
insufficiently) in the light of various factors. eg deciding that the later shop offered
a product at a cheaper price than the first. The problem with this heuristic is that
adjustments are generally insufficient in magnitude to offset the impact of the
original reference point.

2. Escalation of commitment : getting trapped in bad decisions.

The tendency to get trapped in bad decisions known as escalation of commitment, has
sometimes no simple or easy means of getting out.
Why?
● Research suggests that various factors may be involved - initially decisions are
based on rational factors(people believe that factors chosen will result in
favorable outcomes), when things go bad and negative results occur, it is at first
 reasonable to continue(after all temporary setbacks are common, or when an
initial decision is changed, it takes time to see better effects).
● Then as negative factors mount, psychological factors come into play - the
person feels that if he goes back now, he will be admitting he made a mistake.
Thus, as negative results increase the tendency for self justification comes into
play - a tendency to justify both the previous judgments and the losses already
endured.
● In the later phases of the process, external pressures stemming from other
persons or groups affected by the bad decisions come into play, with some
people blocking the decision to reverse it because they too have got committed
to the action it implies.
Certain steps have been found useful to help people refrain from escalating commitment to a
failed course of action -
● Escalating commitment is less likely to occur if resources for further action are
limited and evidence of failure is overwhelmingly obvious. So a group can decide
in advance that if the losses reach a certain level, they will not squander more
resources.
● Also escalation is less likely if people can diffuse their responsibility. If we feel
less responsible for our personal actions, the less is the chance that we will
invest more resources, more time or effort to justify more mistakes.
● Finally, escalation is less when people are held accountable for their actions, and
that they, or someone they work for can be adversely affected by the
consequences.

3. Emotions and decision making : the magnifying effects of unexpected loss and gain.

Our reactions to decisions are not only influenced by the decisions only, but also by a lot of
cognitive factors-
a. our expectations - what we anticipate will happen, and
b. by the comparisons we make between the outcomes that happen, and those that could have
happened, a tendency known as counterfactual thinking.

Study by Mellers(1997) - pg 226 - found that surprise wins or surprise losses were more elating
and more disappointing than the expected ones.
4. Naturalistic decision making - Making choices in the real world.
Refers to the decision making in the real world, and this new emphasis contributes to the study
of decision making in several ways -

a. focuses on how people bring their experiences to bear while taking decisions; the differences
between people contribute a lot to the decisions they make.
b. broadens to focus of a single event to include elements of the decision context, which is not
possible in a controlled laboratory study.
c. emphasizes the complexity of decision making and takes into account the complexity of
modern decision making environments - including in terms of impact of bad decisions both on
money and quality of life.

Although this is a new development, its application has led to a fuller and more accurate
perhaps, description of a decision making process in environments where the accuracy of
decision making is paramount. eg military or health sectors.
This shift towards naturalistic settings has led researchers to acknowledge that research
findings derived from laboratory studies are often artificial and lack the kind of info people need
when making decisions in everyday life. They add that experience also plays a role and as
people gain experience with certain types of judgments, they are more likely to consider base
rates in their decisions, while in certain instances it may actually be prudent to ignore base
rates.

C. PROBLEM SOLVING: FINDING PATHS TO DESIRED GOALS

A. The major aspects of problem solving involve -

a. problem identification,
b. formulate potential solutions - solutions do not come out of a cognitive vacuum; the more info
at disposal, the more info stored in long term memory can be retrieved.
c. evaluate each alternative and the outcomes they will produce
d. trying the potential solutions and evaluating them on the basis of the effects they produce. -
all too often a solution might be only partially effective - bringing us closer to solving the
problem, but never actually solving it.
B. Methods for problem solving - from trial and error to heuristics.
- the trial and error rests on the premise that various approaches will be kept on trying,
until one works.
- problems: not very efficient at solving problems, and offers no guarantee that a
useful solution will be found.
- sometimes, however, this is the best approach that can be used owing to a lack
of information.
- the second method is the use of Algorithms.
- these refer to the rules for a particular problem that have to be followed, so as to
yield a solution.
- problem is it is time consuming and inefficient.
- A much more effective method of solving a problem is a heuristic.
- heuristic are rules of thumb used to to guide our cognition.
- they involve using strategies suggested by past experiences - ones we have
found useful in the past- so the solution is not guaranteed but what they lack in
certainty they certainly gain in efficiency - by providing a lot of shortcuts.
- Another method used to solve problems is analogy -
- this uses strategies that helped solve problems in similar situations in the past.
- People frequently use analogy to solve their problems without being aware of the
same.
- In conclusion, selecting an effective strategy is critical to problem solving.
*examples - Imagine that a friend has asked you to meet her in the restaurant, but you forgot
the name of the restaurant. If u try finding the name by calling all the restaurants and asking
whether she made the reservation, you are using the algebra to solve your problem. But if you
use heuristic, you would know that the friend will not book a hotel far from her house - thus
eliminating a lot of far away restaurants. If you are driving and feel like eating a Mcdonalds
burger but don't know where the joint is, using the info that it is generally located near interstate
highways and finding it with the help of that knowledge is a use of Analogy.

C. Facilitating effective problem solving : the role of metacognitive processing

- Metacognitive processing refers to an expanded level of awareness which, in a sense,
allows us to observe ourselves us in the problem-solving process.
- Research has suggested that talking about a problem helps in diverting the attention
from the irrelevant aspects of the problem and focus on the relevant aspects of it, those
 aspects that will help in searching for a solution - by the process of metacognitive
processing.
- Experiment by Berardi- Coletta etal in 1995. Three groups were given increasingly
complex card-solving problems, and they were tested for the most complex problem.
The groups differed as one group in which metacognitive processing was used and
process-oriented questions were asked like “What method do you plan on using for
solving the problem?”; the second group were asked problem-focused questions like
“What is the goal of the problem?” and third group was the control group. As predicted,
the first group solved the problem fastest and more accurately.
- This infers that talking through a problem can be useful - especially when it is process
oriented, focuses on problem solving process and leads to Metacognitive processing.

D. Factors that interfere with effective problem solving

- Sometimes despite lots of efforts, we are unable to solve problems. This might be due
to:
- inadequate knowledge or experience.
- we may lack internal frameworks to adequately represent the situation fully and
effectively. This leads to a lack of knowledge about what variables or factors are
most important, and hence, we spend most of time ‘wandering about’, using an
informal type of trial and error.
- In other cases, some subtler forces may be in play.
- a. Functional fixedness - prior use versus present solutions.
- refers to the strong tendency to think of using objects only in ways
in which they have been used before.
- It is easy to overcome such blind spots but one must try, or else it
can lead to impairment to solve many types of problems.
- b. Mental set - sticking to the tried and true
- refers to sticking with a familiar method of solving a particular
problem in a particular way- one that has worked before. THis
works up to a point, until this approach forces the solver to
overlook other, more efficient approaches to solving a problem.

E. Artificial Intelligence: Can machines really think?

- It refers to the interdisciplinary branch scientists test the capacity of computers to
demonstrate performance, that if it were produced by human beings, would be described
as showing intelligence.
- Computers show lightning speed and accuracy - something beyond mere mortals, and
hence they are much more proficient than humans at doing repetitive tasks involving
speed and accuracy.
- But can computers be constructed in a way that allows them to interact with humans in a
more meaningful way? The Cog project at MIT has produced a robot which has a
motivational system that mirrors our own. Because these motivational factors play an
important role in establishing meaningful social interactions, these systems in the robot
maintain homeostasis and motivates it to learn behaviors that satisfy its need. KIsmet is
capable of a lot of facial expression, including getting overwhelmed by too much
stimulation, when it switches off to restore balance. Through a series of such
interactions, it is possible to know how its actions influence the behavior of the caretaker,
ultimately learning how its needs are met.
- Efforts to demonstrate computer intelligence for human language has shown mixed
results. On the one hand, computers
- computerized voice recognition systems are used by various organizations,
companies and banks,
- computers that can converse with their owners and carry out a lots of tasks
- computers can even ask when they didn't understand what the user said, or
when they have inadequate information
- the complex machines possess large vocabularies and grasp syntax well enough
to be able to understand normal sentences.
- On the other hand, however,
- it has been frustratingly difficult to teach them the subtleties of human speech,
and still most ordinary conversations that humans take for granted exceed the
capabilities of even the most modern computers.
- In response to these and various other related issues, the scientists are nowadays
designing computers that that mirror the most powerful computer- our brain. The new
computers - based on neural networks - have interconnected elemental computational
units -which work in parallel fashion, much like the brain. The beauty of this process lies
not in individual functioning of individual units, but from the resultant of these units
working simultaneously.
 - In addition they have the capability to learn from experience by adjusting the
strength of output of individual units based on new info.
- Computers’ capability predictions in the past times were definitely overstated, but there
is no doubt that in certain fields they are exceptionally useful in the study of human
cognition and in certain contexts, can show performance that closely resembles that of
intelligent human beings.

LANGUAGE: THE COMMUNICATION OF INFORMATION

It is at present agreed on by many experts that what truly sets us apart from a lot of other
species is the Language - that we can communicate using such a rich set of symbols, and with
the knowledge of how to combine them too. While a lot of animals also use communication, the
human capability to communicate far exceeds the animal’s.

A. Language : Its basic nature:

- In order for a set of symbols to be viewed as a language, certain conditions need to be
fulfilled.
- firstly, the information must be transmitted by a set of symbols: the words and
sentences must carry meaning.
- secondly, although the number of sounds and words may be limited separately,
the combinations possible which can be formed into a sentence should be
infinite.
- the meanings of these combinations must be independent of the settings in
which they are used. that is, they must be able to convey info about other places
and other times.
- Only if these 3 criteria are fulfilled, can we give the name language to a system of
communication.

B. Milestones of language development.

- 12 weeks : smiles when talked to, makes cooing sounds.
- 16 weeks: turns head in response to human voice.
- 20 weeks: makes vowel and consonant sounds while cooing.
- 6 months: progresses from cooing to babbling.
- 8 months: repeats certain syllables e.g. “ma-ma”.
- 12 months: understands some words, may say a few.
 - 18 months: can produce upto 50 words.
- 24 months: has vocabulary of >50 words, uses two-word phrases.
- 30 months: several hundred words vocabulary, 3-5 word phrases are used.
- 36 months: vocabulary of >1000 words
- 48 months: basic elements of language are mastered.

C. Theories of language development: some contrasting views:

Social learning view:
- proposes that speech is acquired through a combination of operant conditioning and
imitation.
- THis is by parents rewarding or praising the child when he/she makes sound that
approximate the native language, plus they also model the words, sounds or sentences.
- Together, it is contended, these basic forms of learning contribute to the rapid
acquisition of language.
Noam Chomsky theory(1968):
- He says that the acquisition of language is at least partly innate.
- Human beings have a language acquisition device - a built in neural system that that
provides them with an intuitive grasp on grammar.
- So in essence, he means that human beings are prepared to acquire language and thus,
do so rapidly.
Cognitive theory(Slobin, 1979)
- recognizes the importance of both innate mechanisms and learning.
- suggests that children possess certain information processing abilities or strategies that
they use in acquiring language. Known as Operating Principles.
- Two of these principles, eg, are “Pay attention to the end of words(children do actually
do that with it also making sense because generally suffixes in a sentence carry
important meanings), and “Pay attention to the order of words(it has been seen that
children closely follow the pattern of words spoken by the parents, and because word
order differs quite a lot between languages, this is an important operating principle.
#Presently, all theories seen correct and no single theory is sufficient to prove the language
acquisition.
- eg contrary to what social learning theory suggests, the parental feedback may be
inadequate to account fully for the rapid language acquisition(Pinker 1989), although in
 every culture imitation plays a significant role as witnessed by the resemblance between
the parents and children’s speech.
- For Chomsky’s theory - it is suggested by research that there may be a critical period for
language development in which it is easiest to acquire the components of language. If
for some reason the language is not acquired at this age, children find it increasingly
difficult to master language(De Villiers & De Villiers 1978). THis is also supported by
research on adults who communicate via the American sign Language, those who
acquire sign language early on in life seem more proficient than those who learn it later.
- THerefore, it can probably be safely assumed that language dev is a complex process
involving several aspects of learning, many cognitive processes, and various genetically
determined processes as well.

D. Basic components of language development

- THis includes progress in three distinct but interrelated areas :
a. Phonological development: the spoken word.
- Between 3 and 6 months: babies start babbling and at first, babbling consists of a rich
mixture of sounds.(babies can distinguish between the sounds of various languages)
- By 9/10 months: the babbling narrows down and sounds start to resemble the one from
native culture.
- By the first year the relatively short step between the above and producing the first word
is taken.
- it is believed that gestures is an important part of early language development, which
may be partly because at this age, the pronunciation of children leaves a lot to be
desired.
- Between the age of one and two - the vocabulary rises rapidly; by 18 months children
can speak nearly 50 words which are words that concern their everyday life - eg
animals(cat, dog) toys(bat, ball) - and use them as holophrases - often combining them
with gestures and pointing.
- Many of the words take a simple form - consisting of a consonant and a vowel . Toddlers
generally have difficulty dealing with clusters of 2 or more consonants(saying “” for
stairs, “banky” for blanket)
- While it was initially believed that acquisition of verbs follows that of nouns (words
referring to specific objects) - recent research suggests that it might be reversed in some
 cultures making this aspect something that is variable from culture to culture. eg it was
found that Chinese children actually used more verbs than nouns in their daily speech.
b. The semantics development: acquisition of meaning.
- A child’s vocabulary increases rapidly after the age of two, and by the time they are 6
years, this is some several thousand words.
- However, children don't just learn new words, but also learn new ones - words that allow
them to communicate a richer range of thoughts and ideas. eg
- they learn the negative meaning words like no and how to use them in
sentences.
- they also acquire many adjectives and prepositions which allow them to be more
specific in describing their own thoughts and the world around them. They start
with adjectives like good, little, bad and then diversify into greater specificity like
high, low, narrow, wide etc, and prepositions like in front of, behind etc
- they also start learning question words like what? why? when? These Keywords
are acquired between the age of two and three.
- Due to the rapid acquiring of vocabulary, children often demonstrate several interesting
forms of error.
- overextensions : tendency to extend the meaning of a word beyond its actual
usage eg calling all small objects like flies and pebbles as raisins.
- underextensions: limiting the word of a meaning more than appropriate, eg
thinking that the word fish refers only to their own fish and no one’s else.
c. The development of grammar
- By the time most children are two(before which they talk in single words, and pointing
gestures, and hence do not use grammar), they start using two word sentences - a
pattern sometimes known as Telegraphic speech. eg
- saying “give food” when they want it, and if it does not produce action, they say
“Mummy give”
- Youngsters pack a lot of meaning by changing inflection like saying “Go play?”
when asking permission and “Go play!” when indicating that they are going to
play.
- The grasp of grammar increases as they switch to three word sentences by the age of 2-
3. They start adding inflections to words - endings that carry s to indicate plurals, and
endings that change the tense of a verb)eg “He played with me” rather than “he play with
me”)
 - From this, children move on to increasingly grasp of the grammar and more complex
sentences in which an important idea is implied or understood rather than directly stated.
- eg in the sentence Sahiba made Raju a pot of tea may make a 3 year old feel
that Raju made the tea because they don't understand that the word made refers
to Sahiba. As they grow older they learn to unravel this and other mysteries of
grammar.
- they also learn to link two or more ideas in a single utterance.

LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT: DO WE SAY WHAT WE THINK OR WE THINK WHAT WE

SAY?
The question therefore is what is the precise relationship between language and thought?
1. Linguistic relativity hypothesis:
- suggests that the language determines or shapes thought. SO people who speak
different languages may perceive the world differently because of the difference in the
words that are available to them of their own language. eg the Inuit of Alaska have many
different words for snow, and their thinking of this particular aspect of the physical world
may be different from that of the English speaking people.
2. The opposing view is that thought shapes language.
- It suggests that language merely reflects what we think about the world - how our minds
work.
So what is the verdict?
- The issue is far from resolved but a modified version of the linguistic relativity hypothesis
has been advanced that suggests that structural characteristics of the language may
indeed influence the way people think about objects and the relationships among objects
in the physical world.
- The experiment of Zhang and Schmitt where they explored the possibility of exploiting
structural differences that exist between languages - they used classifiers which were
found only in Mandarin Chinese but not English - their research showed that the
CHinese not only were more likely to perceive objects belonging to a common classifier
as more similar to each other than other objects, but they were also more likely to recall
classifier sharing objects in clusters compared to english speaking population. Thus
proving the above,

BILINGUALISM/MULTILINGUALISM
 - Refers to attaining proficiency in communication through two/more languages.
- Indian social context is characterised as grassroot multilingualism which makes
bi/multilingualism a characteristic feature at the level of an individual as well as society.
Linguistic diversity is a hallmark of India(Bhatia and Ritchie, 2004)
- there are 1652 languages and a much larger no of dialects in India though constitution
recognizes only 22.
- It is not only the presence of a no of languages in different spheres of social life in India,
but also the dynamics of the relationship between these languages that make the whole
ethos of language so dynamic compared to the dominant-monolingual(MOhanty 1994).
- Mohanty(2004) has also indicated that bilingualism is currently at the grassroot level,
and because it is related to the maintenance of norms, it results in multiplicity of linguistic
identities. However, there are certain complementarities of language, and he also argues
that that multilingualism is a positive force and emphasizes on need for early
socialization and multilingual functioning.
- Earlier studies had support for the fact that bilingualism inhibited cognitive development,
and that when tested by tests of verbal intelligence, bilinguals had a language handicap.
These results however started changing after 1960 towards the positive advantages of
L2 uses. These studies denunciate earlier studies because the latter depended on L2
users that had a lot of different factors other than knowing a second language. other
major limitations were:
- they did not control for socioeconomic status between bilingual and monolingual
subjects. Mccarthy(1930) has pointed out that bilingualism in America was
confounded with SEC as more than half of the families who were bilingual were
also unskilled labor groups.
- there was also a failure to differentiate and adequately assess the differences
between the degrees of bilingualism.
- lack of clarity on how the mono or bilingual status was evaluated.
- Many recent studies have suggested the influence of bilingualism on word awareness
leading to better reading skills(Bruck and Genesee, 1993). These benefits have been
found not only for balanced bilinguals, but also for those whose contact with the second
language was restricted.

RESEARCH METHODS: BILINGUALISM

ADVANTAGES SHOWN BY STUDIES:
 - enhanced ability to restructure perceptual solutions.
- stronger performance in rule discovery tasks
- greater verbal originality and verbal ability
- precocious levels of divergent thinking and creativity.
- advantages in nonverbal executive control tasks has also been noted.
These advantages seem to persist in adulthood and appear to protect bilingual adults from
decline of these processes in older age.
The difference in executive control is greater in old age because the normal decline is
attenuated in bilinguals.
Across lifespan therefore, bilingualism boosts development and and postpones decline of
executive control on a variety of tasks. Of note however, these effects were nonverbal and not
related to linguistic processing and it is possible that the results might differ for linguistic
processing.
Various theories have been proposed to explain this positive relationship:
a. Objectification theory:
-